Lecture 2 - DEC 204 ( Surveying) Basic Elements in Surveying :

Measurement : (Basic Components) Distance Measurement Bearing/Angle Measurement Height Measurement Basic Controls in Surveying Horizontal Control Vertical Control Scales and Product of Field Measurement: (Survey Data) Scales Plan/Plotting Charts Maps Document Co-ordinates(Plane, Geodetic) Contoursetc Errors in Surveying Various types of errors (Systematic, Random, Gross) Error factor Basic Measurement Components in Surveying In Surveying we are basically involved in the measurement of Distances, Angles/Bearings, and Heights. These three components are the basic data obtained through surveying. From these three measurements, coordinates of points (x, y, z) may be derived. Other products obtained through surveying may also be derived from these three basic components. Distances In much of the survey operation, distance is the basic measurement and distances referred to is usually the horizontal distances. Measuring accurate distances in the past was difficult compared to measuring angles. When accurate distance measurements became possible through advancement in technology, traverse control were widely accepted, especially when triangulation was difficult. Distances are needed for various purposes: i) ii)
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Base for the determination of Scale in Triangulation Additional requirement for angle measurements in triangulation 1

iii) iv) v) vi)

Trilateration Distances in traverses Demarcation of details/features using distances and bearings Chainage measurements

Angles/Bearings Angles or Bearing is another basic component measured in surveying. Angles are obtained by comparing two directions (AB and AD) or two bearings, while bearing is the direction of a line with respect to a north line AN (see diagram) N B Bearing of AB = 20 20 = 60 A 80 The bearing above refers to one type of north , the True North . There are however various types of Northing namely: True North The line of true north is also referred to as a meridian (line passing through the geographical North and South pole) . This north is actually the geographical north and determined accurately by astronomical means Magnetic North This is a line coincident to the line formed by a freely suspended magnetic needle. A magnetic needle will always point North-South. The Prismatic Compass is a typical example of an instrument giving reading referred to the magnetic north. The differences between line of true north and line of magnetic north differs and referred to as magnetic declination which changes from year to year and point to point. A line of same magnetic declination is called isogonic line Grid North - This north direction refers to the National Mapping Grid. A grid is a system of squares whose sides may be of any convenient size chosen to map an area, place or country. Arbitrary North This is a line conveniently chosen to start a survey, usually in the engineering survey work. Any convenient line may be chosen to represent north even though it is not a line of magnetic or true north
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Bearing of AD = 80 Angle BAD ( ) = 60 AN is the direction of True North

Azimuth

It is usually referred to in Cadastral Surveying and is exchangeable to true bearing. The azimuth of a line is the angle the line makes with reference to the meridian or the direction of the True North.

From the understanding above ,bearings may be classified into : True Bearing or Azimuth(wrt True North), Magnetic Bearing(wrt Magnetic North), Grid Bearing(wrt Grid North) and Arbitrary Bearing(wrt Arbitrary North) Bearings may be further grouped into : Whole Circle Bearing ( 0 to 360 ) and Quadrant Bearing (eg N 45 E , S 30W )
0 270 90 180 Whole Circle Bearing W N E

S Quadrant Bearing

Heights Height is another main element measured in surveying. If distances and bearings are components giving planimetric (x,y) information, heights provide z information. Height values are referred to the Mean Sea Level (MSL) which is the Datum for height measurement. At the Datum point height has value 0.000 meter. Heights that refers to the MSL as the datum is called Orthometric height. This is the height normally used in spirit levelling. It is mainly used in Engineering Surveys for example in the design and construction of roads and highways, railway tracks, canals, waterways, drainage, reservoirs etc There is another kind of height not normally heard. This kind of height is not referred to the mean sea level. Instead it is referred to the Geopotential surface which is related to the pull of gravity. This kind of height is called Dynamic height. Types of Height As mentioned before heights are categorised into two types namely: i) ii) Orthometric Height Dynamic Height

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Orthometric Heights are heights normally determined using spirit levelling. Their values are in meters or feet above the MSL or the datum and marked on Bench Marks. Dynamic Heights are not given in meters or feet because they are not referred to the sea level. This type of heights is in geopotential numbers and are related to the gravitational force. Dynamic heights are measured using instruments that can measure gravitational pull of the earth such as a Gravimeter. Sea surface is actually a surface having the same potential numbers or same gravitational pull. Another surface may have a different potential number and therefore the dynamic height is different. Using a certain formula orthometric heights can be transformed to dynamic heights and vice versa. Basic Control in Surveying Control Framework Control framework is a basis requirement in survey work. If the survey is for planimetric details (x,y) a control framework to map planimetric details is used. Likewise if the survey is to obtain height details (z) a control framework to map height details must be used The framework for planimetry cannot be used to collect height details and vice versa. Planimetric Control Framework control for planimetry includes - Triangulation, Trilateration, Traversing, Astronomy etc while framework control for heights includes Levelling, Global Positioning System (GPS) etc. 1) Triangulation Triangulation is a form of survey whereby field observations are done to determine the exact direction and length of one side of a triangle and angles of each triangle. By so doing the length and direction of every side of the triangle could be determined. By extending the framework of triangles, coverage of a big area (even the whole country) could be obtained through network of triangles. Field procedures therefore is the measurement of accurate angles of every triangle Trilateration In Trilateration the basic figure is also a triangle. The technique in trilateration is to measure all the sides of the triangles and to measure only one of the angles in the triangle. If a network of triangles are extended throughout the country as done in triangulation and the sides of the triangles now measured, the whole area or country could be controlled using Trilateration. This method was not that much used because angle measurement as in triangulation proved easier and instruments needed not that elaborate.

2)

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3)

Traverse Until the advent of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) trilateration as well as traverse did not prove that popular because distance measurement was time consuming and to obtain sufficient accuracy was difficult. Traversing technique over long distances also could not maintain high accuracy. As a result triangulation control for large areas in the past remain the general practice. Combination In recent years distance measurement using EDM became more useful and convenient because of its high precision and accuracy. As a result combined network of triangulation, trilateration, and also traverse was possible and capable of obtaining higher accuracy. As long as the survey is properly observed and adjusted, combined network can result in the most accurate form of horizontal control. Astronomical Observations The position of any point on the earth surface can be determined by astronomical observations . It can produce results of the highest order. Typical data obtained from such observations are latitude, longitude, azimuth of lines, time which are of concern to surveyors. Astronomical observations makes use of the celestial objects namely the stars and the sun and because these objects are positioned permanently in the sky with their coordinates known, the position of objects on the earth can be referred to them For areas not yet ventured by mankind, astronomical observations to obtain intitial coordinates of points are needed before any system of control such as triangulation or trilateration can be done. Practical astronomy is thus a valuable tool to surveyors Levelling The previous method of control mentioned above is the horizontal control. They are used to capture planimetric data (x,y) such as roads, rivers, building structures. To map height features (z) such as height of terrain or object a network of vertical controls are needed. Levelling network is a form of control for height features. As practiced in horizontal control where triangulation are categorised into first, second, and third order control, levelling network are also broken down into various order of control. The first order control is initially established using instruments of high accuracy (eg precise levelling instruments). From this a second order network of control is build and thereafter the third order network. Subsequently contours can be drawn to depict the terrain of the area so that the information obtained could be used to plan construction of highways and roads for example.

4)

5)

6)

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7)

Global Positoning System (GPS) In the past, control network determination has to be separated into horizontal and vertical. It was convenient then because each instrument were designed for one particular purpose. A theodolite for example is designed to be used for horizotal control determination and not for heights. Likewise a levelling instrument is so designed to be used for vertical control. GPS however is capable of giving both horizontal as well as the vertical information to the highest accuracy. GPS instruments can thus provide the x, y and z co-ordinates of individual points and a network of horizontal and vertical control instantaneously could be established throughout the country .

Product of Field Surveys /Presentation of Field Measurement Scales Ground features whether natural or artificial cannot be brought to drawing without putting it to scale. For this reason scaling has to be done Scales can be represented by various ways : a) Numerical Scale - for example a Map Scale of 1/ 100 or a Map Scale of 1 : 100 means 1mm on drawing/map equals 100 mm on ground b) Line Scale 0 1Km 2 Km 3 Km

A line scale is a graphical representation and can be represented in a very simple form. This type of scale is most commonly found on maps From the measurements made in the field, various products could be produced either in the graphical or digital form: Plan or Plotting at a desired scale ( Engineering, Cadastral, Topographical) Manuscript and finally Maps on a certain projection Documents (eg Field Book, Plotting) Hydrographic Charts (Bathymetry ) Height information such as Contours Provison of control points in monitoring Engineering Project Calculation of Areas and Volumes (Earthworks etc) Co-ordinates (X , Y , Z) (Plane Co-ordinates,Scale,and Geodetic Co-ords) Digital Terrain Models (DTM)

Plan or Plotting Many survey work end up as a plan or plotting at a certain scale, usually large scale especially in Engineering Surveying, Topographical Surveying and Cadastral Surveying. In Cadastral Surveying the final product is a plotting called Certified Plan (CP) (Plan Akui/PA). Various scales are adopted ie 1 : 2 000 , 1 : 5 000 , 1 : 7 500 or 1: 10 000 for country lot Surveying DEC 204 6
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For urban areas/city areas scales are usually at 1 : 200 , 1 : 500 , 1 : 2000, 1: 5000 In Engineering and Topographical Surveying the scales adopted may follow that of the cadastral surveying but includes in it details of heights usually in the form of contours and spot heights Charts Charts are plotting of Hydrographic Survey. The main concern in charts is to provide information about the safe movements of water vessel around ports and harbors. Where area of concern is far from ports, small and medium scales are used (1:25 000 and smaller). When it concerns areas within harbors and ports large scales of 1: 7500 are used. In Malaysia the Royal Malaysian Navy is the authority on hydrographic surveys and navigation charts are their concern. Therefore where plans, plotting and maps concerns measurements made on land, charts are referred to surveys made with regards to water feature such as surveys made for ports and harbors, shorelines, water depth etc. Maps Maps are ploting of large areas such as the whole country. The activity of mapping is usually handled by Government Agencies. In Malaysia Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Negara (JUPEM) or the Department of Survey and Mapping is the authority on the matter of surveying and mapping. Maps of Peninsular Malaysia are drawn on a projection called Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) while in cadastral surveying, data are produced with reference to the Cassini-Soldner projection . Field data in order to be used at the national level for mapping therefore need to be transformed. Conversion from RSO to Cassini-Soldner and vice versa is available. Topographic maps are produced by JUPEM using a numbering system. The region of Malaysia is given an alphabet L which also includes China, Japan, and the south east asian countries. Thailand and Malaysia being small is further given a numeric 0 . Besides the alphabet and numeric to denote where Malaysia is, the scale of map is futher given an identity (5 for small scale and 9 for large scale ie in the range of 1 : 15000 1 : 5000. Map of Series L 707 means Area code Scale of map Number (for small country/area) Series of numbers for specific area L 7 0 7 L L7 L70 L707

Documents The survey work carried out in the field has to recorded either on paper or using some form of electronic recording. In the past and even to-day field books are used. Survey measurements have to transferred to the field book with care . Sketches must be legible and clear. Whatever cancellation must also be made in a proper manner. The field book especially in cadastral survey is a document and can be used for legal proceedings of disputes.
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Survey plans is also another form of legal document because both the field book and the plans especially in cadastral survey has to be checked, signed by the surveyor concerned and the whole work approved correct by JUPEM Co-ordinates Co-ordinates are derived from measurements carried out in the field. Of concern here is the plane co-ordinates. They are usually derived from both the planimetric survey to obtain x and y coordinates such as in traversing and the height surveys using leveling techniques to obtain z coordinates. Co-ordinates have to be adjusted before they can be of use. Contours Information about terrain is best represented by contours. Each contour line depict a particular height above MSL . Contour intervals are designed to give an idea about the nature of terrain. A close interval may be needed for undulating and irregular terrain while a sparce interval is sufficient for flat terrain. Errors in Surveying All survey work contains error no matter how meticulous we plan or execute the survey. We are not perfect and errors are inevitable. Nevertheless we cannot tolerate errors and effort must be done to reduce errors. Errors can generally be categorised into three groups : 1) Systematic Error This type of error exist in all survey work and arise from some physical phenomenon which can be mathematically modelled. They are cumulative in nature which means they are either +ve or ve. For example if a measuring tape is 0.1 mm shorter than the standard tape all measurements made using this tape will always be more by 0.1 mm . At the end of the day measurements becomes more than what it should be and should be subtracted by 0.1mm for every tape length measured. 2) Random Error This type of error is difficult to rationalise. It cannot be mathematically modelled. It is also not cumulative and have a tendency to compensate one another and as such difficult to eliminate. The magnitude of error may be small though, but it is present even in cases where extreme care is exercised. To reduce such errors observations are repeated and those not within expectation are eliminated. Theoretically random errors are the left-over after gross and systematic errors are eliminated. 3) Gross Errors/Mistakes
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This type of error originate from negligence during observations and booking which may occur due to inexperience and careless act of the observer or because of tiredness or fatigue. Mistakes are the most serious of all the errors and cannot be adjusted or corrected. To avoid such mistakes a system of check must be devised during field observation, booking, and plotting. Error Factor Besides knowing the types of errors present in survey field operation we also have to appreciate the nature of errors in surveying. Several factors contribute towards the buildup of errors. They play an influential role and affect quality of the observations and hence the magnitude of errors made. Among the main factors are: 1. Instrument Factor This is the main factor. Familiarising with the instruments is very important as technology changes rapidly. Instruments also have some form of life because of wear and tear. Their accuracy and calibration may change. If they are physically graduated for example in levelling staff and measuring tape it may fade over years of usage. Electronic-based instrument can be unstable at times. Sophisticated technology needs new input and refinements may simplify procedures. New findings may therefore override previous procedures. Materials also advanced through current research findings. Calibration and checks from time to time has to be done. Instruments may also be manufactured with some form of defects even with great care during manufacture. This is a common phenomenon in mass production. 2. Environmental Factor From day to day and time to time, changes happen to the environment. Hourly changes may happen to the suns ray, wind and atmosphere. Observations in the morning may not be affected by shimmering and refraction compared to noon or late afternoon observation. Changes of wind, temperature and rain cannot be easily predicted. All these may change the standards which the equipment were calibrated. 3. Observers Factor Surveying as of now is very human-dependent. Instrument operators have to be properly trained. Skilled labor is important. Poor attitude and discipline of these individuals cannot be tolerated. But strange thing can happen. Wrong reading and careless booking is still common. Superior technology may fail if observers are indiscipline, inexperienced and procedures not adhered to.

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