TU Wien-Mechatronic Systems VO (Kopacek) - Unterlagen SS10

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September 200+

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vienna University of Technology
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September 200 Contents
page I
C Co on nt te en nt ts s
1. What's Mechatronics................................................................................. 1
1.1 Examples for Nechatronic Systems .................................................... 3
1.1.1 Washing machine .................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Automatic camera.................................................................. +
1.1.3 Engine management system................................................... 5
1.1.+ Cruise Control of a Car ........................................................... 6
1.1.5 Automated production line ..................................................... 8
1.1.6 Air Condition in a Car ............................................................. 8
1.1.7 Car Safety System ................................................................. 9
1.2 !ntegrated Product Development ..................................................... 12
1.2.1 System Composition............................................................. 12
1.3 Stepper Notors............................................................................... 15
1.3.1 variable reluctance stepper .................................................. 15
1.3.2 Permanent magnet stepper .................................................. 16
1.3.3 Hybrid stepper..................................................................... 16
2. Computers in Mechatronics .................................................................... 1S
2.1 Control Engineering and Nechatronics ............................................. 18
2.1.1 Controls in Communication Networks and !nformation
Technology .................................................................................... 19
2.1.2 Control in Non-Technical Systems ......................................... 20
2.1.3 Universal Character of the Feedback Control Principle ............ 21
2.1.+ Active and Passive Controls .................................................. 21
2.2 Computer-controlled Systems (Sampled-data control systems) .......... 22
2.2.1 The Sampling Process .......................................................... 23
2.2.2 Time Dependence................................................................ 23
2.2.3 Examples ............................................................................ 2+
2.2.+ Summary ............................................................................ 28
2.3 Computers in Control Engineering.................................................... 29
2.3.1 Example: Nobile assembly robot........................................... 31
3. Genetic Algorithms ................................................................................. 35
3.1.1 What are genetic algorithms? ............................................... 35
4. Microsystems .......................................................................................... 42
+.1 !ntroduction ................................................................................... +2
+.2 Technologies .................................................................................. +2
+.3 Application..................................................................................... +5
5. Microsystems in Mechatronic ................................................................. 47
5.1 Principles of Nicrosystems............................................................... +7
5.2 Applications of Nicrosystems ........................................................... +8
5.3 Examples of Silicon Sensor Nicrosystems ......................................... +8
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5.+ Summary ....................................................................................... 50
5.5 Examples ....................................................................................... 50
5.5.1 Sensor integration ............................................................... 50
5.5.2 New Linear Speed-Sensing Devices....................................... 51
5.5.3 Nicromechanical valves for Cars ........................................... 52
5.5.+ Nicrosensors ....................................................................... 53
6. Fault finding in Mechatronic Systems..................................................... 57
6.1 Nethods for Fault Finding................................................................ 57
6.2 Examples ....................................................................................... 58
6.2.1 Watchdog timer ................................................................... 58
6.2.2 Parity bit check.................................................................... 58
6.2.3 Block parity check................................................................ 59
6.2.+ Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) ........................................ 59
6.3 Common hardware faults ................................................................ 60
6.3.1 Sensors............................................................................... 60
6.3.2 Switches and relays ............................................................. 60
6.3.3 Notors ................................................................................ 61
6.3.+ Hydraulic and pneumatic systems ......................................... 61
6.3.5 Nicroprocessor systems ....................................................... 61
6.+ Fault-finding techniques.................................................................. 62
6.+.1 Systematic fault-location methods......................................... 6+
6.+.2 Self-testing.......................................................................... 6+
6.+.3 Emulation and Simulation..................................................... 6+
6.+.+ Simulation........................................................................... 65
6.+.5 Program testing................................................................... 65
6.+.6 PLC as a monitor of systems................................................. 66
7. Ethics in Product Design......................................................................... 67
7.1 Example: The Environment ............................................................. 68
7.2 Reduce .......................................................................................... 69
7.3 Reuse ............................................................................................ 70
7.+ Recycle .......................................................................................... 70
7.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 71
7.6 References..................................................................................... 72
S. Appendix A: German - English ............................................................... 73
9. Bibliography............................................................................................ 77
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L Li is st t o of f F Fi ig gu ur re es s
Figure 1.1 Washing machine system [Bolton, 1999|............................................ 3
Figure 1.2 Basic elements of the control system for an automatic camera
[Bolton, 1999| .................................................................................. +
Figure 1.3 Four-stroke sequence [Bolton, 1999| ................................................. 5
Figure 1.+ Four-stroke sequence [Bolton, 1999| ................................................. 6
Figure 1.5 Fuzzy speed error program flow [Jurgen, 199+| ................................. 7
Figure 1.6 Automatic temperature control diagram [Jurgen, 199+| ...................... 9
Figure 1.7 Component parts and harness connector location for an antitheft
warning system [Jurgen, 199+| ....................................................... 10
Figure 1.8 A flowchart for the system [Jurgen, 199+| ....................................... 10
Figure 1.9 Hierarchy of Nodules of an !ndustrial Product [Gausemeier| ............. 13
Figure 1.10 variable reluctance stepper motor [Bolton, 1999| ............................. 16
Figure 1.11 Permanent magnet stepper motor [Bolton, 1999| ............................. 16
Figure 1.12 Hybrid stepper motor [Histand, 1998|.............................................. 17
Figure 1.13 Hybrid stepper motor [Histand, 1998|.............................................. 17
Figure 1.13 CE and mechatronics ...................................................................... 19
Figure 1.13 Scheme of congestion avoidance control in an ATN switch, r
0
:
nominal data stream of source , r
out
: outgoing data stream from
switch............................................................................................ 20
Figure 1.13 Nanagement und Controlling in an Enterprise from a CE viewpoint.... 21
Figure 2.1+ Schematic diagram of a computer-controlled system [Wittenmark,
2002|............................................................................................. 22
Figure 2.15 Two signals with different frequencies, 0.1 Hz (dashed) and 0.9 Hz
(full), have the same values at all sampling instants (dots) when
T
0
= 1 s [Wittenmark, 2002| ........................................................... 2+
Figure 2.16 A system for controlling the position of the arm of a disk drive
[Wittenmark, 2002| ........................................................................ 25
Figure 2.17 The step response when simulating the disk arm servo with the
analog controller (2.+) (dashedfred) and sampled-data controller
(2.11) (solidfblue). The design parameter is
0
= 1 and the
sampling period is T
0
= 0.3 [Wittenmark, 2002| ............................... 25
Figure 2.18 The step response when simulating the disk arm servo using the
analog controller (2.11) (dashedfred) and the deadbeat controller
(solidfblue). The sampling period is T
0
= 1.+ [Wittenmark, 2002|...... 28
Figure 2.19 Optimization of the controller [Amerongen, 2002| ............................ 29
Figure 2.20 Optimization of all system components simultaneously
[Amerongen, 2002| ........................................................................ 30
Figure 2.21 Nechatronic system [Amerongen, 2002| .......................................... 31
Figure 2.22 Conceptual design of the mobile robot [Amerongen, 2002| ............... 31
Figure 2.23 Simple model with ideal physical elements to compute the error
e
tip
[Amerongen, 2002| ................................................................... 32
Figure 2.2+ Error of the tip before and after optimization of the weight
distribution between upper and lower frame [Amerongen, 2002|....... 33
Figure 2.25 The mobile robot (NART) after completion [Amerongen, 2002| ......... 33
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Figure 3.26 Schematic of a standard genetic algorithm [Fleming, 2002| .............. 35
Figure 3.27 Single point crossover [Fleming, 2002| ............................................ 36
Figure 3.28 Binary mutation operator [Fleming, 2002|........................................ 36
Figure 3.29 Typical composition of the new generation [Fleming, 2002| .............. 38
Figure 3.30 Napping between GA chromosome and decision variables
[Fleming, 2002|.............................................................................. +0
Figure +.31 Nicrostructuring technologies [Brenner|........................................... +2
Figure +.32 Surface micromachining [Brenner|................................................... +3
Figure +.33 Applicated materials in presented technologies (simplified chart)
[Brenner| ....................................................................................... ++
Figure +.3+ Natrix Product-Application field" [Brenner| ..................................... +6
Figure 5.35 Block diagram of the single-chip magnetic-field sensor system
[Brockherde| .................................................................................. +9
Figure 5.36 Block diagram of the CNOS linear image sensor array
[Brockherde| .................................................................................. +9
Figure 5.37 Sensor technology migration path [Jurgen, 199+|............................. 51
Figure 5.38 Collision-avoidance patterns [Jurgen, 199+| ..................................... 52
Figure 5.39 Pressure-compensated seat valve [Jurgen, 199+| ............................. 53
Figure 5.+0 !llustration of Coriolis acceleration, which results from translation
within a reference frame that is rotating with respect to an inertial
reference frame [Popovic, 1999| ..................................................... 56
Figure 5.+1 Schematic of a vibratory gyroscope [Popovic, 1999| ......................... 56
Figure 6.+2 Watchdog timer program [Bolton, 1999| .......................................... 58
Table 6.1 Block parity check........................................................................... 59
Figure 6.+3 Logic comparator [Bolton, 1999| ..................................................... 63
Figure 6.++ Simulation screen [Bolton, 1999| ..................................................... 65
Figure 6.+5 Simulation screen [Bolton, 1999| ..................................................... 66
Figure 6.+6 Forcing an input [Bolton, 1999| ....................................................... 66

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September 200 What's Nechatronics Chapter 1
page 1.1
1 1. . W Wh ha at t' 's s M Me ec ch ha at tr ro on ni ic cs s
Nechatronics bringing together a number of technologies:
mechanical engineering,
control engineering,
electrical engineering,
electronic engineering, and
computer technology.
This can be considered to be the application of computer-based digital control
techniques, through electronic and electric interfaces, to mechanical engineering
problems.
Mechatronics as an umbrella integrates areas of technology like
measurement systems and sensors, actuation systems and drives, systems
behavior, control, and microprocessor systems.
Mechatronic design deals with the integrated and optimal design of a mechanical
system and its embedded control system. This definition implies that the mechanical
system is enhanced with electronic components in order to achieve a better
performance, a more flexible system or just reduce the cost of the system. !n many
cases the electronics are present in the form of a computer based embedded
(control) system. This does not imply that every controlled mechanical system is a
mechatronic system because in many cases the control is just an add-on to the
mechanical system in a sequential design procedure. A real mechatronic approach
requires that an optimal choice be made with respect to the realization of the design
specifications in the different domains.
Nechatronics provides an opportunity to take a new look at problems, with
mechanical engineers not just seeing a problem in terms of mechanical principles but
having to see it in terms of a range of technologies. E.g. electronics should not be
seen as a bolt-on item to existing mechanical hardware. A mechatronics approach
needs to be adopted right from the design phase. There needs to be a complete
rethink of the requirements in terms of what an item is required to do.
There are many applications of mechatronics in the mass-produced products
used in the home. Nicroprocessor-based controllers are to be found in domestic
washing machines, dish washers, microwave ovens, cameras, camcorders, watches,
hi-fi and video recorder systems, central heating controls, sewing machines, etc.
They are to be found in cars in the active suspension, antiskid brakes, engine
control, speedometer display, transmission, etc.
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A larger scale application of mechatronics is a flexible manufacturing engineering
system (FNS) involving computer-controlled machines, robots, automatic material
conveying and overall supervisory control.
The design of cars, robots, machine tools, washing machines, cameras and very
many other machines, such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach to
engineering design is increasingly being adopted. The integration across the
traditional boundaries of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronics
and control engineering has to occur at the earliest stage of the design process if
cheaper, more reliable, more flexible systems are to be developed. Nechatronics has
to involve a concurrent approach to these disciplines rather than a sequential
approach of developing, say mechanical system than designing the electrical part
and the microprocessor part.
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1.1 Examples for Mechatronic Systems
1.1.1 Washing machine
!n a domestic washing machine a number of operations have to be carried out in the
correct sequence. These may involve the pre-wash cycle, when the closes in the
drum are given a wash in cold water, followed by a main wash cycle when they are
washed in hot water, than a rinse cycle when the closes are rinsed with cold water a
number of times, followed by spinning to remove water from the clothes. Each of
these operations involves a number of steps.
Figure 1.1 shows the basing washing machine system and gives a rough idea of its
constituent elements. !n former times the program was realized by a mechanical
system by means of a set of cam operated switches. !n modern washing machines
the controller is a microprocessor and the program is not supplied by the mechanical
arrangement of cams but by software.

Figure 1.1 Washing machine system [Bolton, 1999]
For the pre-wash cycle an electrically operated valve is opened and cold water is
going into the drum for a period of time determined by the software of the
microprocessor. Depending on the weight of the washing good a specific level of
water in the drum will be reached and the water valve will be closed. A sensor is
used to give a signal when the water level has reached the preset level and give an
output from the microprocessor which is used to switch off the current to the valve.
For the main wash cycle the microprocessor gives an output which starts when the
pre-wash part of the program is completed; this level is sensed and the water shoot
off when the required level is reached. A temperature sensor is used to switch off the
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current of the heating when the water temperature reaches the preset value. The
microprocessor switches on the drum motor to rotate the drum. The drum is rotating
for a time determined by the microprocessor. After this time the microprocessor
switches on the pump to empty the water from the drum.
The rinse part of the operation is now switched as a sequence of signals to open
valves which allow cold water going into the machine, switch it off, operate the
motor to rotate the drum, operate the pump to empty the water from the drum and
repeat the sequence a number of times.
The final part of the operation is when the microprocessor switches on just the motor
at a higher speed than for the rinses to spin the clothes.
1.1.2 Automatic camera
Consider a modern auto-focus, auto-exposure camera. To use the camera all you
need to do is point it at the subject and press the button to take the picture. The
camera automatically adjusts the focus so that the subject is in the focus and
automatically adjust the aperture and shut a speed so that the correct exposure is
given.
A modern camera is likely to have automatic focusing and exposure.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the basic aspects of a microprocessor based system that can be
used to control the focusing in exposure.

Figure 1.2 Basic elements of the control system for an automatic camera [Bolton,
1999]
When the switches operate to activate the system and the camera points at the
object being photographed, the microprocessor takes in the input from the range
sensor and sends an output to the lens position drive to move the lens to a chief
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focusing. The lens position is feed back to the microprocessor so that the feedback
signal can be used to modify the lens position according to the input from the range
sensor. The light sensor gives an input to the microprocessor which when gives an
output to determine, if the photographer has selected the shutter controlled rather
than aperture control mode, the time for which the shutter will be opened. When the
photograph has been taken, the microprocessor gives an output to the motor drive
to advance the film ready for the next photograph.
The program of the microprocessor consists of single zerofone decisions (logic
decisions). A few steps for the program of the automatic camera might be of the
form:
!f battery check input OK
then continue, otherwise stop.
Read input from the range sensor, calculate lens movement
Output signal to lens position drive
!nput data from lens position encoder
Compare calculated output with the actual output
Stop output when the lens in correct position
Send in-focus signal to viewfinder display
etc.
1.1.3 Engine management system
The engine management system of a car is responsible for management ignition and
fuelling requirement of the engine. With a four-stroke internal combustion engine
there are several cylinders, each of which has a piston connected to a common
crankshaft and each of which carries out a four-stroke sequence of operations.

Figure 1.3 Four-stroke sequence [Bolton, 1999]
When the piston moves down a valve opens and the air-fuel mixture is drawn into
the cylinder. When the piston moves up again the valve closes and the air-fuel
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mixture is compressed. When the piston is near the top of the cylinder, the spark
plug ignites the mixture with a resulting expansion of the hot gases. This expansion
causes the piston to move back down again and so the cycle is repeated.
The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition timing and
the air-fuel mixture. !n modern car engines this is done by a microprocessor.

Figure 1.4 Four-stroke sequence [Bolton, 1999]
Figure 1.+ shows the basic elements of a microprocessor controlled system. For
ignition timing, the crankshaft drives a distributor which makes electrical contacts for
each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel. This timing wheel generates pulses to
indicate the crankshaft position. The microprocessor adjusts the timing at which high
voltage pulses are sent to the distributor so they occur at the right moment of time.
To control the amount of air-fuel mixture entering a cylinder during the intake
strokes, the microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is activated to open
the intake valve on the basis of inputs received of the engine temperature and the
throttle position. The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be
determined by an input from a sensor of the mass rate of air flow, or computed from
other measurements, and the microprocessor then gives an output to control a fuel
injection valve.
1.1.+ Cruise Control of a Car
Fuzzy logic allows somewhat easier implementation of the speed error calculation
because its design syntax uses simple linguistics. For example: !F speed difference
negative and small, THEN increase throttle slightly.
The output is then adjusted to slightly increase the throttle. The throttle position
update rate is determined by another fuzzy program which looks for the driver's
cruise performance request (slow, medium, or fast reaction), the application type
(small, medium, or large engine size), and other cruise system factory preset
parameters. Figure +.+ shows one part of a fuzzy logic design for computing normal
throttle position. Other parts would compute the effects of other inputs, such as
resume, driver habits, engine type, and the like.
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Other program design requirements include verification that the input signals fall
within expected boundaries. For example, a broken or intermittent speed sensor
could be detected.

Figure 1.5 Fuzzy speed error program flow [Jurgen, 1994]
A heavily loaded vehicle with a small, engine may not be able to maintain a high
setpoint speed up to a steep grade, and the cruise control needs to be disengaged to
protect the engine from sustained full-throttle operation under a heavy load. This
could be preset to occur 20 percent below the setpoint speed. Another program can
test the vehicle speed to resume setpoint speed and prevent unsafe acceleration
under certain conditions. For example, if a high-performance vehicle (> 200-kW or
268-hp engine) has a setpoint speed of 125 kmfh (78 mifh), and drives from the
freeway into heavy city traffic doing +8 kmfh (30 mifh) and the vehicle's driver
fortuitously hits the cruise resume switch at this low speed, the cruise control invokes
a near full-throttle action, and an accident is likely. A fuzzy design can limit the
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acceleration upon resume using simple rules such as !F resume and big speed error,
THEN increase throttle slightly.
1.1.5 Automated production line
Consider an automated production line. Such a line may involve a number of
production processes which are all automatically carried out in the correct sequence
and in the correct way. These both examples indicated a marriage between
electronic control systems and mechanical engineering. Such control systems
generally use microprocessors as controllers and have electrical sensors extracting
information from the mechanical inputs and outputs via electrical actuators to
mechanical systems. The term mechatronics is used for this integration of
microprocessor control systems, electrical systems and mechanical systems. A
mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical and mechanical systems and
is more than just a control system; it is a complete integration of all of them.
1.1.6 Air Condition in a Car
A traditional passenger temperature control system shown in Figure 1.6 uses only
temperature as the indication for the system to open or close blend doors in the
HvAC (heater, ventilating, and air conditioning) system.
Laboratory evaluations monitor the HvAC systems' effectiveness under known and
controlled humidity conditions. A fuzzy logic system combining, temperature and
humidity sensing has been investigated by researchers for home use. !n this case,
additional humidity is available to speed up the effect of adding heat. !n a vehicle
application, the blower speed could be adjusted based on the presence of humidity
or an alternate strategy could he developed which uses less energy from the vehicle
to make the driver and passengers comfortable.
The development of new test techniques frequently involves either the development
of new sensors or novel use of existing sensors. A sweat impulse test developed at
volkswagen AG allows researchers to evaluate the ability of a seat to direct sweat
away from its surface. As part of the measurement process, a platinum RDT and a
capacitive humidity sensor provide data. !n excessive sweating situations, the fabric
is unable to absorb sufficient moisture, so it is passed to the surrounding
environment as increased humidity.
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Figure 1.6 Automatic temperature control diagram [Jurgen, 1994]
1.1.7 Car Safety System
Unauthorized Entry Detection: a tamper switch detects any abnormal forces applied
to the door and trunk lock key cylinders, while make-break switches sense opening
of all apertures. Ultrasonic beams inside the vehicle can detect the vibration from
broken glass or movement within the car. The trigger level of these units is
particularly sensitive, because too low a level can lead to false alarms.
Alarm and !mmobilization: Alarm activation is indicated by the sounding of the car
horn or siren combined with the flashing of the vehicle's headlights and taillights. A
recent innovation has been the application of radio paging systems to indicate stolen
vehicles. The vehicle is also immobilized by causing an interrupt in circuits vital to
vehicle operation such as the starter motor, fuel pump, and ignition systems.
A Typical System Example: The following explanation relates to one of the more
popular vehicle alarm configurations shown in Figure 1.7. Abnormal conditions or
unauthorized entries are detected as inputs from door, hood, and trunk switches,
ignition switch, and ultrasonic sensors. When any of these conditions occurs, the
horn sounds and the vehicle's lights flash for a predetermined period (usually one to
three minutes).
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Figure 1.7 Component parts and harness connector location for an antitheft warning
system [Jurgen, 1994]
A flow chart of the system operation is shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.S A flowchart for the system [Jurgen, 1994]
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!mmobilizer:
Because of the frequency of false alarms activated by oversensitive invasion sensors,
vehicles with alarms sounding are increasingly being ignored by people in the
vicinity. Therefore, as a deterrent to vehicle theft, unauthorized entry detection
systems alone are no longer considered effective by insurance companies. They
prefer - and reduce premium reductions accordingly - to have, in addition, an
immobilizer to electrically or mechanically disable the vehicle unless it is correctly
disarmed.
Now that most vehicles are equipped with electronic engine control units, car makers
feel that they provide the best means for immobilization. This is accomplished with
three basic driver interfaces for arming and disarming:
An !D code input to the ECU by means of a keyboard, which may be
separate or combined with another electronic dashboard device such as the
radio
An !D signal transmitted by a keyfob to a receiver and decoding unit in the
vehicle
An !D signal received from a transponder built into the ignition key
The transponder built into the ignition key is the most recent innovation. The ignition
key contains a transponder device. A reader unit is installed in the vehicle close to
the ignition key cylinder. A power pulse" is transmitted by the reader's antenna
shortly after the ignition key is inserted into the lock. This power pulse is received as
energy by the transponder and stored in a capacitor. The power is then used to
transmit an !D code signal back to the reader. The reader identifies the received
signal as authorized or not and, if authorized, enables the ECU to start the vehicle.
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1.2 Integrated Product Development
1.2.1 System Composition
Since industrial products are getting more complex and innovation cycles are getting
shorter, there will be a need for system composition". This term implies the ability
to quickly transfer requirements to products which are economically attractive, by
consequently employing modules.
A module is an implemented solution for a specific function of an industrial product
which is well-tried. This solution can be as elementary as a screw or a shaftfaxle
connection, but also as complex as a complete drive system consisting of mechanical
subassemblies, electronic components and control technologyfsoftware.
Depending on the degree of completion during the product engineering process,
modules are represented by different views. Examples of views are
requirements,
behaviour,
function and
shape.
An industrial product in general consists of a cascade of modules. This transfer will
only succeed if enterprises concentrate on their original competences by cleverly
using existing modules instead of developing parts on their own.
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Figure 1.9 Hierarchy of Modules of an Industrial Product [Gausemeier]
Basically, every industrial product consists of a cascade of models (Figure 1.9).
Therefore, product development must lead to choosing and applying the appropriate
modules on each level of the hierarchy. To achieve this aim, the modules must be
provided by the information and communication technologies as shown by
Figure 1.9.
Development methodologies which systematize the product development process
have been pushed ahead in different fields of application during the past decades.
These methodologies include schedules connecting work steps or development
stages, rules and strategies for performance-oriented realization, as well as
supporting development methods and tools. Common models of activities are divided
into each stage. !n every stage of a development methodology, problems specific to
this stage must be solved. The solutions are found according to equal principles, but
being adapted to each specific problem.
The practical application of the theoretical development methodologies showed a
close relation between the model of activities, the product to be created, and
information technology (!T). This relation, however, depends on how well the
products can be described physically and be represented by data systems. This fact
is pointed out by comparing development methodologies of the mechanics,
electronics, and software development areas. Each of those methodologies
emphasizes specific aspects.
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Mechanical Development: The focal point of the existing development
methodologies in the mechanics area is the creation of functional structures,
principle solutions and scale delineations.
Electronical Development: The existing development methodologies in the
electronics area concentrate on the functional and logical design of electronic
circuits. The following stages are, to a large extent, systematically synthesized. This
is because the physical basic conditions for creating electronic products are generally
known and can be automated.
Software Development: !n this area, the functions and the behaviour of products
are described in a more abstract and formal manner. That is why there is a better
connection between product development and product generation.
The following statements characterize the state of the development methodology
and the need for action:
Generally, all proceeding methods of the mechanics, electronics and software
areas describe systematic procedures, from the registration of requirements
up to the generation of manufacturing documents on data for chip lay-out, or
to source coding of software. The sequential procedure neglects
interdependences and reciprocal actions between the activities of product
development. That is why the further development of the methodology has
to be based on an integrated handling of all activities, as suggested by
ConcurrentfSimultaneous Engineering".
No proceeding method offers a possibility to join the mechanics, electronics,
and software areas because of their different product documentations
(product documentation consists of documents or data which have their
origins in different stages of product development. For example, engineering
drawings or bill of material are parts of product documentation) which are
physically influenced. But, looking at the increasing integration of
mechanical, electronic and data processing components, just this point of
view gains in significance.
Existing development methodologies concentrate on the creation of technical
solutions. !n most cases, economic aspects are missing although they are
important to the economic success of a product. These aspects include early
and consequent cost management, cost-benefit optimisation of the product
variance, and development of a graded product offer, i.e. optimising the
structure of supply with respect to the course of time.
The available information technology has a decisive influence on the
configuration of the development methodology. An example of this influence
is given by the change that the introduction of the 3D CAD technology has
contributed to the procedure of shaping. Furthermore, existing !T
applications (an information technology like CAD or FEN systems which helps
solving a problem in the product development process by completer support.
An !T application is also called !T tool or CAE tool) do not make use of the
joint product model (a product model represents all the data of a product,
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covering the whole life cycle), so that the product documentation will not be
consistent, if one considers all stages of product development. That is why
the consequent use of the potential offered by modern information
technology is the central ideal of a further development of the development
methodology. Special emphasis is laid on the universal support of the whole
development process by software, being based on an integrated product
model.
An Example of actuators in mechatronics:
1.3 Stepper Motors
A special type of dc motor known as a stepper motor is a permanent magnet or
variable reluctance dc motor that has the following performance characteristics:
rotation in both directions, precision angular incremental changes, repetition of
accurate motion or velocity profiles, a holding torque at zero speed, and capability
for digital control. !t can move in accurate angular increments known as steps in
response to the application of digital pulses to an electric drive circuit from a digital
controller. The number and rate of the pulses control the position and speed of the
motor shaft. Generally, stepper motors are manufactured with steps per revolution of
12, 2+, 72, 1++, 180, and 200, resulting in shaft increments of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2,
and 1.8 per step.
There are a number of forms of stepper motor:
1.3.1 variable reluctance stepper
Figure 1.10 shows the basic form of the variable reluctance stepper motor. With this
form the rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical with four poles, i.e. fewer poles
than on the stator. When an opposite pair of windings has current switched to them,
a magnetic field is produced with lines of force which pass from the stator poles
through the nearest set of poles on the rotor. Since lines of force can be considered
to be rather like elastic thread and always trying to shorten themselves, the rotor will
move until the rotor and stator poles line up. This is termed the position of minimum
reluctance. This form of stepper generally gives step angles of 7.5 or 1.5.
318.0++
page 1.16

Figure 1.10 Variable reluctance stepper motor [Bolton, 1999]
1.3.2 Permanent magnet stepper
Figure 1.11 shows the basic form of the permanent magnet motor. The motor shown
has a stator with four poles. Each pole is wound with a field winding, the coils on
opposite pairs of poles being in series. Current is supplied from a dc source to the
windings through switches. The rotor is a permanent magnet and thus when a pair
of stator poles has a current switched to it, the rotor will move to line up with it.
Thus for the currents giving the situation shown in the figure the rotor moves to the
+5 position. !f the current is then switched so that the polarities are reversed, the
rotor will move a further +5 in order to line up again. Thus by switching the currents
through the coils the rotor rotates in +50 steps. With this type of motor, step angles
are commonly 1.8, 7.5, 15, 30, 3+ or 90.

Figure 1.11 Permanent magnet stepper motor [Bolton, 1999]
1.3.3 Hybrid stepper
Hybrid stepper motors combine the features of both the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors, having a permanent magnet encased in iron caps which
are cut to have teeth (see Figure 1.12 and Figure 1.13). The rotor sets itself in the
minimum reluctance position in response to a pair of stator coils being energised.
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Typical step angles are 0.9 and 1.8. Such stepper motors are extensively used in
high-accuracy positioning applications, e.g. in computer hard disc drives.
Some applications require very small step angles. While the step angle can be made
small by increasing the number of rotor teeth andfor the number of phases,
generally more than four phases and 50 to 100 teeth are not used. !nstead a
technique known as mini-stepping is used. This involves dividing each step into a
number of equal size sub-steps. This is done by using different currents to the coils
so that the rotor moves to intermediate positions between normal step positions.
Thus, for example, a step of 1.8 might be subdivided into 10 equal steps.
Stepper motors can be used to give controlled rotational steps but also can give
continuous rotation with their rotational speed controlled by controlling the rate at
which pulses are applied to it to cause stepping. This gives a very useful controlled
variable speed motor which finds many applications.
Because stepper coils have inductance and switched inductive loads can generate
large back e.m.f.s when switched, when steppers are connected to microprocessor
output ports it is necessary to include protection to avoid damage to the
microprocessor. This may take the form of resistors in the lines to limit the current,
though these must have values carefully chosen to both provide the protection but
also not to limit the value of the current needed to switch the transistors. Diodes
across the coils prevent current in the reverse direction and so give protection.

Figure 1.12 Hybrid stepper motor [Histand, 199S]

Figure 1.13 Hybrid stepper motor [Histand, 199S]
318.0++
September 200 Computers in Nechatronics Chapter 2
page 2.1S
2 2. . C Co om mp pu ut te er rs s i in n M Me ec ch ha at tr ro on ni ic cs s
Computers are today essential for implementing controllers in many different
situations. The computers are often used in embedded systems.
An embedded system is a built-in computerJmicroprocessor that is a part
of a larger system.
Nany of these computers implement control functions of different physical processes,
for example, vehicles, home electronics, cellular telephones, and standalone
controllers. The computers are often hidden for the end-user, but it is essential that
the whole system is designed in an effective way.
Using computers has many advantages. Nany problems with analog implementation
can be avoided by using a computer:
No problems with the accuracy or drift of the components. The computations
are performed identically day after day.
Possibility to make much more complicated computations, such as iterations
and solution of system of equations.
Nonlinear, and also many linear operations, using analog technique are
subject to errors, while they are much more accurately made using a
computer. Logic for alarms, start-up, and shut-down is easy to include in a
computer.
Finally, it is possible to construct good graphical user interfaces (GU!).
However, sometimes the full advantages of the computers are not utilized. One
situation is when the computer is only used to approximately implement an analog
controller. The full potential of a computer-controlled system is only obtained when
also the design process is regarded from a sampled-data point of view. Even if the
control algorithms give the same result for identical input data the performance of
the closed-loop system crucially depends on the timing given by the real-time
operating system.
2.1 Control Engineering and Mechatronics
CE plays a key role in all areas of mechatronics and related fields such as robotics,
micromechatronics, optomechatronics, biomechatronics, etc. Fig. 2.1+ indicates how
CE interacts with other fields in the context of mechatronics and adaptronics.
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Figure 2.14 CE and mechatronics
2.1.1 Controls in Communication Networks and
!nformation Technology
Let us consider as an example the problem of congestion control in an ATN
(asychronous transfer mode) communication network. ATN networks allow the
integrated transfer of various communication services, like speech, images, or data
(multimedia). During the intermittent sending of data, the data stream (data
packets) r is transfered from a source through ATN switches (nodes) to a target
location. One basic (local) control task is to make use of the maximum admissible
queue length lw available in the switch (limited storage capacity), and to prevent, on
the other hand, overloading, leading to loss of data packets. This task can be solved
by continuous (possibly predictive) observation of l
m
(t) (feedback) and generation of
appropriate control action, e.g. through increase, Ar > 0, or reduction, Ar < 0 of the
source data stream, Fig. 2.15. The overall control objective in an ATN network is a
continuous, high-throughput and safe data flow which is achieved by various local
and global control measures.
!n recent times, the use of control principles is also receiving a growing interest in
the area of software engineering or software systems. Using the flexibility of
software, it becomes possible to develop self-controlling or adapting software. For
instance, in the context of an embedded system or a software-determined system
application, the software system itself can be understood as a controlled object
system or process with inertia and dynamics (caused by finite program execution
time). The behavior of this software system is influenced directly by control variables
(actuator functionality) and disturbances that are caused by unpredictable changes in
the system environment. The goal of this type of software-oriented controls is to
reduce the impact of disturbances and to maximize quality of service (QoS).
Applications of this technique can be found in the context of automated vehicle
control, on-line image processing, operation of intelligent antennas for mobile
phones, data base management, or the distribution of load in computer and
processor networks.
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page 2.20

Figure 2.15 Scheme of congestion avoidance control in an ATM switch, r
0
: nominal data
stream of source , r
out
: outgoing data stream from switch
2.1.2 Control in Non-Technical Systems
Thus far, predominantly !ndustrial and technical control task have been discussed.
The same control mechanisms are also effective in non-technical application fields.
For example, the area of biological systems includes the regulation and stabilization
of body temperature, blood sugar level, or balance and motion control. The cause of
many diseases is that a corresponding biological control system does not prove to
function satisfactory (out of control"). !n the biological context, it may be interesting
to note that approximately 90 of all human genes are performing sensor,
actuator, and feedback functions.
Biomedical engineering is depending heavily on controls. Good examples are the
various types of neuroprostheses for handicapped or paraplegic people, e.g. the
modern cardiac pacemakers or the muscle stimulators using functional electrical
(muscle) stimulation (FES) for restoring handfarm motion or locomotion. Control
technology can also help in the control of tremors in Parkinson patients.
Within regional ecological systems, control problems are connected with population
dynamics, e.g. the well-known predatorfprey problem. Narket mechanisms such as
supply and demand as well as the famous associated economic cycles are examples
of regulation effects in socio-economic systems of management and controlling in an
enterprise. With respect to the dynamic business processes the top management
performs the functions of planning, evaluating, optimizing, and steering.
Nanagement is informed by the (hopefully strategically oriented) financial controlling,
which in turn requires the assistance of an account system. !n an enterprise the
controlling analyzes and evaluates the economic success (= revenue minus costs)
and prepares reports with recommendations for the top management. !n this context
the Controlling does not perform control or regulation functions but rather sensory
assignments. Based on the accounting and report system as feedback, controlling
helps to close a business feedback control loop with top management as the real
controller in the context of CE. The middle and lower management performs
corresponding controller functions within the cascade-nested (frequently not
monetary but quantity oriented) control loops on the division and department level.
Dynamic control procedures also exist within the portfolio management of the stock
and bond market. The market manager performs the function of an intelligent
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page 2.21
manual controller. With a passive market management strategy the basic control
objective consists in eliminating or minimize the tracking error (=difference between
a reference process, for instance represented by the Dow Jones index, and the value
of development of the managed fund) by continuous up-dating of the portfolio
composition. This tracking control approach corresponds to a conservative strategy.
An active strategy tries oppositely to maximize the performance of the fund (extreme
value control task), to achieve a better performance than the Dow Jones index. For
performing this function the market manager is assisted by sophisticated stock
exchange and market analysis instruments, which supply various market and
mathematical indicators. As an intelligent human controller hefshe processes this
information, e.g. on a daily or an hourly basis and makes decisions with respect to an
improved portfolio composition. This type of control problems has a strong non-
deterministic, stochastic character.
Figure 2.16 tries to demonstrate the usefulness of the CE viewpoint for
understanding the tasks.

Figure 2.16 Management and Controlling in an Enterprise from a CE viewpoint
2.1.3 Universal Character of the Feedback Control
Principle
The given examples demonstrate the universal character of the feedback control
principle that is based on real-time measurement or sensing, processing, and
actuation independent of the particular application and the fields of deployment. This
finding often allows a unified mathematicalfmethodological approach to control
problems, both in technical and non- technical areas. For this reason, the objective of
this lecture to present a general formal framework for systematic treatment of
control problems.
2.1.+ Active and Passive Controls
The controls discussed so far comprised active elements or subsystems such as
sensors, automatic controllers and actuators. !n some cases, a control effect or
action can be achieved by passive means. Simple examples include the water level
limitation of an artificial lake given by the height of a concrete dam, the thermostat
valve in a radiator, or the automatic darkening propertiy of certain eye glasses with
318.0++
page 2.22
increased environment brightness. !n the latter example, control is based on the
particular material characteristics of the glass coating. These types of material-based
adaptive controls, sometimes also denoted as adaptronic device, are highly attractive
and have many useful applications in daily life, medicine, vehicle technology etc.
2.2 Computer-controlled Systems {Sampled-
data control systems)
A schematic diagram of a computer-controlled system is shown in Figure 2.17. The
system consists of:
Process
Sampler together with Analog-to-Digital (A-D) converter
Digital-to-Analog (D-A) converter with a hold circuit
Computer with a clock, software for real-time applications, and control
algorithms
Communication network

Figure 2.17 Schematic diagram of a computer-controlled system [Wittenmark, 2002]
The process is a continuous-time physical system to be controlled. The input and the
output of the process are continuous-time signals. The A-D converter is converting
the analog output signal of the process into a finite precision digital number
depending on how many bits or levels that are used in the conversion. The
conversion is also quantized in time determined by the clock. This is called the
sampling process. The control algorithm thus receives data that are quantized both
in time and in level. The control algorithm consists of a computer program that
transforms the measurements into a desired control signal. The control signal is
transferred to the D-A converter, which with finite precision converts the number in
the computer into a continuous-time signal. This implies that the D-A converter
318.0++
page 2.23
contains both a conversion unit and a hold unit that translates a number into a
physical variable that is applied to the process. The communication between the
process, or more accurately the A-D and D-A converters, and the computer is done
over a communication link or network. All the activities in the computer-controlled
system are controlled by the clock with the requirement that all the computations
have to be performed within a given time. !n a distributed system there are several
clocks that have to be synchronized. The total system is thus a real-time system
with hard time constraints.
The system in Figure 2.17 contains a continuous-time part and a sampled-data part.
!t is this mixture of different classes of signals that causes some of the problems and
confusion when discussing computer-controlled systems. The problem is even more
pronounced when using decentralized control where the control system is shared
between several computers. Nany of the problems are avoided if only considering
the sampled-data part of the system. !t is, however, important to understand where
the difficulties arise and how to avoid some of these problems.
2.2.1 The Sampling Process
The times when the measured physical variables are converted into digital form are
called the sampling instants. The time between two sampling instants is the
sampling period and is denoted T
0
. Periodic sampling is normally used, implying
that the sampling period is constant. The sampling frequency is
0
0
2
T

= (2.1)
!n larger plants it may also be necessary to have control loops with different
sampling periods, giving rise to multirate sampling or multirate systems.
2.2.2 Time Dependence
The mixture of continuous-time and discrete-time signals makes the sampled-data
systems time dependent. This can be understood from Figure 2.17. Assume that
there is a disturbance added at the output of the process. Time invariance implies
that a shift of the input signal to the system should result in a similar shift in the
response of the system. Since the A-D conversion is governed by a clock the system
will react differently when the disturbance is shifted in time. The system will,
however, remain time independent provided that all changes in the system, inputs
and disturbances, are synchronized with the sampling instants.
318.0++
page 2.24

Figure 2.1S Two signals with different frequencies, 0.1 Hz {dashed) and 0.9 Hz {full),
have the same values at all sampling instants {dots) when T
0
= 1 s
[Wittenmark, 2002]
2.2.3 Examples
Aliasing and New Frequencies
The A-D and D-A converters are the interface between the continuous-time reality
and the digital world inside the computer. A natural question to ask is: Do we loose
any information by sampling a continuous-time signal?
Consider the two sinusoidal signals sin (1.8 1) t (

and sin(0.2 ) t shown in
Figure 2.18. The sampling of these signals with the sampling period T
0
= 1 is shown
with the dots in the figure. From the sampled values there is thus no possibility to
distinguish between the two signals. !t is not possible to determine if the sampled
values are obtained from a low frequency signal or a high frequency signal. This
implies that the continuous-time signal cannot be recovered from the sampled-data
signal, i.e. information is lost through the sampling procedure.
The sampling procedure does not only introduce loss of information but may also
introduce new frequencies. The new frequencies are due to interference between the
sampled continuous-time signal and the sampling frequency is
0
0
2
T

= (2.2)
The interference can introduce fading or beating in the sampled-data signal.
Example: Approximation of Continuous-time Controllers
One way to design a sampled-data control system is to make a continuous-time
design and then make a discrete-time approximation of this controller. The
computer-controlled system should now behave as the continuous-time system
provided the sampling period is sufficiently small.
318.0++
page 2.25
Disk-drive positioning system
A schematic diagram is shown in Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 A system for controlling the position of the arm of a disk drive [Wittenmark,
2002]

Figure 2.20 The step response when simulating the disk arm servo with the analog
controller {2.4) {dashedJred) and sampled-data controller {2.11)
{solidJblue). The design parameter is
0
= 1 and the sampling period is
T
0
= 0.3 [Wittenmark, 2002]
Neglecting resonances the dynamics relating the position y of the arm to the voltage
u of the drive amplifier is approximately described by a double integrator process
2
( )
k
G s
! s
=
(2.3)
where k is the gain in the amplifier and ! is the moment of inertia of the arm. The
purpose of the control system is to control the position of the arm so that the head
follows a given track and that it can be rapidly moved to a different track. Let u
c
be
the command signal and denote Laplace transforms with capital letters. A simple
continuous-time servo controller can be described by
( ) ( ) ( )
c
b K s b
U s U s K Y s
a s a
+
=
+
(2.+)
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page 2.26
This controller is a two-degrees-of-freedom controller. Choosing the controller
parameters as
0
0
2
0
2
2
2
a
b
!
K
k
=
=

=
(2.5)
0 2 2
0 0 0 2
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
0
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
c
c
s ! !
U s U s Y s
k k s
! ! s
U s U s Y s
k k s
+
=
+
+
=
+
(2.6)
gives a closed system with the characteristic polynomial
( ) ( )
2 2 3 2 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
( ) 2 2 P s s s s s s s = + + + = + + + (2.7)
where the parameter
0
is used to determine the speed of the closed-loop system.
The step response when controlling the process with the continuous-time controller
(2.+) is shown as the dashed line in Figure 2.20. The control law given by (2.+) can
be written as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c c
b K a b b
U s U s K Y s K Y s K U s Y s X s
a s a a
| |
= + = +
|
+
\ .

(2.8)
or in the time-domain as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
c
b
u t K u t y t x t
a
dx t
a x t a b y t
dt
| |
= +
|
\ .
= +
(2.9)
The first of these equations can be implemented directly on a computer. To find an
algorithm for the second equation the derivative dxfdt at time k:T
0
is approximated
with a forward difference. This gives
0 0 0
0 0
0
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
x k T T x k T
a x k T a b y k T
T
+
= + (2.10)
The following approximation of the continuous algorithm (2.+) is then obtained:
318.0++
page 2.27
( )
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c
b
u k T K u k T y k T x k T
a
x k T T x k T T a b y k T a x k T
| |
= +
|
\ .
+ = +
(2.11)
where y(k:T
0
) is the sampled output, u(k:T
0
) is the signal sent to the D-A converter,
and x(k:T
0
) is the internal state of the controller. This difference equation is updated
at each sampling instant. Since the approximation of the derivative by a difference is
good if the interval T
0
is small, we can expect the behavior of the computer-
controlled system to be close to the continuous-time system. Figure 2.20 shows the
arm position and the control signal for the system when
0
= 1 and T
0
= 0.3. Notice
that the control signal for the computer-controlled system is constant between the
sampling instants due to the hold circuit in the D-A converter. Also notice that the
difference between the outputs of the two simulations is very small. The difference in
the outputs is negligible if T
0
is less than 0.1f
0
.
The computer-controlled system has slightly higher overshoot and the settling time is
a little longer. The difference between the systems decreases when the sampling
period decreases. When the sampling period increases the computer-controlled
system will, however, deteriorate and the closed-loop system becomes unstable for
long sampling periods.
The example shows that it is straightforward to obtain an algorithm for computer
control simply by writing the continuous-time control law as a differential equation
and approximating the derivatives by differences. The example also indicates that
the procedure seems to work well if the sampling period is sufficiently small. The
overshoot and the settling time are, however, a little larger for the computer-
controlled system, i.e. there is a deterioration due to the approximation.
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page 2.2S

Figure 2.21 The step response when simulating the disk arm servo using the analog
controller {2.11) {dashedJred) and the deadbeat controller {solidJblue).
The sampling period is T
0
= 1.4 [Wittenmark, 2002]
Deadbeat control
Consider the disk drive in the previous example. Using a sampling interval of
T
0
= 1.+ with
0
= 1 gives an unstable closed-loop system if the controller (2.11) is
used. However, designing a discrete-time controller with the same structure as
(2.11) gives the performance shown in Figure 2.21 when T
0
= 1.+. The controller can
be written as
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
c c
u k T t u k T t u k T T
s y k T s y k T T r u k T T
= +

(2.12)
where the coefficients now are chosen such that the output of the system will reach
the reference value after two samples. This is called a deadbeat controller and it
has not a continuous-time counterpart. The design parameter of the deadbeat
controller is the sampling period T
0
, which here is chosen such that the maximum
control signal is the same when the continuous-time and the sampled-data
controllers are used.
2.2.+ Summary
The examples clearly show that there are some important issues that are specific for
sampled-data systems.
318.0++
page 2.29
Sampling makes the system time-varying.
!nformation may be lost through sampling.
Sampled controller have behaviours that are not achievable with continuous-
time controllers.
This requires an understanding of the interplay between the continuous-time signals
and the discrete-time signals. The rest of the paper gives a brief overview of some of
the tools that are important for the analysis, design, and implementation of sampled-
data control system.
2.3 Computers in Control Engineering
!n control engineering the design of an optimal control system is well understood
and for linear systems standard methods exist. The optimization problem is
formulated as follows:
Given a process to be controlled, and a performance index (cost function), find
optimal controller parameters such that the cost function is minimized (Figure 2.22).
With a state feedback controller and a quadratic cost function, solutions for the
optimal controller gains can be found with standard controller design software, such
as NatlabfSimulink (Nathworks 2001).

Figure 2.22 Optimization of the controller [Amerongen, 2002]
Nechatronic design on the contrary requires that not only the controller be
optimized. !t requires optimization of the system as a whole. !n the ideal case all the
components in the system: the process itself, the controller, as well as the sensors
and actuators, should be optimized simultaneously (Figure 2.23).
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Figure 2.23 Optimization of all system components simultaneously [Amerongen, 2002]
!n general this is not feasible. The problem is ill-defined and has to be split into
smaller problems that can be optimized separately. Later on the partial solutions
have to be combined and the performance of the complete system has to be
evaluated. After eventually readjusting some parts of the system this leads to a sub
optimal solution.
!n the initial conceptual design phase it has to be decided which problems should be
solved mechanically and which problems electronically. !n this stage decisions about
the dominant mechanical properties have to be made, yielding a simple model that
can be used for controller design. Also a rough idea about the necessary sensors,
actuators and interfaces has to be available in this stage. When the different partial
designs are worked out into some detail, information about these designs can be
used for evaluation of the complete system and be exchanged for a more realistic
and detailed design of the different parts.
A mechatronic system consists by definition of a mechanical part that has to perform
certain motions and an electronic part (in many cases an embedded computer
system) that adds intelligence to the system. !n the mechanical part of the system
power plays a major role. !n the electronic part of the system information processing
is the main issue. Sensors convert the mechanical motions into electrical signals
where only the information content is important or even into pure information in the
form of numbers (if necessary, through an A-D-converter). Power amplifiers convert
signals into modulated power. !n most cases the power supply is electrical, but other
sources such as hydraulic and pneumatic power supplies are possible as well. A
controlled mechanical motion system thus typically consists of a mechanical
construction, one or more actuators to generate the desired motions and a controller
that steers the actuators based on feed-forward and sensor-based feedback control
(Figure 2.2+).
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Figure 2.24 Mechatronic system [Amerongen, 2002]
2.3.1 Example: Nobile assembly robot
!n the conceptual design of a mobile assembly robot in a very early stage of the
design conflicting demands have to be resolved.
Such a robot should be able to collect parts all around a production facility and do
the assembly while driving. Because a high accuracy is required between the gripper
of the robot and the surface where the parts are located, it is important that floor
irregularities and vibration modes of the structure do not prevent proper assembly.
On the other hand the path controller, partly based on dead reckoning (i.e.
measuring of the wheel speed and orientation) requires that the wheels be very stiff.
Damping of disturbances has to be realized by another means of suspension. This
has led to the concept of an upper frame and a lower frame, connected by means of
springs (Figure 2.25).

Figure 2.25 Conceptual design of the mobile robot [Amerongen, 2002]
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page 2.32
The robot can be mounted at the upper frame and should have sufficiently
bandwidth such that the position error (e
tip
= z
tip
- z
upper

frame
) between the tip of the
robot (z
tip
) and the upper frame (z
upper

frame
) is small enough.
The next step is to derive a simple model, in order to have some parameters for the
weight distribution and the stiffness and damping of the springs. !n the model of
Figure 2.26 the robot is confronted with a bump in the floor at a speed of 1 mfs.

Figure 2.26 Simple model with ideal physical elements to compute the error e
tip

[Amerongen, 2002]
Based upon the payload - mainly the weight of the batteries - the total mass of the
vehicle was estimated to be 500 kg. Stiffness and damping of the wheels follow from
the demands for the accuracy of the position estimation. The mass and bandwidth of
the controlled manipulator were already known from other studies, yielding the
effective stiffness and damping for the robot tip. When also initial estimates of the
stiffness and damping of the springs between the upper and lower frame are made,
the only parameter to be varied is the weight distribution between the upper frame
and lower frame. By using the optimisation feature of 20-sim, the optimal weight
distribution can easily be found. !n order to minimize the error between the tip of the
robot and the upper frame, the weight has to be placed as much as possible in the
upper frame (Figure 2.27).
This example illustrates how the mechanical configuration of the system is
determined by the requirements for good path control and accurate control of the
assembly task.
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page 2.33

Figure 2.27 Error of the tip before and after optimization of the weight distribution
between upper and lower frame [Amerongen, 2002]

Figure 2.2S The mobile robot {MART) after completion [Amerongen, 2002]
A next step could be to optimize the properties of the suspension between upper and
lower frame. This will further improve the error. This decision made in a very early
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page 2.34
stage of the design directed other design decisions. After completion of the project it
appeared that the different parameters of the final construction were close to these
early estimates (Figure 2.28).
The software is available at: http:ffwww.20sim.com
The `hands on experience' document at: http:ffwww.ce.utwente.nlf!FACbrief
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September 200 Genetic Algorithms Chapter 3
page 3.35
3 3. . G Ge en ne et ti ic c A Al lg go or ri it th hm ms s
The genetic algorithm (GA) has arisen from a desire to model the biological
processes of natural selection and population genetics, with the original aim of
designing autonomous learning and decision-making systems. Since its introduction,
and subsequent popularisation, the GA has been frequently utilised as an alternative
optimisation tool to conventional methods. The correctness of the GA as an
abstraction of natural evolution has been challenged, but this issue should not be of
undue concern to the engineer, who is using the GA for its robust search and
optimisation properties.
The application of GAs to control can broadly be classified into two distinct areas:
off-line design and on-line optimisation. Off-line applications have proved to be the
most popular and successful. On-line applications tend to be quite rare because of
the difficulties associated with using a GA in real-time and directly influencing the
operation of the system. GAs have been applied to controller design and to system
identification. !n each case, either the parameters or the structure can be optimised,
or - potentially - both. Other applications include fault diagnosis, stability analysis,
sensor-actuator placement, and other combinatorial problems.
3.1.1 What are genetic algorithms?
Overview
Genetic algorithms (GAs) are global, parallel, search and optimisation methods,
founded on Darwinian principles [Darwin, 1859|. They work with a population of
potential solutions to a problem. Each individual within the population represents a
particular solution to the problem, generally expressed in some form of genetic code.
The population is evolved, over generations, to produce better solutions to the
problem. A schematic of the algorithm is shown in Figure 3.29.

Figure 3.29 Schematic of a standard genetic algorithm [Fleming, 2002]
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Each individual within the population is assigned a fitness value, which expresses
how good the solution is at solving the problem. The fitness value probabilistically
determines how successful the individual will be at propagating its genes (its code)
to subsequent generations. Better solutions are assigned higher values of fitness
than worse performing solutions.
Evolution is performed using a set of stochastic genetic operators, which manipulate
the genetic code. Nost genetic algorithms include operators that select individuals for
reproduction, produce new individuals based on those selected, and determine the
composition of the population at the subsequent generation. Crossover and
mutation are two well-known operators.

Figure 3.30 Single point crossover [Fleming, 2002]
The crossover operator involves the exchange of genetic material between
chromosomes (parents), in order to create new chromosomes (offspring). various
forms of this operator have been developed. The simplest form, single point
crossover, is illustrated in Figure 3.30. This operator selects two parents, chooses a
random position in the genetic coding, and exchanges genetic information to the
right of this point, thus creating two new offspring.

Figure 3.31 Binary mutation operator [Fleming, 2002]
The mutation operator, in its simplest form, makes small, random, changes to a
chromosome. For a binary encoding, this involves swapping gene 1 for gene 0 with
small probability (typically around one percent) for each bit in the chromosome, as
shown in Figure 3.31.
Once the new generation has been constructed, the processes that result in the
subsequent generation of the population are begun once more.
The genetic algorithm explores and exploits the search space to find good solutions
to the problem. !t is possible for a GA to support several dissimilar, but equally good,
solutions to a problem, due to its use of a population.
Despite the simple concepts involved, genetic algorithms can become quite
complicated. Nany variations have been proposed since the first GA was introduced.
Rigorous mathematical analysis of the GA is difficult and is still incomplete.
Genetic algorithms are robust tools, able to cope with discontinuities and noise in the
problem landscape. !nclusion of domain-specific heuristics is not a pre-requisite,
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although it may improve the performance of a GA. They have proved useful at
tackling problems that cannot be solved using conventional means.
virtually every aspect of the GA has been exposed to experimentation. As a note of
caution, the results of such changes are often inconclusive and are frequently based
on limited empirical testing. A very brief summary of key developments is presented
below:
Population - The size of the population has been of standard concern to
both theorists and implementers. A population of between twenty and one
hundred chromosomes is normally sufficient for most applications. The
encoding of potential solutions to form chromosomes has also been the
subject of intense research. Binary, or its Gray variant, encoding is the
traditional approach, but direct floating-point representations of design
parameters are becoming increasingly popular [Nichalewicz, 1996|.
Fitness assignment - Techniques for the conversion of the raw
performance of a potential solution to a GA fitness value have also received
much attention. Fitness is often taken as absolute, prior to normalisation
using the population average but, alternatively, ranking techniques may be
used. The main aims are to prevent premature convergence (early in the
search), and to prevent directionless search late in the search. Ranking is,
arguably, the most effective method of achieving this.
Selection - The standard roulette wheel selection method is known to
produce biased results, leading to a phenomenon known as genetic drift.
Two central aims in the development of alternatives are to eliminate
statistical bias and to achieve potential parallelism. Other selection methods
have been proposed, such as tournaments between two individuals (which
achieves good parallelism), and stochastic universal sampling (which is
unbiased) [Baker, 1987|. Note that a trade-off has been shown to exist
between the two aims cited above.
Genetic manipulation - Genetic operators have been subject to intensive
discussion, over both the composition and purpose of the various operators.
Some researchers have abandoned recombination, whilst others regard the
effect of mutation as minimal. Essentially, recombination tends to direct the
search to superior areas of the search space, whilst mutation acts to explore
new areas of the search space and to ensure that genetic material cannot be
irretrievably lost. Choice of genetic operators must be made together with
choice of representation.
Iteration - GAs evolve a population over a number of generations. The
exact number depends on the speed with which convergence can be
achieved, and is dependent on the interplay between the GA construction
and the type of problem under consideration. The composition of each new
generation must be chosen. Typically, this will include offspring produced as
a result of genetic operators acting on old individuals, some remnants of the
past population, and possibly a few randomly generated individuals (see
Figure 3.32). The exact proportion of each tends to vary from
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implementation to implementation, but offspring usually dominate the new
population. The ratio of offspring to population size is termed the
generational gap. !t may be a static value, or may vary dynamically during
the course of a run. Elitism is the term given to describe the deliberate
introduction of high-achieving (relative to the current population) past
individuals into the new population.

Figure 3.32 Typical composition of the new generation [Fleming, 2002]
New operators - various new operators have been introduced to address
problems discovered in application. For example, fitness sharing can be
used to encourage niching behaviour (sub-population formation at different,
comparatively optimal, landscape peaks). Mating restriction can be applied
in cases where crossover between largely different solutions is unlikely to
create good offspring (poor offspring are commonly described as lethals).
Nany exponents of evolutionary algorithms cite the genre's generic nature as a major
advantage. GAs can be applied to a wide-range of problems without significant
modification. However, the GA is sometimes perceived as a tool that will provide
mediocre results in a problem domain when compared with domain-specific methods.
This criticism is further explored in the later sections of this article. !t should also be
noted that GA parameters (population size, mutation probability, and so on) require
tuning for extended benefits of the algorithm to be realised.
The evolutionary approach has proved particularly successful in problems that are
difficult to formalise mathematically, and which are therefore not conducive to
analysis. This includes systems that are highly non-linear, that are stochastic, and
that are poorly understood (control of which represents a `black art'). Problems
involving the aforementioned classes of process tend to be difficult to solve
satisfactorily using conventional methods. The GA's lack of reliance on domain-
specific heuristics makes it a strong contender for application in this area. very little
a priori information is required, but this can be incorporated if so desired.
A single control engineering problem can contain a mixture of decision variable
formats. This can prove significantly problematic for conventional optimisation
techniques that require variables of a single mathematical type or scientific unit.
Since the GA operates on an encoding of the parameter set, diverse types of variable
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can be represented (and subsequently manipulated) within a single solution. For
example, the decision vector
{blue, 18.3, 1+j, 2n) (3.13)
does not pose an intrinsic problem to the GA.
The GA is a robust search and optimisation method. !t is well able to cope with ill-
behaved cost landscapes, exhibiting such properties as multimodality, discontinuity,
time-variance, randomness, and noise. Each of these properties can cause severe
difficulties to traditional computational search methods, in addition to the lack of
amenity to an analytical solution. Furthermore, a GA search is directed and, hence,
represents potentially much greater efficiency than a totally random or enumerative
search.
One particularly promising avenue of GA application is the multiobjective problem.
Nany real-world applications fit into this category, including most engineering design
problems. The potential of the GA is only starting to be fulfilled in this arena. GAs are
also capable of supporting multiple, contrasting, solutions to a problem
simultaneously. This provides the designer with a greater degree of choice and
flexibility.
For problems that are well understood, that are approximately linear, and for which
trusted solutions exist, the GA is unlikely to produce competitive results. !f a problem
can be solved analytically with an acceptable level of assumptions then that
approach is probably best. !f such a solution cannot be found, and other problem-
specific techniques are at an embryo stage, then the use of a GA could prove to be
highly profitable and worthwhile.
Nission-critical and safety-critical applications do not appear, initially, to be
favourable towards GA usage. There is an element of chance in a genetic algorithm.
No guarantee is provided that the results will be of sufficient quality for use on-line.
When GAs are evaluated on benchmark problems, they are commonly tested many
(typically twenty to thirty) times due to the stochastic nature of the algorithm. There
is also the question over how individuals will be evaluated if no process model is
available (as may well be the case). Some supporting theory exists for genetic
algorithms, but is unlikely to prove sufficient to win the approval of standards
agencies. Nuch care would, clearly, be needed for critical systems.
GAs are very computationally intensive, often requiring massively parallel
implementations in order to produce results within an acceptable timeframe. Hence,
on-line application to realtime control is largely infeasible at present.
Representation
The typical control problem contains various attributes that a GA must account for in
some way. These include representation of design parameters, inclusion of
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constraints, assessment of performance, and methods for coping with the likely
properties of the fitness landscape.
Each solution to a problem consists of a number of design parameters (decision
variables). These are encoded as a chromosome, which can then be manipulated by
genetic operators. Thus, a mapping is required between the actual decision variables
(phenotypes) and their genetic equivalent (genotypes). Choice of representation
is very flexible; indeed any is acceptable so long as suitable genetic operators can be
developed to support the representation. The classic approach is to encode the set of
parameters in a concatenated binary string. A simple example is shown in
Figure 3.33.

Figure 3.33 Mapping between GA chromosome and decision variables [Fleming, 2002]
Both discrete and continuous variables can be catered for. A binary, or n-ary, coding
can be used to represent variables to an arbitrary resolution. !t should be noted,
however, that the size of the search space increases exponentially with chromosome
length. Gray encoding is often preferred to standard binary since it maintains the
closeness of different solutions in both genotypic and phenotypic space. !n recent
years, floating-point representations have become popular alternatives to n-ary
codings [Nichalewicz, 1996|. This development has been motivated in the main by
users' comfort with one-gene-one-variable correspondence, but float-encoding has
several benefits: it is faster to manipulate, it has been shown empirically to be more
consistent from run to run, it permits much higher precision, and it is intuitively
closer to the problem space. This final point is particularly beneficial since it enables
easier incorporation of domain-specific knowledge. !t should be noted that the
existent theory to support the effectiveness of GAs (the so-called schema theorem)
is based on binary encoding of decision variables [Goldberg, 1989|.
Nost engineering problems involve constraints, including the necessity of a stable
system, and actuator performance limits. Three methods have been proposed to deal
with constraints within a GA solution. The most efficient approach is to embed the
constraints in the genetic code, making it impossible to generate infeasible solutions.
Unfortunately it may be impossible, or far from obvious how, to adopt this method.
!n this case, penalty functions can be incorporated. These assign a very high cost
(or, correspondingly, a very low fitness) to infeasible solutions. This approach can be
rather ungainly but has been sufficiently effective in many applications. The third
technique, which may become more popular as NOEA research expands, is to recast
the constraints as objectives to be met and, consequently, solved as a multiobjective
optimisation problem.
The method by which potential solutions are assessed is a critical component of a
GA. !f the evaluation functions are inappropriate then the GA search is unlikely to
progress in an acceptable direction. !nitially, the raw performance measures
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(objectives) must be defined. This is very much an application-dependent process.
The next consideration is the means by which the performance data will be obtained;
this is often model-based. The raw performance must then be translated into a non-
negative, scalar, fitness value. The fitness value represents the expected number of
times that an individual will be selected for reproduction. Nany engineering problems
consist of multiple objectives. For the purposes of the GA, these must be combined
to form a single value. The weighted-sum approach has proved popular in the
literature, since it is amenable to a solution by conventional GA methods, but Pareto-
based techniques are likely to surpass this in the future.
Traditionally, the root-mean-square (RNS) of the error between the desired output
and the actual output is taken as the cost of a particular solution. This measure is
amenable to conventional search techniques. No such restrictions apply to the GA, so
this limiting approach is no longer necessary. Having said this, many GA applications
have retained this redundant measure, presumably out of force of habit.
Real-time performance is of particular interest to the engineer. GAs are notorious for
the computational resources they require, although thoughtful implementations can
reduce these requirements significantly. Parallel computing systems must be
exploited for GAs to be used in real-time. Processes with long time constants
represent the most feasible application.
Nany engineering problems have the attribute of multimodality. This can cause
premature convergence for conventional search techniques. GAs are not immune to
this problem, although the parallel nature of the search process is a significant boon.
various GA add-ons have been developed to counter difficulties associated with
multimodal cost landscapes, including adaptive genetic search operators, fitness
sharing, mating restriction, and random injection (random chromosomes inserted
into the new generation).
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September 200 Nicrosystems Chapter +
page 4.42
4 4. . M Mi ic cr ro os sy ys st te em ms s
4.1 Introduction
Nicrosystem technology represents an interdisciplinary science by integration of
microelectronics, microoptics and micromechanics. Hence, functional and economical
solutions require the availability of adequately interdisciplinary teams in this field.
Nicromechanics is a new approach into the microworld. Different from
microelectronics, where the third dimension is usually several micrometers only, in
micromechanics the depth of structures is often up to 100 m. Further task is the
realization of movable" structures. For that purposes special fabrication technologies
have been developed resulting in micromotors with 100 m diameter; gears and
turbines with dimensions under 100 m diameter; miniaturized sensors, coppel
arrays and actuators; optoelectronical devices in micro-dimensions; "intelligent"
microcatheters; micro and nano robotic, etc.
4.2 Technologies
The increasing geometrical complexity of the structures produced, the increase of the
aspect-ratio, the steepness and accuracy of flanks or shapes in the case of higher
structures have almost been overcome by existing technologies today (Figure +.3+).

Figure 4.34 Microstructuring technologies [Brenner]
Etching becomes a chemical chisel for modeling the structures. Generally, etching
micromachining technologies can be classified as either bulk micromachining or
surface micromachining. Bulk micromachining is based on single crystal silicon
etching, so that micromechanical structures produces by this technology are made
either of silicon crystal or of deposited-grown layers on silicon. Surface
micromachining utilizes deposited or grown layers on top of the substrate, and is a
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technology for fabrication of three dimensional micromechanical structures from
multilayer stacked and patterned thin films (Figure +.35). Surface micromachining is
attractive because smaller structures can be produced with much better dimensional
control compared to bulk micromachining.

Figure 4.35 Surface micromachining [Brenner]
!n semiconductor technology, two etching methods are very important: wet etching,
in which the silicon wafer is dipped into a chemical dip, and dry-etching, in which
ions are beamed onto the silicon, converting it into a gaseous compound and thereby
etching it.
Wet anisotropic etching is one of the basic attributes of bulk micromachining. On the
other hand, wet etching is not often used in micromechanics because of its high
isotropy. This problem is particularly pronounced in the case of high structures. The
flanks of the structures diverge from a straight line and are not vertical. Therefore,
the microstructures produced may not fully correspond to the desired specifications.
Following dry etching processes create further possibilities for micro-structuring.
Plasma etching: Etching is done by means of the chemical reaction of the
reactive species or radicals produced by plasma discharging. This method is
completely isotropic and has a high selectivity.
Reactive ion-etching (R!E): The reactive species move vertically towards the
etched surface by means of acceleration voltage in a rarefied plasma.
Reactive ion-beam-etching (R!BE): The reactive species are produced in a
separate ion cannon by means of acceleration voltage and directed vertically
at the substrate.
Sputtering or ion-milling: !n this case, etching is done by pure sputtering
with an ion cannon and chemically neutron ions which come into contact
with the surface. This method is completely anisotropic. Unfortunately,
selectivity is not possible.
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The achieved size of the structures obtained with the R!E method on silicon ranges
from 0.1-10 m. The structures can be shaped as desired in polysilicon. With the R!E
method, the aspect-ratio almost reaches 50, which is lower than with the L!GA
technique. The maximal height of the structures is lower as well, and can be as high
as 500 m. The advantages of the R!E method over the L!GA process are that the
cost of the production is lower, the time of production is shorter and the number of
personnel is reduced.
One of the most promising technologies for fabrication of microcomponents is the
L!GA technique. !t is based on a combination of lithography, electroforming and
molding (German: Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung). The wide spectrum
of applications for L!GA-products is enabled by the remarkable height of the
structures, a high achievable aspect-ratio, a free lateral structuring, and a wide
variety of materials and range of shaping possibilities.

Figure 4.36 Applicated materials in presented technologies {simplified chart) [Brenner]
The staring point of each microstructure made with L!GA is a metal substratum
coated with a PNNA resist layer (polymethyl methacrylate) of several 100 m.
The first step of the process is deep X-ray lithography, and the task is to transfer the
patterns from a mask to the X-ray-sensitive polymer (resist layer). The mask-
substrate system is irradiated with very intense and extremely parallel radiation of
typically 2-3 wavelengths.
The second step is dissolving the irradiated parts of the resist layer in a solvent. The
result is a negative relief replica of the mask pattern.
The next step is called electroforming" and includes a galvanic metal deposition
from an electrolyte onto the uncovered parts of the conductive base plate underlying
the resist. The dips in the resist are filled until a thick metal layer is grown to a
desired height or above the resist structure. The complementary metallic body is
obtained by removing the base plate and the resist, and serves as a mold insert for a
subsequent micromolding process or as the final product.
Great structural heights of several hundred micrometers (up to 1000 m) and
minimum lateral dimensions on the order of one micrometer are achievable.
Accordingly, the resulting aspect-ratio can be higher than 100:1. Even details with
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0.2 m accuracy can be exactly reproduced throughout all sequences of the
technological process. !n addition, the choice of patterns is not restricted.
A low-cost" variant of the L!GA technique is the so-called optical LIGA". !nstead
of a very expensive synchrotron radiation, this method includes Uv-radiation of a
photosensitive polyimide and a simple optical mask. The achieved maximal height of
microstructures produced by the optical L!GA" is lower than with the L!GA technique
and its value is about 50 m (for the given quality of structure flanks; equal to the
quality achieved by the synchrotron L!GA technology). Used materials are nickel,
copper and polyimide.
Laser Chemical Vapor Deposition {LCVD) is an additive method (different to
etching as a subtractive method). !t is based on directly writing" by laser on
separable substrates and on the selective changing of material characteristics of the
surface. A focused laser beam is used for initialisation and continuation of the LCvD
process.
The LCvD process enables the production of three dimensional, exact and filigree-
fine high structures with a desired shape and excellent quality. The special
advantage compared with the methods mentioned above is that there are no planar
or scanning projection limitations in the definition of geometrical shapes, as well as
no limitations on the aspect-ratio or height of the structures. Until present, the
micro-positioning stage make it possible to determine the desired and resulting
shape with great precision (0.1 m).
A disadvantage of LCvD is that this technology is not suitable for mass production, as
opposed to both methods mentioned above.
Further micro-structuring techniques are material ablation by use of lasers (especially
excimer laser), and micromachining with formed diamonds and microdrills. Structures
obtained with excimer laser method can have linear widths of 1 m and an optional
aspect ratio. The maximal working depth is not limited. !n the case of diamond
micromachining, the maximal aspect ratio is 15 and the maximal working depth is
300 m. Ninimal linear width as large as 10 m has been obtained experimentally.
4.3 Application
Nicrosystems can be applied in all fields where the highest power density",
minimum weight and the highest reliability are required. A plenitude of measuring
and controlling tasks do exist in almost all domains.
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Figure 4.37 Matrix "Product-Application field" [Brenner]
Nedicine, for example, is a preferred application field for microsystem technology. As
current priorities, we can mention the miniaturisation of diverse operation techniques
and development of probes (e.g. probes for brain operations), stethoscopes and
catheters with rotatable ultra sound emitters or specimen devices, microvalves and
mircropumps in implants. All these application require a reliability of 100 in order
to avoid repeated operations. !n the future, a minimal volume of foreign substance"
which high power density" should be constructed for operations inside human
organs. A further field of application may be, for example, the development and
construction of artificial human organs with almost the same functional quality and
volume as in nature (e.g. human eye).
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September 200 Nicrosystems in Nechatronic Chapter 5
page 5.47
5 5. . M Mi ic cr ro os sy ys st te em ms s i in n M Me ec ch ha at tr ro on ni ic c
5.1 Principles of Microsystems
Single-crystal silicon is arguably one of the best materials for microsystem
technologies.
While its electrical properties are well known and widely used in modern
microelectronic circuits, it also offers some excellent mechanical properties. Thus it
surpasses stainless steel in yield-strength ratio and lacks mechanical hysteresis.
Though difficult to machine using cutting tools, it can be shaped using processing
techniques known from microelectronic fabrication, e.g. by chemical etching. Other
materials used in standard processing, such as silicon dioxide, silicon nitride,
aluminium, and polycrystalline silicon (polysilicon"), can also be micromachined.
There are two major techniques that can be employed: bulk and surface
micromachining.
Bulk micromachining uses the entire mass of the silicon chip, while
surface micromachining works only the surface.
These micromachining technologies have already produced a variety of tiny
micromechanical devices, such as beams, cantilevers, springs, bridges, diaphragms,
gears, micromotors, valves, pumps, etc. The catalogue of applications includes
among others suspended or moving silicon structures that can be used for
implementation of pressure and acceleration sensors.
Bulk micormachining is becoming an established technology for manufacturing of
silicon nozzles, e.g. for ink jet or fuel injection. Surface micromachining has found its
application in fabrication of micromirror arrays developed for all-digital HDTv (high-
definition television") projection displays. Another application example are
microgrippers which can be used in microsurgery and are actuated by electrostatic
forces. All these devices greatly benefit from presence of microelectronic circuits
cofabricated on the same silicon substrate.
A prominent example of class of devices that benefit from microelectronic
functionality at its utmost is represented by silicon-based sensors. Such sensors
utilize the fact that silicon is sensitive to light, temperature, and magnetic fields.
They can be even made sensitive to chemical substances using additional deposited
materials. Any of these sensors, either alone or combined with others to form
multisensors or sensor arrays, greatly gains from signal processing capabilities
provided by on-chip electronic signal processing. Add-on functions, such as sensor
readout, amplification, data compression, noise, offset and drift reduction,
linearization, calibration, compensation of nonideal effects, communication
interfacing, sensor control, etc. can serve to yield high-performance low-cost data
acquisition components. Also, short on-chip sensor-electronics interconnects
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minimize noise pick-up and reduce parasitic capacitive loading of the sensor, thus
improving sensor performance.
Nonolithic actuators benefit of course owing to on-chip electronics as well, as their
potential can be greatly enhanced by including control and supervisory functions.
Although high-power and high-voltage capabilities may again require some additional
processing steps, any price increase must be considered with respect to increased
functionality and widened application range.
5.2 Applications of Microsystems
Due to their small size, high functionality, and capability to interface electronic,
electrical, and mechanical worlds", silicon microsystems can be deemed to represent
almost ideal micro-mechatronical buildings blocks. Nicrosystems can serve as
autonomous multifunctional subsystem components with build-in sensory and
actuatory interfaces. !t can be envisioned that due to their incorporated intelligence"
such components can be readily installed in large systems, and should be easy to use
and operate. This will significantly simplify overall system assembly, operation,
diagnosis, maintenance, and repair and, hence, have a profound impact on
construction of future mechatronic systems. Also, novel components will stimulate
new applications and, thus, contribute to creation of new markets. As an example,
smart" vision sensors can perform image compression and recognition, and evaluate
textures in quality inspection for manufacturing or enable collision avoidance in
vehicle guidance and robot control. This can result in yielding new products, such as
intelligent inspection microdevices for preventive maintenance, sensory-guided
miniature robots and microsurgery devices, or portable orientation and navigation
systems for blind persons.
5.3 Examples of Silicon Sensor Microsystems
Although silicon Nicrosystems are still in their infancy, first such systems have
already been reported. !n this section we will present three examples from the smart
sensor area.
A first example is a magnetic-field sensor system integrated in CNOS technology.
Additional processing steps have been included that are necessary for depositing of a
magnetoresistive permalloy microbridge acting as sensor. The system also contains
temperature compensation circuitry, programmable readout electronics, reference
voltage bias, and clock generation. The maximum magnetic-field sensitivity of the
system is 88.2 mv f (Afm), integral full-scale linearity is better than 0.1 , and the
temperature sensitivity is below 260 ppmfC in the range between -50 C and
+100 C. The chip area is 29.6 mm
2
(see Figure 5.38).
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Figure 5.3S Block diagram of the single-chip magnetic-field sensor system [Brockherde]
A final example of a smart microsensor is shown in Figure 5.39. This represents a
block diagram of a linear image sensor array with programmable on-chip signal
processing, which also has been fabricated in CNOS technology. The sensor is based
on active pixel sensing principle which utilizes high light sensitivity of a standard
PNOS transistor located in a floating n-well.

Figure 5.39 Block diagram of the CMOS linear image sensor array [Brockherde]
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!n contrast to classical CCD image sensors this technique features not only a much
higher sensitivity and dynamic range, but also absence of blooming effects,
possibility to design various sensor array and readout geometries, and compatibility
with mainstream silicon technologies. This last property is of extreme importance, as
it makes possible to realize complex analogue, digital, or mixed signal processing on
the same silicon chip as the image sensor. Also, since this concept enables parallel
sensor access, it can implement very efficiently those image processing algorithms
that are based on processing of neighbouring sensors and thus contribute
significantly to data reduction while maintaining low system cost.
The chip contains 128 sensor elements arranged in a line. Each sensor has its own
bias and signal processing circuitry which allows both, local and global, signal
processing operations.
The chip can perform the following functions on its sensor pixels:
Serial image readout,
Serial detection of the peak-level pixel signal and its position,
Serial averaging over all pixels in an image,
Parallel time differencing of an image on pixel by pixel basis,
Parallel spatial differencing of all neighbouring pixels in an image,
Parallel median filtering, and
Parallel maximum and minimum signal thresholding.
The chip has been fabricated in a 2 m double metal n-well CNOS process and its
area is 5+ mm
2
though the sensor array occupies only 0.3 mm
2
. The device operates
at a clock frequency of 200 kHz and its single power supply range is 5 - 12 volts.
The chip operates at least from -35 up to +120 C and exhibits a maximum
temperature pixel drift of about 8 mvfK at the output.
5.4 Summary
Silicon microsystem technologies allow an almost perfect marriage" of
micromechanical, sensory, actuatory, and electronic signal processing functions on
tiny monolithic chips. Thanks to high functionality and performance offered by silicon
microelectronics, silicon microsystems can yield components for mechatronic systems
with unique features and thus change profoundly design manufacturing, assembly,
operation, diagnosis, maintenance, and repair of such systems.
5.5 Examples
5.5.1 Sensor integration
Semiconductor technology is also being applied to manufacture mechanical
structures in silicon that provide more reliability, higher accuracy, and higher
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functionality, while also lowering the cost of sensing for the automobile. Continued
use of these techniques for more complex structures and combined sensors (e.g.
pressure and temperature) will increase as university, government, and industry R8D
technology is adapted by sensor and semiconductor manufacturers. Sensor
technology has been identified as one of the key factors required to maintain
leadership in automotive electronics.
!ncreased electronics will be used with these sensors either by simultaneously
fabricating electronic circuitry with the mechanical structure or by packaging
techniques such as multi-chip modules. Figure 5.+0 shows a sensor technology
migration path that ultimately has the sensor(s) fabricated directly on CNOS NCUs.
While the cost of this final form may be several years away from the level necessary
for automotive use, the technology capability can be demonstrated today.
!ntermediate forms of integration with CNOS memory components used for
calibration and localized digital logic providing decisions are extremely likely within
the near future (before 2000). The electronics system design will change as
inherently digital signals, instead of analog, can be input directly to the NCU. These
signals could be at the level that allows usage by several vehicle systems using a
multiplex (NUX) bus. However, standards, such as SAE J1850, will be necessary to
make the digital output transducers as readily available from many sources like
today's analog output sensors.

Figure 5.40 Sensor technology migration path [Jurgen, 1994]
5.5.2 New Linear Speed-Sensing Devices
A number of different sensing technologies can be used for distance, object
detection, and approach speed measurements. Shown in Figure 5.+1 are the areas
covered by blind-spot, rear, and forward-looking sensors. Ultrasonics, infrared, laser,
and microwaves (radar) can be used in the detection of objects behind vehicles and
318.0++
page 5.52
in the blind areas. From a practical standpoint, no technology has come to the
forefront. However, with new innovations in technology the situation may change
very rapidly. Ultrasonics and infrared sensors are cost effective but degrade with
inclement weather conditions such as ice, rain, snow, and the accumulation of road
grime. !nfrared devices are also color-sensitive, in that the sensitivity to shiny black
objects is very low compared to other colors. Nicrowave devices appear to have the
edge when considering environmental conditions, but are expensive, and radar can
be affected by false return signals and clutter.

Figure 5.41 Collision-avoidance patterns [Jurgen, 1994]
For the detection of obstacles and vehicles in front of a vehicle, the choice is
between laser and microwaves due to the distances involved (up to 90 m).
Nicrowaves have the disadvantage of high cost and large antenna size when
considering available devices in the 60 GHz range. Frequencies greater than 100 GHz
are preferred for acceptable antenna size. However, collision avoidance radar in the
76f77-GHz band has been developed in Europe. Collision avoidance radar in the
77,9+, and 1++ GHz is being considered in the United States. A typical system uses a
38.5-GHz vCO (voltage controlled oscillator) with frequency-doubling to obtain about
+0 mW of power at 77 GHz. A frequency-modulated continuous wave or pulse-
modulated system can be used. The system uses GaAs devices to meet the
frequency and power requirements. Lasers can be cost effective in this application,
but also have their drawbacks: degradation of performance by fog, reflections from
other light sources (sun, etc.), build-up of road grime on sensor surfaces, and poor
reflecting surfaces at laser frequencies, such as grimy and shiny black surfaces.
5.5.3 Nicromechanical valves for Cars
Nicromechanics technology stems from the adaptation of production methods
employed in microelectronics. Lithographic miniaturization procedures and etching
and assembly techniques make it possible to manufacture minute structures with a
high degree of precision. Nicromechanical production methods have already become
established in the field of sensor manufacture. Electronic circuitry and sensors can be
manufactured from the same material (primarily silicon) in simultaneous production
processes to furnish integrated components; the benefits associated with this
process represent numerous potential advantages.
318.0++
page 5.53
!n automotive applications, microactuators display potential as elements in open-loop
control systems where low control power is to be converted, for instance, regulating
the flow of fluids in hydraulic or pneumatic systems and metering fuel.
For micromechanical manufacturing, valve designs are required in which planar units
with relatively low structure heights are stacked. The energy conversion principles
employed to operate the valves correspond to the planar structure (e.g., electrostatic
drive, electrothermal or piezoelectric flux converters).

Figure 5.42 Pressure-compensated seat valve [Jurgen, 1994]
The pressure-balanced seat valve is a basic example of this kind of microvalve
(Figure 5.+2). This type of microvalve is produced in a manufacturing process
entailing sequential structuring and bonding of four wafers. Depending on the
required dimensions for the single valve and the resulting surface requirement, as
many as several hundred elements can be produced simultaneously on each wafer
stack. Further efforts must be directed to solving packaging problems before these
microstructures can be used to control fluid supply and discharge processes.
5.5.+ Nicrosensors
Nicrosensors are primarily classified by function. Physical microsensors have been
developed for the purpose of measuring force, pressure, acceleration, and angular
rate (i.e., gyroscopes). Nicrosensors can additionally be classified as a resonant or
analog type. An analog sensor is one in which the measured quantity results in an
electrically measurable change in behavior, typically in a proportional manner. A
resonant sensor is one in which the measured quantity alters the structural resonant
frequency of a member, and is thus acquired by exciting the structure and measuring
its resonant frequency. These sensors require a mechanism of excitation in addition
to a mechanism of measurement, and thus are typically more complex than the
analog type. Since resonant sensors measure frequency instead of amplitude,
however, they are generally less susceptible to noise and typically provide a higher
resolution measurement than those that operate in an analog fashion. Resonant
sensors provide as much as one hundred times the resolution of analog sensors.
The fundamental mechanism for sensing is energy transduction. The primary forms
of physical electromechanical transduction can be grouped into two categories. The
first is multi-component transduction, which utilizes action at a distance" behavior
between multiple bodies, and the second is deform at ion-based or solid-state
transduction, which utilizes mechanics-of-material phenomena such as crystalline
phase changes or molecular dipole alignment. The former category includes
318.0++
page 5.54
electromagnetic transduction, which is typically based upon the Lorentz equation and
Faraday's law, and electrostatic interaction, which is typically based upon Coulomb's
law. The latter category includes piezoelectric effects, shape memory alloys, and
magnetostrictive, electrostrictive, and photostrictive materials.
Nicrosensors are typically based on either measurement of mechanical strain,
measurement of mechanical displacement, or on frequency measurement of a
structural resonance. The former two types are in essence analog measurements,
while the latter is in essence a binary-type measurement, since the sensed quantity
is typically the frequency of vibration.
Strain
Nany microsensors are based upon strain measurement. The primary means of
measuring strain is via piezoresistive strain gauges, which is an analog form of
measurement. Piezoresistive strain gauges, also known as semiconductor gauges,
change resistance in response to a mechanical strain. Note that piezoelectric
materials can also be utilized to measure strain. Recall that mechanical strain will
induce an electrical charge in a piezoelectric ceramic. The primary, problem with
using a Piezoelectric material, however, is that since measurement circuitry has
limited impedance, the charge generated from a mechanical strain will gradually leak
through the measurement impedance. A piezoelectric material therefore cannot
provide reliable steady-state signal measurement. !n contrast, the change in
resistance of a piezoresistive material is stable and easily measurable for steady-
state signals. One problem with piezoresistive materials, however is that they exhibit
a strong strain-temperature dependence, and so must typically be thermally
compensated.
An interesting variation on the silicon piezoresistor is a resonant strain gauge, which
provides a frequency-based form of measurement that is less susceptible to noise.
The resonant strain gage is a beam that is suspended slightly above the strain
member and attached to it at both ends. The strain gage beam is magnetically
excited with pulses, and the frequency of vibration is detected by a magnetic
detection circuit. As the beam is stretched by mechanical strain, the frequency of
vibration increases. These sensors provide higher resolution than typical
piezoresistors and have a lower temperature coefficient. The resonant sensors,
however, require a complex three-dimensional fabrication technique. Unlike the
typical piezoresistors that require only planar techniques.
Pressure
One of the most commercially successful microsensor technologies is the pressure
sensor. Silicon micromachined pressure sensors are available that measure pressure
ranges from around one to several thousand kPa, with resolutions as fine as one part
in ten thousand. These sensors incorporate a silicon micromachined diaphragm that
is subjected to fluid (i.e., liquid or gas) pressure which causes dilation of the
diaphragm. The simplest of these utilize piezoresistors mounted on the back of the
diaphragm to measure deformation, which is a function of the pressure.
318.0++
page 5.55
A variation on the same theme is the capacitive measurement approach, which
measures the capacitance between the diaphragm and an electrode that is rigidly
mounted and parallel to the diaphragm. A more complex approach to pressure
measurement is a sensor, which utilizes resonance of the diaphragm to detect
pressure. !n this device, the diaphragm is capacitively excited and optically detected.
The pressure imposes a mechanical load on the diaphragm, which increases the
stiffness and in turn the resonant frequency.
Acceleration
Another commercially successful microsensor is the silicon microfabricated
accelerometer, which in various forms can measure acceleration ranges from well
below one to around a thousand mfs
2
(i.e., sub-g to several hundred g's), with
resolutions of one part in ten thousand. These sensors incorporate a micromachined
suspended proof mass that is subjected to an inertial force in response to an
acceleration, which causes deflection of the supporting flexures. One means of
measuring the deflection is by utilizing piezoresistive strain gages mounted on the
flexures. The primary disadvantage to this approach is the temperature sensitivity of
the piezoresistive gages. An alternative to measuring the deflection of the proof mass
is via capacitive sensing. !n these devices, the capacitance is measured between the
proof mass and an electrode that is rigidly mounted and parallel. Still another means
of measuring the inertial force on the proof mass is by measuring the resonant
frequency of the supporting flexures. The inertial force due to acceleration will load
the flexure, which will alter its resonant frequency. The frequency of vibration is
therefore a measure of the acceleration.
Angular Rate Sensing (Gyroscopes)
A conventional-scale gyroscope utilizes the spatial coupling of the angular
momentum-based gyroscopic effect to measure angular rate. !n these devices, a disk
is spun at a constant high rate about its primary axis, so that when the disk is
rotated about an axis not colinear with the primary (or spin) axis, a torque results in
an orthogonal direction that is proportional to the angular velocity. These devices are
typically mounted in gimbals with low-friction bearings, incorporate motors that
maintain the spin velocity and utilize strain gages to measure the gyroscopic torque
(and thus angular velocity). Such a design would not be appropriate for a
microsensor due to several factors, some of which include the diminishing effect of
inertia (and thus momentum) at small scales, the lack of adequate bearings, the lack
of appropriate micromotors and the lack of an adequate three-dimensional
microfabrication processes.
!nstead, micro-scale angular rate sensors are of the vibratory type, which incorporate
Coriolis-type effects rather than the angular momentum-based gyroscopic mechanics
of conventional-scale devices. A Coriolis acceleration results from linear translation
within a coordinate frame that is rotating with respect to an inertial reference frame.
!n particular, if the particle in Figure 5.+3 is moving with a velocity v within the frame
xyz, and if the frame xyz is rotating with an angular velocity of w with respect to the
318.0++
page 5.56
inertial reference frame XYZ then a Coriolis acceleration will result equal to
2
c
a v w = . !f the object has a mass m, a Coriolis inertial force will result equal to
2
c
F m v w = - (minus sign because direction is opposite a
c
). A vibratory
gyroscope utilizes this effect as illustrated in Figure 5.++. A flexure-suspended inertial
mass is vibrated in the x-direction, typically, with an electrostatic comb-drive. An
angular velocity about z-axis will generate a Coriolis acceleration, and thus force, in
the y-direction. !f the external" angular velocity is constant and the velocity in the x-
direction is sinusoidal, then the resulting Coriolis force will be sinusiodal, and the
suspended inertial mass will vibrate in the y-direction with an amplitude proportional
to the angular velocity. The motion in the y-direction. which is typically measured
capacitively is thus a measure of the angular rate.

Figure 5.43 Illustration of Coriolis acceleration, which results from translation within a
reference frame that is rotating with respect to an inertial reference frame
[Popovic, 1999]

Figure 5.44 Schematic of a vibratory gyroscope [Popovic, 1999]
318.0++
September 200 Fault finding in Nechatronic Systems Chapter 6
page 6.57
6 6. . F Fa au ul lt t f fi in nd di in ng g i in n M Me ec ch ha at tr ro on ni ic c
S Sy ys st te em ms s
Nechatronic systems are, not only because of the integration, usually very complex.
Therefore it is very difficult to localize a failure in a system. Knowledge on
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronics, computer sciences and
control engineering are necessary.
6.1 Methods for Fault Finding
!n the following some methods of fault finding are outlined from a practical point of
view.
1. Replication checks
This involves duplicating or replicating an activity and comparing the results. !n
the absence of faults it is assumed that the results should be the same. This is
usually an expensive option.
2. Expected value checks
Software errors are commonly detected by checking whether an expected value
is obtained when a specific numerical input is used. !f the expected value is not
obtained then there is a fault.
3. Timing checks
This involves the use of timing checks that some function has been carried out
within a specified time. These checks are commonly referred to as watchdog
timers. For example, with a PLC, when an operation starts a timer is also started
and if the operation is not completed within the specified time a fault is assumed
to have occurred. The watchdog timer trips, sets off an alarm and closes down
part or the entire plant.
+. Reversal checks
!s there a direct relationship between input and output values, the value of the
output can be taken and the input which should have caused it computed. This
can then be compared with the actual input.
5. Parity and error coding checks
This form of checking is commonly used for detecting memory and data
transmission errors. Communication channels are frequently subject to
interference which can affect data being transmitted. To detect whether data has
been corrupted a parity bit is a bit added to the transmitted data word. The
parity bit is chosen to make the resulting number of 1s in the group either odd
(odd parity) or even (even parity). !f odd parity then the word can be checked
after transmission to see if it is still odd. Other forms of checking involve codes
318.0++
page 6.5S
added to transmitted data in order to detect corrupt bits (see !nformation
Technology).
6. Diagnostic checks
Diagnostic checks are used to test the behavior of components in a system.
!nputs are applied to a component and the outputs compared with those which
should occur.
6.2 Examples
6.2.1 Watchdog timer
A watchdog timer is basically a timer that the system must reset before it times out.
!f the timer is not reset in time then an error is assumed to have occurred.
As an illustration of such a Timer, Figure 6.+5 shows a simple ladder program that
can be used to provide a PLC with a watchdog timer for an operation involving the
movement of a piston in a cylinder. When the start switch is closed the solenoid A+
is activated and starts the movement of the piston in the cylinder. !t also starts a
timer. When the piston is fully extended it opens the limit switch a+. this stops the
timer. However, if a+ is not opened before the timer has timed out then the timer
contacts close and an alarm is sounded. Thus the timer might be set for, say, + s on
the assumption that the piston will be fully extended within that time. !f, however, it
sticks and fails to meet this deadline then the alarm sounds.

Figure 6.45 Watchdog timer program [Bolton, 1999]
6.2.2 Parity bit check
For example, the character 1010000 would have a parity bit placed after the most
significant bit of a 0 with an even-parity system, i.e. 01010000, or a 1 with odd
parity, i.e. 11010000. Such a method can detect the presence of a single error in the
message but not the presence of two errors. !f no error is detected the signal is
acknowledged as being error free by the return of the ACK
1
(acknowledgement)

1
E.g. ASC!! code: ACK = 06
h
, NAK = 15
h
318.0++
page 6.59
character to the sending terminal; if an error is detected the signal NAK (no
acknowledgement) is used. This is called an automatic repeat request (ARQ). The
NAK signal then results in the retransmission of the message.
6.2.3 Block parity check
The efficiency of error detection can be increased by the use of block parity. The
message is divided into a number of blocks and each block has a block check
character added at the end of the block. For example, with the following block, a
check bit for even parity is placed at the end of each row and a further check bit at
the foot of each column.
!nformation bit Check bit
First symbol 0 0 1 1 0
Second symbol 0 1 0 0 1
Third symbol 1 0 1 1 1
Fourth symbol 0 0 0 0 0
Block check bits 1 1 0 0 0
Table 6.1 Block parity check
At the receiver the parity of each row and each column is checked and any single
error is detected by the intersection of the row and column containing the error
check bit.
6.2.+ Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC)
At the transmitting terminal the binary number representing the data being
transmitted is divided by a predetermined number using modulo-2 arithmetic. The
remainder from the division is the CRC character which is transmitted with the data.
At the receiver the data plus the CRC character are divided by the same number. !f
no transmission errors have occurred there is no remainder.
A common CRC code is CRC-16, 16 bits being used for the check sequence. The
16 bits are considered to be the coefficients of a polynomial with the number of bits
equal to the highest power of the polynomial. The data block is first multiplied by the
highest power of the polynomial, i.e.
15
x and then divided by the CRC polynomial
+ + +
15 12 5
1 x x x (6.1+)
using modulo-2 arithmetic, i.e. x = 2 in the polynomial. The CRC polynomial is thus
1000 1000 0001 0001. The remainder of the division by this polynomial is the CRC.
Example
As an illustration, suppose we have the data 1011 0111 or polynomial
318.0++
page 6.60
7 5 + 2 1
1 x x x x x + + + + + (6.15)
and a CRC polynomial of
5 + 1
1 x x x + + + (6.16)
or 11 0011. The data polynomial is first multiplied by
5
x to give
12 10 9 7 6 5
x x x x x x + + + + + (6.17)
and so 1 0110 1110 0000. Dividing this by the CRC polynomial gives:
12 10 9 7 6 5 5 + 1
3
7 6 5 + 2
( ) : ( 1)
1
2 1
x x x x x x x x x
x
x x x x x x
+ + + + + + + + =
- -
= - + - + - +
(6.18)
and so a remainder of 01001 which then becomes the CRC code transmitted with the
data.
3
1 x + (6.19)
6.3 Common hardware faults
The following are some of the commonly encountered faults that can occur with
specific types of components and systems.
6.3.1 Sensors
!f there are faults in a measurement system then the sensor might be the fault. A
simple test is to substitute the sensor with a new one and see what effect this has on
the results given by the system. !f the results change then it is likely that the original
sensor was faulty; if the results do not change then the fault is elsewhere in the
system.
6.3.2 Switches and relays
Dirt and particles of waste material between switch contacts is a common source of
incorrect functioning of mechanical switches. A voltmeter used across a switch
should indicate the applied voltage when the contacts are open and very nearly zero
when they are closed. Nechanical switches used to detect the position of some item,
e.g. the presence of a work piece on a conveyor, can fail to give the correct
responses if the alignment is incorrect or if the actuating lever is bent.
318.0++
page 6.61
6.3.3 Notors
Naintenance of both d.c. (direct current) and a.c. (alternating current) motors
involves correct lubrication. With d.c. motors the brushes needs to be in accordance
with the manufacturer's specification. A single-phase capacitor start a.c. motor that is
sluggish in starting probably needs a new starting capacitor. The three-phase
induction motor has no brushes, commutator, slip rings or starting capacitor and
short of a severe overload, the only regular maintenance that is required is periodic
lubrication.
6.3.+ Hydraulic and pneumatic systems
A common cause of faults with hydraulic and pneumatic systems is dirt. Small
particles of dirt can damage seals, block orifices, cause valve spools to jam, etc. Thus
filters should by regularly checked and cleaned, components should only be
dismantled in clean conditions, and oil should by regularly checked and changed.
With an electrical circuit a common method of testing a circuit is to measure the
voltages at a number of test points. Likewise, with a hydraulic and pneumatic system
there needs to be points at which pressures can be measured. Damage to seals can
result in hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders leaking, beyond that which is normal, and
result in a drop in system pressure when the cylinder is actuated. This can be
remedied by replacing the seals in the cylinders. The vanes in vane-type motors are
subject to wear and can then fail to make a good seal with the motor housing with
the result of a loss of motor power. The vanes can be replaced. Leaks in hoses, pipes
and fittings are common faults.
6.3.5 Nicroprocessor systems
Typical faults in microprocessor systems are:
1. Chip failure
Chips are fairly reliable but occasionally there can be failure.
2. Passive component failure
Nicroprocessor systems will usually include passive components such as resistors
and capacitors. Failure of any of these can cause system malfunction
3. Open circuits
Open circuits can result in a break in a signal path or in a power line. Typical
reasons for such faults are unsoldered or faulty soldered joints, facture of a
printed circuit track, a faulty connection on a connector and breaks in cables.
+. Short circuits
Short circuits between points on a board which should not be connected often
arise as a result of surplus solder bridging the gaps between neighboring printed
circuit tracks.
318.0++
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5. Externally introduced interference
Externally induced pulses will affect the operation of the system since they will
be interpreted as valid digital signals. Such interference can originate from the
mains supply having `spikes' as a result of other equipment sharing the same
mains circuit and being switched on or off. Filters in the mains supply to the
system can be used to remove such `spikes'.
6. Software faults
Despite extensive testing it is still quite feasible for software to contain bugs and
under particular input or output conditions cause a malfunction.
6.4 Fault-finding techniques
Fault-finding techniques that are used with microprocessor-based systems include:
1. visual inspection
Just carefully looking at a faulty system may reveal the source of a fault, e.g. an
integrated circuit which is loose in its holder or surplus solder bridging tracks on
a board.
2. Nultimeter
This is of limited use with microprocessor systems but ca be used to check for
short- or open-circuit connections and the power supplies.
3. Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is essentially limited to where repetitive signals occur and the
most obvious such signal is the clock signal. Nost of the other signals with a
microprocessor system are not repetitive and depend on the program being
executed.
+. Logic probe
The logic probe is a hand-held device, shaped like a pen, which ca be used to
determine the logic level at any point in the circuit to which it is connected.
5. Logic pulser
The logic pulser is a hand-held pulse generator, shaped like a pen, that is used
to inject controlled pulses into circuits. The pulser probe tip is pressed against a
node in the circuit and the button on the probe pressed to generate a pulse. !t is
often used with the logic probe to check the functions of logic gates.
6. Current tracer
The current tracer is similar to the logic probe but it senses pulsing current in a
circuit rather than voltage levels. The tip of the current tracer is magnetically
sensitive and is used to detect the changing magnetic field near a conductor
carrying a pulsing current. The current tracer tip is moved along printed circuit
tracks to trace out the low-impedance paths along which current is flowing.
318.0++
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7. Logic clip
A logic clip is a device which clips to an integrated circuit and makes contact with
each of the integrated circuit pins. The logic state of each pin is then shown by
LED indicators, there being one for each pin.
8. Logic comparator
The logic comparator tests integrated circuits by comparing them to a good,
reference, integrated circuit Figure 6.+6. Without removing the integrated circuit
being tested from its circuit, each input pin is connected in parallel with the
corresponding input pin on the reference integrated circuit; likewise each output
pin is connected with the corresponding output pin on the reference integrated
circuit. The two outputs are compared with an EXCLUS!vE-OR gate, which then
gives an output when the two outputs differ.

Figure 6.46 Logic comparator [Bolton, 1999]
9. Signature analyser
With analogue systems, fault finding usually involves tracing through the circuitry
and examining the waveforms at various nodes, comparison of the waveforms
with what would be expected enabling faults to be identified and located. With
digital systems the procedure is more complex since trains of pulses at nodes all
look very similar. To identify whether there is a fault the sequence of pulses is
converted into a more readily identifiable form, e.g. 258F, this being termed the
signature. The signature obtained at a node can then be compared with that
which should occur.
10. Logic analyser
The logic analyser is used to simultaneously sample and store in a `first-in-first-
out' (F!FO) memory the logic levels of bus and control signals in a unit under
test. The point in the program at which the data capture starts or finishes is
selected by the use of a `trigger word'. The analyser compares its trigger word
with the incoming data and only starts to store data when the word occurs in the
program. Data capture then continues for a predetermined number of clock
pulses and is then stopped. The stored data may then be displayed as a list of
binary, octal, decimal or hexadecimal codes, or as a time display in which the
waveforms are displayed as a function of time, or as a mnemonic display.
318.0++
page 6.64
6.+.1 Systematic fault-location methods
Systematic fault-location methods are:
1. !nput to output
A suitable input signal is injected into the first block of the system and then
measurements are made in sequence, starting from the first block, at the output
of each block in turn until the faulty block is found.
2. Output to input
A suitable input signal is injected into the first block of the system and then
measurements are made in sequence, starting from the last block, at the output
of each block in turn until the faulty block is found.
3. Half-split
A suitable input signal is injected into the first block of the system. The blocks
constituting the system are split in half and each half tested to determine in
which halt the fault lies. The faulty half is then split into half and the procedure
repeated.
6.+.2 Self-testing
Software can be used by a microprocessor-based system to institute a self-test
program for correct functioning. Such programs are often initiated during the start-
up sequence of a system when it is first switched on.
6.+.3 Emulation and Simulation
An emulator is a test board which ca be used to test a microcontroller and its
program. The board contains:
The microcontroller
Nemory chips for the microcontroller to use as data and program memory.
An inputfoutput port to enable connections to be made with the system
under test.
A communications port to enable program code to be download from a
computer and the program operation to be monitored.
The program code can be written in a host computer and then downloaded through
either a serial or a parallel link into the memory on the board. The microcontroller
then operates as though this program was contained within its own internal memory.
318.0++
page 6.65
6.+.+ Simulation
!nstead of testing a program by running it with an actual microcontroller, you can
test it by running it with a computer program that simulates the microcontroller.
Such simulation can assist in the debugging to the program code. The display screen
is divided into a number of windows in which information such as the source code is
displayed as it is executed, the CPU registers and flags with their current states, the
inputfoutput ports, registers and timers, and the memory situation. Figure7 shows
the typical form of display on the computer screen.

Figure 6.47 Simulation screen [Bolton, 1999]
6.+.5 Program testing
The software checking program checks through a ladder program for incorrect device
addresses, and provides a list on a screen, or as a printout, of all the inputfoutput
points used, counter and timer settings, etc. with any errors detected. Thus the
procedure might involve:
1. Opening and displaying the ladder program concerned.
2. Selecting from the menu on the screen Ladder Test.
3. The screen might then display the message: Start from beginning of program
(YfN)?
+. Type Y and press Enter
5. Any error message is then displayed or the message of `No errors found'.
Testing inputs and outputs
Nost PLCs have the facility for testing inputs and outputs by what is termed forcing.
Software is used to `force' inputs and outputs on or off. To force inputs or outputs, a
PLC has to be switched into the forcing or monitor mode by perhaps pressing a key
marked NON!TOR mode on a screen display. As a result of forcing an input we can
check that the consequential action of that input being on occurs. The installed
program can thus be run and inputs and outputs simulated so that they, and all
preset values, can be checked. However, care must be exercised with forcing in that
an output might be forced that can result in a piece of hardware moving in an
unexpected and dangerous manner.
318.0++
page 6.66
Example

Figure 6.4S Simulation screen [Bolton, 1999]
As an illustration of the type of display obtained when forcing, Figure 6.+8 shows
how inputs might appear in the ladder program display when open and closed, and
outputs when not energised and energised and Figure 6.+9(a) a selected part of a
displayed ladder program and Figure 6.+9(b) what happens when forcing occurs.
!nitially, Figure 6.+9(a) shows rung 11, with inputs to X+00, X+01 and N100, but not
X+02 and with no output from Y+30. For rung 12, the timer T+50 contacts are
closed, the display at the bottom of the screen indicating that there is no time left to
run on T+50. Because Y+30 is not energised the Y+30 contacts are open and so
there is no output from Y+31. !f we now force an input to X+02 then the screen
display changes to that shown in Figure 6.+9(b) and Y+30 is energised and
consequently Y+31 energised.

Figure 6.49 Forcing an input [Bolton, 1999]
6.+.6 PLC as a monitor of systems
The PLC can also be used as a monitor of the system being controlled. !t can be
used to sound an alarm or light up a red light if inputs move outside prescribed
limits, using the greater than, equal to, or less than functions, or its operations take
longer than a prescribed time.
318.0++
September 200 Ethics in Product Design Chapter 7
page 7.67
7 7. . E Et th hi ic cs s i in n P Pr ro od du uc ct t D De es si ig gn n
As engineers, we hold vast power in our hands. We have the opportunity to provide
products and services that can affect the lives of vast numbers of people. These
products and services can affect the public in beneficial or harmful ways. Early on,
the organizing bodies of our engineering professional societies realized this fact.
They created lists of rules to which all engineers would be held accountable. These
rules were established to ensure that the public was not placed in danger by the
engineering profession and its practitioners. These sets of rules, for the guidance of
engineers, are known as the Codes of Ethics for Engineers.
All professions (medicine, law, and engineering) have codes of ethics. !t is a
requirement that arises from the idea of a social contract between professionals and
society. According to this social contract, professionals are the guardians of a public
trust". Professionals have skills and knowledge that are deemed essential to the
functioning of society. Thus, these implicit social contracts set down the terms of the
arrangement between professionals and society. For engineers, such a contract is
also laid out in the various professional codes of ethics. Society allows professionals
to be self-regulated, autonomous, and affords them significant social status. !n turn,
the professionals agree to police their own ranks and to serve society to their utmost
capacity. This service to society includes promoting the well-being of the general
public" and ensuring that professionals are devoted to the public welfare even when
it conflicts with self-interest".
The reason that service to society is of such paramount interest should be obvious.
As professionals, we hold people's lives in our hands. Nistakes made by professionals
are sometimes measured in the number of lives lost. The doctor who makes a
mistake loses his patient, the lawyer who errs can send his client to prison, the
engineer who makes an error in judgment can cost hundreds of people their lives.
There is a long list of famous engineering errors; the collapse of the Grand Teton
dam, the disintegration of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, the Kansas City Hyatt
Regency walkway collapse, the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger, and the list goes
on. As engineers, we owe it to society, the users of our products of our products and
services, to practice our craft with the greatest care. The Codes of Ethics for
Engineers helps us achieve that goal by ensuring that all professionals work with
certain tenets in mind. Society can be assured that individuals who are doing
engineering work have achieved a certain level of proficiency in their field and that
these professionals are beholden to protect the safety and welfare of the public.
Being a professional has its benefits, but it can also cause some problems. The
autonomy allowed to professionals is often at odds with the realities of life as an
employee or contractor. Oftentimes, the obligations placed upon one as an engineer
will be in direct conflict with the obligations required by an employer or by oneself.
!n this case it is important to have tools available which can help you determine the
appropriate course of action. Fortunately for engineers, the skills needed to wade
through these ethical problems are very similar to the skills used in the design
318.0++
page 7.6S
process. The problem solving and design techniques taught to engineers are
especially applicable to problems in the realm of ethics.
We will have a look at some areas in which design and ethics play equally important
roles in engineering: specifically, risk analysis and environmental concerns.
The process of engineering is the process of creating solutions that can
simultaneously achieve the goals of the problem and remain within certain
constraints. These goals and constraints are referred to as design drivers". The
three most common design drivers" are
the cost of the solution,
the schedule of the project and
the features of the solution.
These drivers can act as either goals or constraints, depending on the situation.
For example, in the design of a personal computer system, the product's features are
usually the goals, while scheduling and costs are the constraints. The design process
for the computer focuses on providing features (the right amount of memory, the
right amount of disk space, the proper sound and video cards, whether or not a
modem should be included) within the bounds of the cost (must generate profits for
the manufacturer at the current market prices) and the schedule (must be on the
market before the holidays). An example of a case where cost would become a goal
would be if in the previous example, it had been stated in the project description that
the computer to be designed would be the most affordable on the market.
Ethical considerations can similarly be viewed as design drivers", either constraints
or goals. Ethical behaviour is either something to be sought or something used to
limit the design space. The technical features referred to in the previous paragraph
are analogous to the moral issues at stake in an ethical case.
7.1 Example: The Environment
There are several approaches to the environment that must be understood to really
accomplish environmentally-friendly design. Currently, most engineering codes of
ethics approach the environment from an anthropocentric point of view. !n this
approach, components of the environment are given value because they are viewed
as important of humankind.
Thus, those who advocate establishing a national park because they enjoy camping
and want to protect a beautiful site for camping are arguing from an anthropocentric
point of view.
The converse to this approach is a nonanthropocentric approach. !n this approach,
the environment is believed to have intrinsic value. A nonanthropocentric approach
318.0++
page 7.69
to the national park scenario would consist of the argument that certain parts of
nature should be set aside for its own sake.
There are three main components to consider in the environmental effects of a
design. They correspond to the three tenets espoused in most environmental
literature:
reduce,
reuse, and
recycle.
Each of these tenets have been applied to designs to minimize their environmental
impact. !n the following subsections, each tenet will be discussed and a relevant
example or examples of its application in design will be given.
7.2 Reduce
!n engineering, the concept espoused in the reduction tenet can be applied in several
ways. The production of a product incurs resource use not only in the item itself, but
in the manufacturing process as well. Thus, it is important to address reduction
issues as they concern both use in the product and use in the manufacturing of a
product.
Reduction in the use of resources in the actual product is a natural engineering task.
!n a design, materials selection is always a critical task. The cost of materials must
be weighed against their performance. So integrating a concern for reduction of use
of natural resources into the current materials selection process should be simple. As
more engineers embrace the idea of using more renewable resource materials, these
materials should become cheaper and easier to purchase.
A car producer has instituted such a renewable resource materials selection policy for
their sedans. Their door linings will now be made exclusively of two plant materials:
flax and sisal. These plants are renewable natural resources, and thus, they reduce
the dependence on non-renewable resources such as petroleum-based plastics. !f
more renewable resource materials find their way into engineering designs and
products, then the consumption rate of natural resources can be reduced
significantly.
The second type of reduction concerns the reduction of resources used in production
of the products. This concern can be expanded to include the reduction of waste
products generated by the production processes. The concerns surrounding the issue
of manufacturability are already part and parcel for most engineering design teams.
!t does no one any good to have a perfect design that cannot be manufactured.
Thus, the concern for reduction of resource use and minimization of waste
generation can be rather easily integrated into the current process.
318.0++
page 7.70
7.3 Reuse
Design for reuse is another way to reduce the effect of a product on the
environment. !t is more difficult for the engineer to accomplish. A product must be
capable of being reused in the same role without significant refurbishing or
modification to fall into this classification. A design that can be reused is one which
reduces the future need for natural resources.
A good example of reusability is the canvas shopping bag. They are made by several
manufacturers to allow groceries to be carried home from the store without the use
of paper or plastic bags. Thus, the reusable bag replaces a vast number of
disposable bags which in turn decreases the demand on the paper and plastic
industries. Thus, less trees are cut down and less plastic is made, thus conserving
those resources.
A good example of a product designed for reuse is the toner cartridges for laser
printers. Companies such as Hewlett Packard request that users return their empty
toner cartridges to be reconditioned and refilled. These companies offer rebates as
incentives to have the cartridges returned. Without these programs, these toner
cartridges would be filling up landfills around the world. These programs return the
cartridges to service, thus reducing waste and reducing added resource
consumption. !t is a good idea for the companies as well, since they do not have to
spend additional financial resources making and holding the toner cartridges.
7.4 Recycle
Design for recycling is the last resort in environmentally-friendly design. !f a resource
must be used and cannot be reused, then the last resort before internment in a
landfill is recycling. Recycling involves the conversion of a product back into its raw
materials. Nany products can be recycled back into raw materials for a similar
function: plastic jugs, bottles, aluminium cans, etc. Some recycling converts products
into raw material for other products: paper recycling and conversions such as plastic
jugs into jacket insulation. These are relatively simple products to recycle though. !t
is much more difficult to recycle something more complex, like an automobile.
Recycling something on the scale of an automobile requires quite a bit of planning
during the initial design of the product. First, the recyclability of the components of
the system must be considered. Some components can only be recycled into other
uses (e.g. vulcanized tires cannot be recycled into tires, only into asphalt additives or
playground cushioning material). Other components can be recycled into similar
components (e.g. aluminium parts can be recycled into new aluminium parts). Some
components corrode during use, thus making them useless for recycling. Second, the
ability to separate the components is a very important consideration when designing
for recyclability. Components of differing materials that are permanently attached
(e.g. welded or glued) are difficult to recycle. To facilitate recycling, materials should
be attached using a method which is reversible (e.g. rivets or bolts). Third, a plan for
the implementation of the recycling must be developed. Recycling does not happen
318.0++
page 7.71
by itself. Nany companies who are designing for recyclability are also implementing
plans to perform the recycling of their products. A car company who has instituted
several environmentally-friendly policies including designing for recyclability, has just
completed construction of a vehicle disassembly plant which will disassemble their
automobiles for recycling and reuse.
A term, life-cycle engineering, has been coined to describe the process of designing a
product and understanding the issues surrounding its uses and disposal. !n life-cycle
engineering, the engineer examines the processes the product will be through during
and after its useful life. !ssues such as emissions during the product's lifetime,
possible wear patterns of the product, and the use of replacement parts and
maintenance time are all considered while initially designing the product. Since most
engineers who use this process are environmentally aware, care is usually taken to
ensure that the product can be disposed of in an environmentally-friendly way
(reused or recycled).
!t is important for engineers to understand the issues involved in designing for the
environment. Consumers are demanding products that are more environmentally-
friendly and society is demanding that designers and builder practice their craft with
as much respect for the environment as possible. Thus, it is up to engineers to
develop new methods of approaching problems that concern the environment.
Considering the life-cycle of the product is the most powerful method available for
developing products in an environmentally-friendly manner.
7.5 Conclusion
Engineers are problem solvers. The design process is the tool used to approach and
solve the technical problems that come along. Solving other types of problems, like
ethical problems, should come naturally to all engineers. !t takes a thorough problem
description, some creative thinking to develop solutions, and judgement to select the
best solution. Thus, the basic techniques learned in engineering can assist you in
solving ethical problems.
Ethical problems arise frequently for engineers since their products have great
influence in the world. An engineering solution can change the fabric of society, it
can change the face of the planet, and it can perform immense amounts of good.
But, engineering failures are often public catastrophes in which many people are
injured or killed. Thus, it is important that we, as engineers, perform our work
diligently and with the utmost care. The way to ensure that as few fatalities happen
as possible is to adhere to the engineering codes of ethics and to practice our craft
responsibly. Since the fundamental process of our craft is design, it is important that
we design with ethics as our guide. We must be aware that every design has
consequences, be they social, political or environmental. We must be able to deal
with these consequences by either avoiding or minimizing them. For this we must
look to ethics, where there are established lines of thought and procedures for
dealing with these type of problems. !n ethics, we find the tools we need to shoulder
the heavy load placed upon us as engineers.
318.0++
page 7.72
7.6 References
[Harris 1995| Harris, CE; Pritchard, N.; Rabins, N.: Engineering Ethics :
Concepts and Cases. New York: Wadsworth Publishing
Company, 1995
[Engineering 1997| Engineering Ethics Class at Texas A8N University (Catalog#:
ENGR +82), Spring 1997
[Nercedes 1| E-class saloon". www.mercedes.com
[BNW 1| BACK!SSUE: BNW at the `!AA'." www.bmw.com
[Nercedes 2| News". www.mercedes.com
[Leveson 1993| Leveson, N.; Turner, C.: An Investigation of the Therac-25
Accidents. !EEE Computer 26(7): 18-+1, July 1993
318.0++
September 200 Appendix A: German - English Chapter 8
page S.73
S S. . A Ap pp pe en nd di ix x A A: : G Ge er rm ma an n - - E En ng gl li is sh h
German English
A
Ablaufsteuerung sequential control
Abtaster sampling element, sampler
Abtastregelung sampled data control, time discrete
control
Abtastzeit sampling time
Allpaelement all-pass element
Amplitudengang amplitude response, gain response
Amplitudenreserve gain margin
analoge Regelung analogue closed loop control
analoge Steuerung analogue open loop control
Anschwingzeit response time
Arbeitspunkt operating point
Aufgabengre final controlled variable
Ausgangsgre output variable
Ausgangsrckfhrung output feedback
Automat, endlicher finite automaton
B
Baueinheit physical unit
Betriebsart operating mode
- Automatik automatic operation
-Hand manual operation
binare Steuerung binary open loop control
Block functional block
Bodediagramm Bode plot
C
Chargenproze discontinuous process
D
Dampfung damping
Dampfungsgrad damping ratio
D-Element derivative element, D-element
Differentialgleichung differential equation
Differenzengleichung difference equation
Durchtrittskreisfrequenz gain crossover angular frequency
E
Eckkreisfrequenz corner (angular) frequency
Eigenwert eigen value
Eingangsgre input value
Einschwingzeit settling time
ereignisdiskretes System discrete event system
Ersatztotzeit equivalent dead time
318.0++
page S.74
German English
F
Festwertregler set-point control
freiprogrammierbare Steuerung programmable logic controller, PLC
Frequenzgang frequency response
-, Ortskurve des -s frequency response locus
Frequenzkennlinien frequency response characteristics, Bode
diagram
Fhrungsgre reference variable
Fhrungsverhalten des Regelkreises reference action of the control loop
G
Gewichtsfunktion weighting function, unit pulse response
H
Halteglied holding element
hierarchische Regelung hierarchical control
I
!-Element integral element, !-element
!mpulsantwort pulse response
!stwert actual value
K
Kaskadenregelung cascade control
Kennkreisfrequenz characteristic (angular) frequency
Kennlinie characteristic curve
Kennlinienfeld set of characteristic curves
Kreisstruktur closed loop structure
Kreisverstarkung open loop gain
Kriterium Criterion
M
Nehrgren regelung multivariable control system
Ninimalphasenelement minimum phase element model
Nodell model
N
Nachstellzeit reset time
Nebenlaufigkeit concurrency
nichtlineares Ubertragungselement nonlinear transfer element
Nullstellen zeros
P
Parallelstruktur parallel structure
Parameteridentifizierung parameter identification
P-Element proportional element, P-element
Phasengang phase response
Phasenreserve phase margin
Pole Poles
R
Regeldifferenz error (variable)
318.0++
page S.75
German English
-, bleibende steady-state error signal
-, vorbergehende transient error signal
Regelgre controlled variable
Regelkreis control loop
Regeln closed loop control
Regelstrecke controlled system, plant, process
Regelung closed loop control
-, im Zustandsraum state control
-, mit Fhrungsaufschaltung feedforward control with reference
variable input
-, mit Strgrenaufschaltung feedforward control with disturbance
variable input
-, unterlagerte subsidiary control
Reglerausgangsgre controller output variable
Reihenschaltung elementarer Elemente serial connection of elementary elements
Resonanzkreisfrequenz resonance angular frequency
S
Sinusantwort sinus response
Sollwert desired value, demand value
Sollwertabweichung desired value deviation
Sprungantwort step response
Stabilitat stability
Stabilitatsreserve, -rand stability margin
Stellgre manipulated variable
Steuerung open loop control
Strgre disturbance (variable)
Str- oder Fhrungsgrenaufschaltung feedforward control
T
Totzeit dead time, delay
U
Uberschwingweite overshoot
Ubertragungselement transfer element
V
verklemmungssituation deadlock
verstarkungsgrad gain value
verzgerungselement lag element
vorhaltelement lead element
vorhaltzeit rate time
Z
zeitinvariant time invariant
Zeitkonstante delay time, time constant
z-Ubertragungsfunktion z-transfer function
Zustandsbeschreibung state description
Zustandsgieichungen state equations
318.0++
page S.76
German English
Zustandsgren state variables
Zustandsrckfhrung state feedback

318.0++
September 200 Bibliography Chapter 9
page 9.77
9 9. . B Bi ib bl li io og gr ra ap ph hy y
[Amerongen, 2002| Amerongen, Job van; Breedveld, Peter: Modelling of Physical
Systems for the Design and Control of Mechatronic
Systems, !FAC PROFESS!ONAL BR!EFS, 2002
[Bolton, 1999| Bolton, W.: Mechatronics - Electronic Control Systems in
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering,
2
1999, Addison
Wesley Longman Publishing, New York.
[Brenner| Brenner, W.; Detter, H.; Popovic, G.: Microstructuring
Technologies, Handling and Testing. {The State of the
Art).
[Brockherde| Brockherde, Werner; Hammerschmidt, Dirk; Hosticka, Bedrich
J.: Silicon Microsystems for Mechatronic Applications.
[Fleming, 2002| Fleming, P. J.; Purshouse, R. C.: Genetic algorithms in
control systems engineering, !FAC PROFESS!ONAL BR!EFS,
2002
[Gausemeier| Gausemeier, Jrgen; Brexel, Dirk; Frank, Thorsten; Humpert,
Axel: Integrated Product Development. A New Approach
for Computer Aided Development in the Early Desing
Stages.
[Histand, 1998| Histand, Nichale B.; Alciatore, David G.: !ntroduction to
Nechatronics and Neasurement Systems. WCB NcGraw-Hill,
Boston, 1998.
[Jurgen, 199+| Jurgen, Ronald K. (Ed.): Automotive Electronics Handbook,
NcGraw-Hill, !nc., New York, 199+.
[Popovic, 1999| Popovic, Dobrivoje; vlacic, Ljubo: Mechatronics in
Engineering Design and Product Development. Narcel
Dekker, !nc., New York, Basel, Hong Kong, 1999
[Wittenmark, 2002| Wittenmark, Bjrn; strm, Karl Johan; rzn, Karl-Erik:
Computer Control: An Overview, !FAC PROFESS!ONAL
BR!EF

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