The Chi-Square

Tests for Goodness of Fit And Independence

The Chi-Square
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Introduction Expected versus Observed Values Distribution of X 2 Interpreting SPSS printouts of Chi-Square Reporting the Results of Chi-Square Assumptions of Chi-Square

Introduction
Often when we are testing hypotheses, we only have frequency data. Our hypothesis concern the distributions of the frequencies across various categories. Examples: Are there an equal number of males and females in a group? Are Republicans more likely to be Fundamentalist Christians than Democrats?

Introduction
With these data we have the number of people of a certain type in a category. This is qualitative, not quantitative date. The scale of measurement is nominal. Compare this to age as a variable. Age is a quantitative variable, measured on a ratio scale.

Introduction
If one were to ask are Republicans older than Democrats, then one could measure the age of a sample of people in each group, calculate the means of each sample, and test if the difference in the sample means is statistically significant (i.e., the sample means represent a difference in the population mean).

Introduction
Compare this to the question: Are Republicans more likely to be males than Democrats? Our sample would contain a number of males and females. We would not want to calculate a mean gender.

Introduction
Age and Party Affiliation Republican Democrat M = 51.2 M = 47.5 Appropriate statistical test: Independent samples t test.

t=

M1-M2 ------------sM1-M2

df = are (n 1 -1) + (n2-1)

Introduction
Gender and Party Affiliation Males Republicans 58 Democrats 70 Appropriate statistical test: Chi-Square Females
42 80

Expected versus Observed Values

With the Chi Square, you test the distribution of scores across the groups against a hypothetical distribution (the Ho, or null hypothesis). For example, the null hypothesis might be that males and females are equally likely to be Republican and Democrate.

Expected versus Observed Values

For example, in a sample of 100 Republicans, the null hypothesis might be that there would be 50 males and 50 females. Expected values: Males Females Republicans: 50 50

Expected versus Observed Values

However, what if you know the population is 60 percent female, then the expected values should be as follows: Males Females Republicans: 40 60

In any random sample of 100 people, I will not observe exactly 60 females and 40 males, any more than I get exactly 50 heads in a 100 coin tosses. Chi Square measures the difference between the observed values and the expected values, and compares that difference to what one might expect by chance. Chi-square = 2 = (f o -fe)2 fe

Expected versus Observed Values

Expected versus Observed Values

Males Republicans: Observed Expected
58 40

Females
42 60

2 = (58-40)2 + (42-60)2 40 60 2 =
8.1 + 5.4 = 13.5

Distribution of X

Large values of X 2 are unlikely to be observed by chance alone (null hypothesis).

Distribution of X

Shape of the distribution depends on the degrees of freedom.

Distribution of X

The degrees of freedom are determined by the number of rows and columns in the table. If there is only one row, df = C-1 With more than one row, df = (R-1)(C-1) R = number of rows. C = number of columns. In our example, df = 1

Distribution of X

With two dimensions: 2 X 2 Chi-Square

Gender and Party Affiliation (observed values) Males Females Republicans 58 42 Democrats
Totals

Totals 100 150 250

70
128

80
122

Null hypothesis: counts will be equally distributed Across the cells.

With two dimensions: 2 X 2 Chi-Square

Gender and Party Affiliation (expected values) Males Females Republicans 100*128/250 100*122/250
= 51.2 = 48.8 150*122/250 = 73.2 122

Totals 100 150 250

Democrats
Totals

150*128/250 = 76.8 128

Use these values to calculate Chi Square:

2 = (fo -fe)2 fe

Interpreting SPSS printouts of Chi-Square

Data Structure:

Interpreting SPSS printouts of Chi-Square

Case Processing Summary Valid N Party * Gender Percent 250 Cases Missing N 100.0% Percent 0 Total N .0% Percent 250 10

Party * Gender Crosstabulation Party RepublicanCount Expected Count Democrat Count Expected Count Total Count Expected Count male 58 51.2 70 76.8 128 128.0 Gender female 42 48.8 80 73.2 122 122 Total 100 100.0 150 150.0 250

Interpreting SPSS printouts of Chi-Square

Chi-Square Tests
Value Pearson Chi-Square Continuity Correction Likelihood Ratio Fisher's Exact Test Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 3.084 a 2.648 3.094 3.072 250 1 1 1 1 df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .079 .104 .079 .080 Exact Sig. (2-sided)

Compare this value to alpha (.05)

Exact Sig. (1-sided)

.093

.052

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 48.80. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Reporting the Results

A Chi Square test was performed to determine if males and females were distributed differently across the political parties. The test failed to indicate a significant difference, 2 (1) = 3.08, p = .079 (an alpha level of .05 was adopted for this and all subsequent statistical tests).

Assumptions of Chi-Square
1. Independence of Observations
Each person contributes one score.

2. Size of Expected Frequencies

Fewer than 20% of the cells should have expected frequencies less than 5.