10/11/11 MIDDLE RANGE RESEARCH Ethnoarchaeology studies living societies to see how behavior is translated into the archaeological

l record. example: interacting with Hopi Indians Taphonomy studies the role of natural processes in the archaeological record. Experimental archaeology uses controlled experiments to replicate the past and look for links between human behavior and archaeological consequences. example: using stone tools - scantron for tests/ quizzes red, about a full page, scantron #F-288 ways to generate good test implications from hypotheses

LOW RANGE THEORY - gathering artifacts, recognizing their attributes, generating data - archaeological survey efforts MID RANGE THEORY - generating appropriate things to test HIGH RANGE THEORY - at the paradigm level - when concluding and making final statements - answer why questions PROCESSUAL ARCHAEOLOGY - cultural materialist paradigm with an explicit scientific approach (knowledge is objective) POST PROCESSUAL - postmodern paradigm rejecting the search for universal laws (knowlege is historical) CAN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD BE USED TO TEST IDEAS IN TODAYS ARCHAEOLOGY? Yes... Processual-Plus approach- paradigms apply to the high range theory not to accessing and tabulating data. science is not applied at the high range, applied low or middle range ANALOGY - an analogy notes similarities between two entities and an additional attriute of one is also true of another: - an ARCHAEOLOGICAL object has attributes A, B, C, D. - ETHNOGRAPHIC analogy is characterized by A B C D and has the function E - therefore the archaeological object also has the function E. ethnographic - middle range theory example for analogy: visiting Hopi Indians

kiva-for religious purposes only, mostly underground partly above ground KIVA - A pueblo ceremonial structure that is usually round plastering walls and floor, use of clay every kiva has on the north side, a small hole SIPAPU - A hopi word = place of emergence - original sipapu is the place where the hopi are said to have emerged into this world from the underworld - sipapus are also small pits in kivas through which communications with the supernatural world takes place spring in bottom of Grand Canyon = sipapu filled with lime and water ISHI in 1916 native american who had not contacted the western world found in jail in a small town in Northern California sent to jail since he didnt know english and was considered crazy last remaining, lone resident in the Lowie Museum ON CAMPUS between 1911-1916 in Cal Berkeley TAPHONOMY study of how natural processes contribute to the formation of archaeological sites example: how large animal carcasses can decompose on an African savanna. - how large does it take the carcass to disarticulate? - which bones separate first? - which ones are carried away by carnivores? and how far? 1 million year old site being excavated - site of homo erectus in Africa write down mid range techniques and what they learned in video experimental archaeology - example: making stone tools - study the scattered flakes of stone tools -flakes fitting inside the tools prove that tools are man-made, tools were used for cutting meat, wood, fur/skin - analyzing the polish on the tools helps determine their functions

carrying objects, tool-making, gathering food to a central place pattern began to exist where everybody had different roles - division of labor for men, women, and children if able to communicate with others, standard of living rises ethnoarchaeology ~ interaction with bushmen not isolated as much, some live in villages and some in camps, adopted modern western style clothes, obtain most food by gathering and hunting, groups of 30 people, in most hunter gatherer societies women are in charge of gathering vegetation the crops provide plenty of carbs, protein, calories, etc. needed for the hunter gatherers - very well rounded women are considered inferior because of a long hunter gatherer past ~

however things now are different equality in both sexes - women were the first inventors? main weapon: bow and poisoned arrow (poison from a certain beetle) ETHNOGRAPHIC ANALOGY TAPHONOMY EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY 10/13/11 *cultural materialism* first exam on the 20th - multiple choice FIELD METHODS 1) Survey -2) Excavation

archeology - post processual points and science mixed together

survey - research addressed by spatial location, fieldwork on the ground, outdoors - just by surface location, no digging involved excavation - most common, spatial characteristics and material-depth of site as well. ACQUIRING DATA - ARCHAEOLOGICAL SAMPLING site- lab for archaeologist interpreting meaning of objects not just items that are imp. - where was it found spatially and in depth? need plan or else you run out of money and time 1 hole - typically a cubic meter (1.3 tons of soil) - The sampling universe - what are you sampling? - is the universe homogeneous or heterogeneous? what is the nature of universe? ex. determine salinity of pacific ocean... homogeneous one class of data in a non-variable environment an archeology site - (18 acres) heterogeneous b/c of bone sampling, stone sampling, pottery sampling, pollen sampling, etc. etc. not only locating in space but locating in depth (time) may be looking for 15-20 classes of data an archeology site? REMEMBER THERE IS SPACE, TIME, AND ARTIFACT DATA CLASSES (A CATEGORICAL ST OF ARTIFACTUAL MATERIAL!) HOW DO YOU KNOW IF YOU HAVE AN ADEQUATE SAMPLE? ex. how many different salinities from different places do you need to determine if you have an adequate sample?

- ANSWER: diminishing returns- (statistically defined) - what are you sampling in a heterogeneous site? -ANSWER: the diversity between diff. classes of data in time and space - not a single entity or archaeological site - How can you know what or where to sample if you know nothing about the universe to begin with? - the sampling paradox - ANSWER: jackknifing - sub-sampling learn about the site before you excavate rather than shoot all samples on first effort, put out 10% in a dispersed effort, then another 10%, figure out where in the site is shallow or deep jackknifing tells you when you should stop TYPES OF SAMPLING (both surface and subsurface archeology usually require an overlying grid system with which to perform sampling) 1) intuitive sampling 1940-1950 method person in charge of dig would pick best site they could find - had the most potential for finding stuff go directly to the site with the most stuff very intuitive DRAWBACK: even if they find items, they may have destroyed other items finding nothing is as important as finding something highly successful with what they found - however didnt find aspects of everyday life PROBLEM IN ONE WORD: BIAS 2) systematic sampling when you lay out efforts, you do it with a grid systematic - regular interval lay out site to be excavated in a regular interval could be transect, cross, etc. etc. STRENGTHS: could put everything back where you found it if written down, being able to record what and where you found, you wont find as much stuff b/c youre digging less in places where theres no stuff - digging in negative holes ---> digging negative info = NO BIAS PROBLEMS: wasting time - half of your units could have been negative, taking away your intuitive knowledge, put away pre-judgements, 3) random sampling different from systematic sampling every possible chance of selection that you make has an equal chance of being selected=random allows any little unit to be chosen as equally as any other one 4)stratified sampling mixture of randomness or systematic but within a stratem - stratified random, stratified systematic; stratification can be any judgemental criterion allows you to bring your intuition in can be comparative between other areas that youre interested in ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA RETRIEVAL -survey noninvasive archaeology

walking, finding, recording surface material while doing no damage, can be considered good PURPOSE: 1) to locate archaeological sites a) pedestrian survey - systematic sampling
b) remote sensing - finding items in a nonpedestrian manner - systematic sampling

2) to understand the dimensions, structure, or formation within a site a) remote sensing -- chemical/geophysical - excavation considered invasive, youve damaged a non-renewable resource PEDESTRIAN SURVEY.... sampling: systematic transect grids or environmental stratified grids finite amount of time and people, competition with others GPS allows for the use of the UTM grid or UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR grid a Cartesian one thousand meter grid which covers the earth rather than LATITUDE/LONGITUDE ISOLATE ARTIFACT SPATIAL DISTRIBUTIONS USING GPS you can add data at certain points precisely enter artifacts at data points example: ground stone fragments - 40 meters SYSTEMATIC SUBMARINE MAGNETOMETER TRANSECT DRAG GRID - maintained/managed by United States - senses metal and items of unique density - plot area you wish to survey and drag torpedo across ocean - this is a systematic sampling strategy REMOTE SENSING - SITE DIMENSIONS AND STRUCTURE 1) aerial photography/ satellite imagery - infrared 2) proton magnetometry- three dimensional - can be used on ground or underwater 3) electrical soil resistivity - three dimensional 4) phosphate testing/ pH testing - two dimensional OBLIQUE. AERIAL. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY - CROP MARKINGS AERIAL PHOTO: prehistoric agricultural plots or maze configurations? Gila Indian Reservation South central Arizona - speculation - result of agriculture? Maybe not. - no immediate meaning CHACOAN ROADS SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING 1 - EXPENSIVE 2 - SECURITY ACCESS 3 - QUALITY survey archaeology? 10/18/11

60-70 questions need scantrons for quizzes term oriented midterm - lecture and book SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING 1) expensive 2) security access 3) quality

this was unable to be used in an effective way due to costs - data existed but no access to it
PRIVATIZATION - higher resolution - lower costs 400 fold increase in resolution in the last four years access was available if afforded 1999-2001 ~ resolution quality has improved greatly, with 2001 able to close up

COMPETITION HAS LED TO LESS EXPENSIVE DATA - Quickbird2: $30 per km squared SOMEWHERE ON NELLIS AFB, NEVADA archaeological site covered by nine 30m LANDSAT pixels. Can it be identified? Probably not. To mathematically identify the site the on site pixels must have a mean reflectance statistically different from the off site pixels. LANDSAT 7 ETM+ = 9 PIXELS IKONOS = 506 PIXELS QUICKBIRD 11 = 1296 PIXELS PROTON MAGNETOMETRY - 3D sub surface magnetometer - instrument that measures magnetometry of soil and compares it to mean magnetometry of the earth very sensitive to metal go through areas with metal detector first then use the magnetometer

PROTON MAGNETOMETRY - spikes = positive anomaly sticking up measurements of anomalies in the earths magnetic field. goes 2 meters in depth. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY send an electrical charge through one leg and measures how electricity goes through to the other leg measuring degree of how resistant soil is REMOTE SENSING GOAL - find a site or understand a site w/ no excavating - if you walk over a pit- resistivity meter sees this as negative resistivity

- magentometer sees this as a positive spike - even before excavating - you have an idea of where to address specifically SOIL PHOSPHATE TESTING -2D -Phosphate and pH values - leave evidence of human presence and human activity areas - 7 is neutral, above 7 = basic, below 7 = acidic human activity on ground resulting pH = 100 years of leaving campfires behind, leftover ash - fairly easy study to run over a site - phosphate is common in urine - phosphate is sensitive to archaeological sites as well SURFER SOFTWARE GOLDEN, COLORADO 2D and 3D graphing - surfer- surface interpretation - XYZ data GRIDDING A STRATIGRAPHIC PROFILE: FOR DRAWING, pH, or phosphate testing ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION Subsurface Archaeology 2 goals: REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING (individual data classes - bone, lithics, ceramics, etc., through depth, space, and volume) - thinking in 3D PROVENIENCE control of space, time (depth), quantity, and volumetrics

GRID THE SITE? - Archaeologists use grids in order to record the location of artifacts recovered during excavation and to generate sampling strategies datum point does not have to be any significant feature SITE SPATIAL STRATEGY - Can you see or understand the cultural features you intend to excavate? Most archaeology is blind... use arbitrary approach of generating grid If so you would likely utilize a SUBJECTIVE SAMPLING (judgemental) strategy to emphasize the cultural features. If not, you would likely utilize an arbitrary sampling strategy... ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION utilizing cultural structures for sampling units SYSTEMATIC ARBITRARY SAMPLING - when cultural features are not visible for guidance TECHNIQUES OF EXCAVATION Wheeler/Kenyon Box Grid Technique

SYSTEMATIC ARBITRARY BLIND sampling units are utilized when no natural or cultural features are present. Similarly depth is controlled by arbitrary levels. TECHNIQUES OF EXCAVATION - vertical exposure diachronic - what happened through time, history of deposit - horizontal exposure synchronic - what happened in one moment of time EXCAVATION: STRATIGRAPHY Digging can be done in either arbitrary levels or by following the natural stratigrpahy - using arbitrary levels is quicker but less refined and important info can be lost - following natural levels is more labor intensive but also a more precise way of excavating as each layer (natural or cultural) is peeled off one by one stratigraphy- exploring a moment in time through strata feature - generic word for something human made without a name firecracked - heat up a rock and put in into water ---> rock will crack Bulk provenience of generic artifacts by arbitrary depth levels

Total station point provenience of specific artifacts within an arbitrary grid sample
TS reads distance and bearing of data you find WHY SCREENING... 1) to find small items 2) to standardize the collection for comparison- volumetrics... ten levels equal a cubic meter... artifact types divided by cubic meters equal density... 12 projectiles per cubic meter

mesh dry sceening

MECHANICAL SCREENING doesnt really exist anymore very fast and very cold using water to help wash off soil WHY DIG SQUARE HOLES? arbitrary control of space WHY DID 10CM LEVELS? arbitrary control of time WHY SCREEN SOIL THROUGH INCH MESH SCREEN? HALVING refers to sampling half of a feature such that one has a second opportunity to excavate heaving learned from the first (pre sampling paradox) how do you sample something when you dont know whats in it? TRANSECT EXCAVATION OF HALVING

- Thomas Jeffersont the first to do it ex: excavation of mound at Montecello. MOUNDS - use arbitrary levels, arbitrary grids WARDELL BUFFALO JUMP 1970 excavated in the Plains states Buffalo jump- Plains Indians drove buffalo off of cliffs? WASTEFUL due to the non butchered buffalo used arbitrary units of excavation arbitrary levels? single event= no need to control time SUTTON HOO? located in SE England farmer discovered this and saw some mounds not high mounds but 15-20 feet in height SUTTON HOO ca AD 650 Anglo Saxon 200 years after Roman control left England Viking boat Vikings known for burial mounds 400-300 years prior to known viking era ANGLO SAXON culture - very Viking like OSLO, NORWAY more well known Viking discovery best condition wooden ship of Vikings anomalous structures - unsure of how to approach them FUNERAL SHIP FROM BURIAL MOUND OSLO, NORWAY CAVES DEEP EXCAVATION OF PALEOLITHIC ROCK SHELTER IN SW FRANCE SHOWING DATUM LINES FOR MEASUREMENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES CALL FOR A VARIETY OF APPROACHES