Grammar - indefinite article 1. Sounds The indefinite articles are A or AN. We use A before a consonant-sound. We use AN before a vowel-sound.

The difference depends on the sound of the vowels and consonants, not the spelling! 2. Examples a teacher a peach a woman a house a man a useful book a university a European

an English teacher an orange an old woman an hour an honest man an heir an honour an Irish person

3. Use A or AN is used before names of professions: He is a painter. My sister is studying to be a doctor. It's really nice to be a student. A is used before words like couple, dozen, hundred, thousand, million, ...: A couple of years ago I was living in Britain. There were a thousand people in the stadium. A or AN means 'every' or 'each' in some expressions of time, speed, price,...: She visits me twice a year. He drives 50 miles an hour. Don't put A or AN before uncountables: I don't like milk. Silence is golden. We're having soup for lunch.

Grammar - prepositions of place

1. Prepositions: the ball is ... the square(s)

in

on

above

under

to the left of

to the right of

between

in front of

behind

against

Grammar - plural 1. Regular General rule: singular + S: girl - girls boy - boys Nouns ending in -S, -SS, -SH, -CH, -X get -ES: box - boxes bus - buses Some nouns ending in -O behind a consonant get -ES: potato - potatoes tomato - tomatoes Nouns ending in -Y behind a consonant change -Y into -IES: lady - ladies baby - babies Some nouns ending in -F or -FE change -F(E) into -VES: knife - knives wife wives 2. Irregular: learn them by heart! man men foot feet woman women tooth teeth goose geese mouse mice louse lice child children penny pence 3. Always singular, always plural Some nouns are always plural: clothes, jeans, trousers, shorts, people, police, glasses, scissors, mathematics Some nouns (abstract, materials, kinds of food) are always singular: bread, tea, cheese, jam, soup, soap, snow, cotton, wood, water, information, advice, knowledge, furniture Some nouns have the same form for singular and plural: Names of kind of fish: cod, herring, salmon, trout, ... Names of some animals: deer, sheep, swine, ...

Grammar - much, many, a lot of 1. Much and many We use much and many in: - negative sentences - interrogative sentences (questions) - affirmative senteces with so, as, too 2. A lot of We use a lot of in affirmative sentences. (In spoken English much and many is often replaced by a lot of.) 3. Scheme Ask yourself these questions. Follow the arrows and you will get the right answer.

Grammar - to be 1. Affirmative sentences Full forms Contracted forms I am I'm You are You're He is He's She is She's It is It's We are We 're They are They 're You are You 're 2. Negative sentences Full forms Contracted forms I am not I 'm not You are not You aren't He is not He isn't She is not She isn't It is not It isn't We are not We aren't They are not They aren't You are not You aren't 3. Interrogative sentences + short answers Interrogative Positive answers Negative answers Am I? Yes, I am. No, I 'm not. Are you? Yes, you are. No, you aren't. Is he? Yes, he is. No, he isn't. Is she? Yes, she is. No, she isn't. Is it? Yes, it is. No, it isn't. Are we? Yes, we are. No, we aren't. Are they? Yes, they are. No, they aren't. Are you? Yes, you are. No, you aren't.

Grammar - to have 1. Affirmative sentences Full forms Contracted forms I have got I 've got You have got You 've got He has got He 's got She has got She 's got It has got It 's got We have got We 've got You have got You 've got They have got They 've got 2. Negative sentences Full forms Contracted forms I have not got I haven't got You have not got You haven't got He has not got He hasn't got She has not got She hasn't got It has not got It hasn't got We have not got We haven't got You have not got You haven't got They have not got They haven't got 3. Interrogative sentences + short answers Interrogative Positive answers Negative answers Have I got ? Yes, I have. No, I haven't. Have you got ? Yes, you have. No, you haven't. Has he got ? Yes, he has. No, he hasn't. Has she got ? Yes, she has. No, she hasn't. Has it got ? Yes, it has. No, it hasn't. Have we got ? Yes, we have. No, we haven't. Have you got ? Yes, you have. No, you haven't. Have they got ? Yes, they have. No, they haven't.

Grammar - short answers 1. To be Interrogative Am I? Are you? Is he? Is she? Is it? Are we? Are they? Are you? 2. To have Interrogative Have I got ? Have you got ? Has he got ? Has she got ? Has it got ? Have we got ? Have you got ? Have they got ? 3. To do Interrogative Do I ? Do you ? Does he ? Does she ? Does it ? Do we ? Do you ? Do they ?

Positive answers Yes, I am. Yes, you are. Yes, he is. Yes, she is. Yes, it is. Yes, we are. Yes, they are. Yes, you are.

Negative answers No, I 'm not. No, you aren't. No, he isn't. No, she isn't. No, it isn't. No, we aren't. No, they aren't. No, you aren't.

Positive answers Yes, I have. Yes, you have. Yes, he has. Yes, she has. Yes, it has. Yes, we have. Yes, you have. Yes, they have.

Negative answers No, I haven't. No, you haven't. No, he hasn't. No, she hasn't. No, it hasn't. No, we haven't. No, you haven't. No, they haven't.

Positive answers Yes, I do. Yes, you do. Yes, he does. Yes, she does. Yes, it does. Yes, we do. Yes, you do. Yes, they do.

Negative answers No, I don't. No, you don't. No, he doesn't. No, she doesn't. No, it doesn't. No, we don't. No, you don't. No, they don't.

Grammar - present simple 1. Conjugation Affirmative Negative I work I do not work You work You do not work He works He does not work She works She does not work It works It does not work We work You do not work You work We do not work They work They do not work Contracted forms: do not = don't / does not = doesn't

Interrogative Do I work ? Do you work ? Does he work ? Does she work ? Does it work ? Do we work ? Do you work ? Do they work ?

2. Spelling of 3rd person singular (he, she, it) General rule: infinitive without 'to' + S to work ==> works to play ==> plays Verbs ending in O, SS, X, CH, SH : infinitive without 'to' + ES to go ==> goes to kiss ==> kisses Verbs ending in Y, preceded by a consonant: Y changes into IES to cry ==> cries to fly ==> flies

Grammar - present continuous 1. Conjugation Affirmative I am working You are working He is working She is working It is working We are working You are working They are working Contracted forms:

Negative I am not working You are not working He is not working She is not working It is not working We are not working You are not working They are not working am = 'm is = 's am not = 'm not is not = isn't

Interrogative Am I working? Are you working? Is he working? Is she working? Is it working? Are we working? Are you working? Are they working? are = 're are not = aren't

2. Spelling of the ing-form (present participle) General rule: infinitive without 'to' + ING to work --> working to play --> playing Verbs ending in a silent E: the E is dropped +ING to live --> living to come --> coming Verbs ending in IE: the IE changes into Y +ING to die --> dying to lie --> lying Verbs with the stress on the last syllable, ending in a consonant, preceded by a short vowel: the end consonant is doubled + ING to stop --> stopping to begin --> beginning Verbs ending in L: the L is doubled +ING to travel --> travelling to quarrel --> quarrelling Verbs ending in IC: the C is followed by K +ING to picnic --> picnicking to panic --> panicking

Grammar - question words 1. WH-question Where ask about places. When ask about times and dates. Why ask about a reason. How ask in what way. Who ask about people What ask about things (many possible answers). ask about things Which (small number of possible answers).

Where is he? At home. When will you phone? At 6 o'clock Why are they leaving? They are tired. How will she get here? By taxi. Who are you going to visit? My sister. What's your father's job? He's a dentist. Which finger did you break? My ring finger.

2. Word order Most wh-questions begin with a question word + an auxiliary verb + the subject Question Auxiliary Subject Verb word What is Brian doing? Where have you put the book? When can we travel safely? How does the radio work? 3. Prepositions with wh-questions Prepositions (to, about, with, from, ...) usually go at the end. Here are some examples: - Where are you from? - Who do these books belong to? - What are you talking about? - Who are you going with?

Grammar - degrees of comparison 1. Adjectives of one syllable Adjectives of one syllable add -er and -est. Adjectives ending on 'e' just add -r and -st. Some adjectives double the final consonant. Adjective small warm old nice big Comparative smaller warmer older nicer bigger Superlative smallest warmest oldest nicest biggest

2. Adjectives of two syllables Some adjectives of two syllables add -er and -est. Adjectives ending in 'y' use -ier and -iest. Adjectives ending in -ful, -less, -ing, -ed use more and most. Some other adjectives of two syllables use more and most (modern, famous, normal, correct, ...). Adjective narrow happy useful boring modern Comparative narrower happier more useful more boring more modern Superlative narrowest happiest most useful most boring most modern

3. Adjectives of three or more syllables Adjectives of three or more syllables use more and most. Adjective Comparative Superlative beautiful more beautiful most beautiful dangerous more dangerous most dangerous exciting more exciting most exciting 4. Irregular adjectives You will have to learn these by heart. Adjective Comparative good (well) better bad worse little less much, many more far farther, further late later old older, elder

Superlative best worst least most farthest last, latest older, oldest

Grammar genitive 1. Possessive case To make the genitive of nouns of PEOPLE or ANIMALS we add 's My mother's hobby is surfing. The yellow one is my dad's car. To plural of nouns of PEOPLE or ANIMALS ending in -s we add ' (apostrophe) The cats' food is in the kitchen. Where is the ladies' room? To proper nouns (name) ending in a sibilant (=sound like an S) we add an 's Prince Charles's wedding was in 1981. We walked through St James's park. 2. Special use When THE PLACE IS UNDERSTOOD, words such as house, shop, cathedral,...are generally omitted after a genitive: The wedding took place at St Paul's. (Cathedral) Mum is at the baker's. (shop) I'm staying at my uncle's. (house) The genitive is often used in EXPRESSIONS denoting TIME or DISTANCE: Where is yesterday's newspaper? We go to Bath for a week's holiday. She lives in an hour's distance from work. Sometimes a noun is followed by OF + GENITIVE: it is called the double possessive and is used to put the stress on the person who possesses: This is a house of my sister's. These are friends of my father's.

Grammar - adjective / adverb 1. Introduction An adjective describes a noun: - It 's a nice song. - The man had a quiet voice. - She wears expensive clothes. - The runners made a slow start.

An adverb describes a verb: - She sang nicely. - The man spoke quietly. - She dresses expensively. - They started slowly.

2. Form We form many adverbs from an adjective + LY: quick quicky polite politely careful carefully If an adjective ends with Y, the adverbs ends with ILY: easy easily angry angrily If an adjective ends with BLE, the adverbs ends with BLY: comfortable quicky probable probably If an adjective ends with IC, the adverbs ends with ICALLY: dramatic dramatically automatic automatically Irregular forms good well hard hard fast fast 3. Adjectives after verbs We also use adjectives after some verbs (be, look, seem, appear, ...) - Mike looked angry. - Please be quiet!

Grammar - passive voice

1. Introduction An adjective describes a noun: - It 's a nice song. - The man had a quiet voice. - She wears expensive clothes. - The runners made a slow start.

An adverb describes a verb: - She sang nicely. - The man spoke quietly. - She dresses expensively. - They started slowly.

2. Form We form many adverbs from an adjective + LY: quick quicky polite politely careful carefully If an adjective ends with Y, the adverbs ends with ILY: easy easily angry angrily If an adjective ends with BLE, the adverbs ends with BLY: comfortable quicky probable probably If an adjective ends with IC, the adverbs ends with ICALLY: dramatic dramatically automatic automatically Irregular forms good well hard hard fast fast 3. Adjectives after verbs We also use adjectives after some verbs (be, look, seem, appear, ...) - Mike looked angry. - Please be quiet!

Grammar - irregular verbs 1. Infinitive to be to beat to become to begin to bite to bleed to blow to break to bring to build to burn to buy to catch to choose to come to cost to cut to do to draw to dream to drink to drive to eat to fall to feel to fight to find to fly to forbid to forget to get to give to go to grow to hang to have to hear to hide to hit to hold to hurt to keep 2. Past simple was/were beat became began bit bled blew broke brought built burnt bought caught chose came cost cut did drew dreamt drank drove ate fell felt fought found flew forbade forgot got gave went grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept 3. Past participle been beaten become begun bitten bled blown broken brought built burnt bought caught chosen come cost cut done drawn dreamt drunk driven eaten fallen felt fought found flown forbidden forgotten got given gone grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt kept

to know to lay to lean to learn to leave to lie (be horizontal) to lie (to tell untruths) to light to lose to make to meet to pay to put to read to ride to ring to run to say to see to sell to send to set to shake to shine to shoot to show to shut to sing to sit to sleep to speak to spend to spill to (under)stand to steal to stick to sting to stink to swear to swim to take to teach to tell to think to throw to wear

knew laid leant learnt left lay lied lit lost made met paid put read rode rang ran said saw sold sent set shook shone shot showed shut sang sat slept spoke spent spilt (under)stood stole stuck stung stank swore swam took taught told thought threw wore

known laid leant learnt left lain lied lit lost made met paid put read ridden rung run said seen sold sent set shaken shone shot shown shut sung sat slept spoken spent spilt (under)stood stolen stuck stung stunk sworn swum taken taught told thought thrown worn