Concrete Tech Guide

Bouygues btiment International Engineering division BES BA Practical Guide : The concrete on the international market
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
CONCRETE ON INTERNATIONAL MARKET
2007
Author: Camille dArnoux Supervisor : Marc Blondeau
Pathway to determine a suitable concrete for a construction

Pathology / Risk Prevention
Specific characteristics of the construction
Surroundings and exposure of the construction
Normative / contractual restraints
Materials and concrete
Process
Placing / Special concretes
Height Length of spans Distance between joints Large units Attractive appearance
Geographical zone Immediate surroundings Ground / Water table

Particular conditions for use
Normative constraints Contractual constraints
Aggregates
Daily requirements Capacity of the mixing plant Surroundings Site mixing plant / Ready mix
Standard method for placing concrete Special concretes Architectural design Particular methods of placing
Cement
Admixture
Mixing water
Life period
Concrete
Checks
In order to create a durable construction, you must: -use a durable material -design the structure according to environmental factors -carry out proper checks on the quality of the materials and on construction techniques
CONTENTS
PART A: SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORKS 1 Height 2 Length of spans. 3 Distance between joints 4 Large units . 5 Attractive appearance . PART B: ENVIRONMENT AND EXPOSURE OF THE CONSTRUCTION 1 Geographical zone ...... 2 Immediate surroundings ... 3 Ground / water table 4 Particular conditions of use.... 5 Building life time. Appendix Corrosive effect of chemicals.. PART C: CONCRETE PATHOLOGY / RISK PREVENTION DATA SHEETS 1 Cracking / Shrinkage .......... 2 Maritime environment ...... 3 Alkali reaction.... 4 Freeze / Thaw ........ 5 Sulphate attack.. 6 Acid attack .. 7 Corrosion of the reinforcement .... 8 Carbonation 9 Chloride attack...... 10 Surface appearance ...... Appendix Summary of the essential criteria for a durable concrete .. A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 PART D: NORMATIVE AND CONTRACTUAL CONSTRAINTS 1 Normative constraints 1-1 Europe 1-2 USA 1-3 Russia 1-4 Other countries .. 2 Contractual constraints PART E: MATERIALS AND CONCRETES 1 Aggregates 1-1 Mineralogical nature .. 1-2 High sulphate, sulphide, chloride content 1-3 Shape of the grains . 1-4 Granularity. 1-5 Cleanliness of the aggregates 1-6 Water and porosity .. Appendix 1: Selection criteria according to use of concrete .. Appendix 2: Main normative references 2 Cement 2-1 Manufacture of a cement ... 2-2 Hydration reaction of the cement 2-3 Europe EN 197-1 2-3-1 Description of a typical cement 2-3-2 Additions 2-3-3 French specifications ..... 2-3-4 British specifications ..... 2-3-5 Main European normative texts .. 2-4 USA 2-4-1 ASTM C150: Specification for Portland cement. D2 D3 D4 D4 D4
B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7
C2 C4 C5 C10 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C20
E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E13 E14 E15 E16 E17 E19 E20 E21
CONTENTS
2-4-2 ASTM C595: Specification for blended cement.. 2-4-3 ASTM C1157: Standard performance for hydraulic cement .. 2-4-4 Summary table 2-4-5 SCMs: Supplementary Cementitious Materials 2-5 Important note: Europe / USA. 2-6 Russia: Main normative texts relating to cement.. 3 Admixtures 3-1 Consistence of the concrete 3-1-1 Plasticisers / Water reducers. 3-1-2 Superplasticisers 3-1-3 Properties, mix proportions, application 3-2 Setting / Hardening 3-2-1 Setting / hardening accelerators.. 3-2-2 Setting retarders 3-2-3 Properties, mix proportions, application 3-3 Properties of the concrete 3-3-1 Air entrainer 3-3-2 Waterproofing compound 3-3-3 Properties, mix proportions, application 3-4 Choice of admixture type depending on its properties 3-5 Standards: Main normative texts relating to admixtures .. 4 Mixing water . 5 Concrete 5-1 EN 206-1: Concrete Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity 5-1-1 Introduction E22 E22 E22 E23 E24 E25 5-1-2 Classification 5-1-2-1 Exposure 5-1-2-2 Consistence of fresh concrete 5-1-2-3 Compressive strength of hardened concrete .. 5-1-2-4 Chloride content 5-1-2-5 Maximum size of aggregates.. 5-1-2-6 Density.. 5-1-3 Definition of concretes for placing an order 5-1-3-1 BPS: Designed Concretes. 5-1-3-2 BCP: Prescribed Concretes 5-1-3-3 BCPN: Standardised Prescribed Concretes . 5-1-4 Recommendations for concrete composition limits 5-1-5 French specifications ..... 5-1-6 British specifications ..... 5-2 Specification of fresh concrete in the USA 5-3 Russia: Main normative texts relating to concrete.. 6 Checks on concrete: Main normative texts Appendix: Main worldwide suppliers of materials. PART F: PROCESS 1 Determination of daily requirements.. 2 Determination of the capacity of the mixing plant .. 3 The constructions immediate surroundings .. 4 Site mixing plant / Ready Mix concrete delivery: Selection criteria .. Appendix: Diagram of ready mix concrete plant E37 E40 E40 E41 E41 E41 E42 E42 E42 E43 E44 E45 E48 E49 E50 E54 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
E27 E27 E28 E29 E29 E30 E31 E31 E32 E33 E33 E34
E36
CONTENTS
PART G: PLACING AND SPECIAL CONCRETES 1 General placing of concrete 1-1 Formwork . 1-2 Transport 1-3 Vibration of the concrete 1-4 Curing of the concrete 1-5 Formwork removal . 1-6 Daywork joints . 2 Special concretes 2-1 Compact and low permeability concrete 2-2 BHP: High-performance concretes.. 2-3 BAP: Self-placing concretes .. 2-4 Fibre concretes . 2-5 Architectonic Concrete 2-6 Lightweight and dense concretes .. 2-7 Pumped concretes . 2-8 Other special concretes.. 3 Architectural design. 4 Particular methods of placing concrete 4-1 Complex shapes and high densities of reinforcement .. 4-2 Concreting of large units. 4-3 Concreting in hot weather. 4-4 Concreting in cold weather. APPENDIX: Guidelines for concrete mix design GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY G2 G4 G5 G8 G10 G11 G12 G13 G15 G18 G19 G22 G23 G24 G25 G26 G27 G28 G29
Part A: SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS
1 HEIGHT Page A 2
2 LENGTH OF SPANS.....Page A 3
3 LIMITATION OF JOINTSPage A 4
4 LARGE UNITS...Page A 5
5 ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE .Page A 6
Key used on the following slides

Constraint to be checked Risk Solution Link
Page A 1
1 HEIGHT
Modify / adapt the structure to take the forces Increase the strength of the concrete
CONCRETE WITH IMPROVED MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS or High-performance concrete
Page G 13
High forces in the vertical elements HEIGHT
DESIGN BY CONSULTANT
Concerns high rise buildings: -Residential towers -Office towers - etc.
For indicative purposes, for a standard concrete, the levels of stresses in a vertical element is close to 10 MPa in a column and 5 MPa in a wall.
Differential settlement between structural elements
Modify / adapt the structure to distribute the forces Examine the deformations due to creep and shrinkage
All the elements at the same floor level are not loaded in the same way. There may be differential settlement in the various elements in the same construction when the differences in stresses are large. In the case of a High Rise Building, the phenomenon may be observed between the columns on the external walls and the central core, consisting of walls. The settlement will vary over time and depending on the load applied. Generally, the phenomenon must be considered and included in the design if the tower is taller than about 150 m.
CRACKING / SHRINKAGE
Page C 2
Page A 2
2 LENGTHS OF SPANS
Modify / adapt the structure to take the forces
LENGTH OF SPANS Concerns constructions likely to have great spans: - Stadia -Shopping centres -Multi-sports complex -Etc..
High forces in the vertical elements
Increase the strength of the concrete

CONCRETE WITH IMPROVED MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS or High-performance concrete
Page G 13
Non-compliance with permissible deformations of horizontal elements in bending
Choose a suitable concrete and / or suitable construction processes
PRE- / POSTSTRESSED ELEMENTS
For indicative purposes, under the effect of traditional loads, there may be a need to use: For the spans of slabs: - Up to 8 m: traditional concrete - From 7 to 9/10 m: plank floors, pre-stressing - Greater than 9/10 m: honeycomb slabs or post-stressing For the spans of beams: - Up to 15 m: traditional concrete - Over 15 m: post-stressing / pre-stressing
Page C 2
Page A 3
3 DISTANCE BETWEEN JOINTS

Shrinkage capable of causing structural problems (cracking)
DISTANCE BETWEEN JOINTS Must take into account: -local recommendations / standards -the architecture -the moisture content -Etc.
Increase the number of joints if possible

Include suitable reinforcement

HIGH-QUALITY CONCRETE
Page G 12
Choose a suitable concrete Thermal gradient capable of causing structural problems (cracking)
FIBRE CONCRETE
Page G 18
Careful supervision of concreting
CURING
Page G 8
For indicative purposes, the recommended distances between expansion joints: - In France: vary between 25 and 50 m depending on the region - In Singapore: may be up to 80 m
The final objective is to have control over the size of the cracks and to distribute them.
Page C 2
Definition: Expansion joint: Joint allowing movement due to thermal deformation caused by differences in temperature. Shrinkage joint: Joint designed to concentrate shrinkage cracks in large-scale concrete constructions.
Page A 4
4 LARGE UNITS
LARGE UNITS
Choose a suitable concrete
LARGE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS

Page G 27
Concerns units thicker than 0.8 m: - Raft foundations - Large load-bearing units -etc.
Surface or throughout cracking resulting from the concretes exothermic reaction
METHOD OF PHASING / PLACING
Careful supervision of installation
FORMWORK
Page G 2
CURING
In general, cracking will occur when the difference in temperature Is greater than 20C either between 2 concrete sections or between the concrete element and the external air
Page G 8
Page C 2
Page A 5
5 ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE
ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE Concerns constructions and buildings for which the architects want to highlight its attractive surface appearance: -Numerous public buildings (hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, etc.) -Etc.
Comply with the construction specifications
Defect in appearance, colour, texture
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION ON FACINGS

Page C 17
ARCHITECTONIC CONCRETE
Page G 19
Page A 6
Part B: SURROUNDINGS AND EXPOSURE OF THE CONSTRUCTION
Above all, when arriving in a new country, take a close look at nearby constructions, particularly constructions that are damaged, under repair or repaired and look for the reasons. Take a close look, also, at the general appearance of nearby constructions, including the appearance of the concrete, the existence of exposed reinforcement and efflorescence (whitish stains) on vertical surfaces.
1 GEOGRAPHICAL ZONE . Page B 2 2 IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS....Page B 3 3 GROUND / WATER TABLE...Page B 4 4 PARTICULAR CONDITIONS OF USE ...Page B 5 5 BUILDING LIFE TIME.Page B 6 APPENDIX CORROSIVE EFFECT OF CHEMICALS...Page B 7
Page B 1
1 GEOGRAPHICAL ZONE
SEISMIC REGION
CONCRETE WITH A HIGH DENSITY OF REINFORCEMENT
Page G 26
Heavily-loaded structural elements Careful supervision of installation
VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE

Page G 5

WEATHER CONDITIONS
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION FREEZE / THAW

Page C 10
Reduction in the durability of the various construction Sundry pathologies
CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER
Page G 29
CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER

Page G 28
TEMPERATURE
Climate
In order to evaluate the risks, consult the local weather stations to obtain long-term statistics of weather conditions (prevailing wind, frost, etc.).
Types of pathologies
HUMIDITY
WIND
Freeze/thaw cycles and high humidity levels: - Internal cracking due to freeze/thaw(Page C 10) - Spalling due to de-icing salt (Page C 10) Cold temperate climate - Corrosion of the reinforcement (Page C 14) - Amplification of the phenomenon of alkali reactions in the aggregates (Page C 5) Temperate hot and humid climate Dry climate - Attack by corrosive water - Amplification of the phenomenon of alkali reactions in the aggregates (Page C 5) - Carbonation (Page C 15)
Page B 2
2 IMMEDIATE SURROUNDINGS
EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR

The most exposed constructions are those subjected to moderate humidity and to air.
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION CARBONATION

Page C 15
MARITIME SITE
Reduced construction durability

FREEZE / THAW DE-ICING SALTS
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION MARITIME SITE
Follow the prevention principles
Page C 4
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION FREEZE / THAW

Page C 10
CORROSIVE WATER
TABLE OF CORROSIVE AGENTS

Page B 7
Page B 3
3 GROUND / WATER TABLE

GROUND
SULPHATES PRESENT AND CONCENTRATION Examples: - Gypsum - Anhydrite -Etc. "NON-TRADITIONAL" ELEMENTS IN THE GROUND Examples: -Heavy metals -Hydrocarbons -Erc. TABLE OF CORROSIVE AGENTS
Page B 7
Identify the risk(s) and follow the prevention principles
WATER TABLE
SALTS CONTENT AND CONCENTRATION - Magnesium - Sulphates - Ammonium FRESH WATER
pH OF THE WATER
Page B 4
4 PARTICULAR CONDITIONS OF USE

RISK OF CONDENSATION OR DAMPNESS
Examples: - Production of steam - Laundry room - Swimming pool areas - Etc.
PRESENCE OF CORROSIVE PRODUCTS

Industrial building - Acids - Chlorine - Chemicals -Etc.
Identify the risk(s) and follow the prevention principles
TABLE OF CORROSIVE AGENTS

Page B 7
PRODUCTION OF GAS
Examples: -Carbon dioxide -Etc.
Page B 5
5 BUILDING LIFE TIME
The durability of a construction is characterised by its capacity to retain, under the conditions anticipated, the functions of the use for which it was designed (structural functions, security and safety, comfort in use) and to maintain its level of reliability and its appearance, within its environment, with planned and reactive maintenance costs that are as low as possible. Designing a durable construction requires an understanding, right from the design stage, of all environmental constraints and potential attacks to which it will be subjected by its intended use, for the whole period of its service. PERIOD OF USE Whatever precautions are taken to adapt and to optimise the formulation of the concrete, it will only be able to fulfil its function durably if "good trade practice" has been followed during its installation (correct vibration, suitable curing, allowance for weather conditions when concreting, shrinkage fully under control, provision of correct cover to reinforcement, etc.). In order to obtain the specified durability, it is necessary to follow the recommendations and the standards for the execution of the works. Changes in the performance level of the concretes can also be evaluated by durability indicators, such as its permeability to oxygen, the diffusion of chlorides and the speed and the depth of carbonation. Standard EN 206-1 includes requirements on the basis of an assumed lifespan of at least 50 years.
Page B 6
ANNEXE CORROSIVE EFFECT OF CHEMICALS

The following table sets out the level of corrosiveness of various acids, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates, etc.
Corrosiveness of acids on concrete Inorganic acids Name and formula H2SO4 Sulphuric acid H2SO3 Sulphurous acid HCl Hydrochloric acid HNO3 Nitric acid H8PO4 Phosphoric acid H2S Hydrogen sulphide H2CO3 Carbonic acid HF Hydrogen fluoride corrosiv e effect Organic acids Name Formic acid Acetic acid Sulphates Tannic acid Humic acid Lactic acid Oxalic acid Fermentation liquids Chlorides corrosiv e effect
Corrosiveness of salts to concrete Name and formula NaSO4-KSO4 Sodium/potassium sulphate (NH4)3SO4 Ammonium sulphate MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate Nitrates CaSO4 Calcium sulphate Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium sulphate Fe(SO4)3 Ferrous sulphate NaCl KCl Sodium/potassium chloride NH4Cl Ammonium chloride CaCl2 Calcium chloride MgCl2 Magnesium chloride corrosiv e effect Chlorides Name and formula FeCl2 Ferric chloride AlCl Aluminium chloride NaNO3, KNO3 Sodium/potassium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 Calcium nitrate NH4NO3 Ammonium nitrate CaHPO4 Superphosphate Sulphides corrosiv e effect
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION ACIDS

Page C 13
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION SULPHATES

Page C 12
PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION CHLORIDES

Page C 16
Medium corrosiveness Low corrosiveness Non-corrosive
Fluorides Silicates Carbonates
High corrosiveness Fairly high corrosiveness
Organic acids arise generally from waste water from sugar refineries, paper mills, tanneries, dairies, tinning factories, distilleries, etc. On urban sites, sulphate corrosion is extremely frequent.
Page B 7
Part C: CONCRETE PATHOLOGY / RISK PREVENTION DATA SHEETS
1 CRACKING / SHRINKAGE .......Page C 2 2 MARITIME ENVIRONMENT..............................................................................................Page C 4 3 ALKALI REACTION...Page C 5 4 FREEZE / THAW.......Page C 10 5 SULPHATE ATTACK ...Page C 12 6 ACID ATTACK ...Page C 13 7 CORROSION OF THE REINFORCEMENT ....Page C14 8 CARBONATION.Page C 15 9 CHLORIDE ATTACK ....Page C 16 10 SURFACE APPEARANCE..Page C 17 APPENDIX SUMMARY OF THE ESSENTIAL CRITERIA FOR A DURABLE CONCRETE ....Page C 20
Page C 1
1 CRACKING / SHRINKAGE: DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN TYPES OF SHRINKAGE

The only cracking acceptable in concrete is the functional cracking of reinforced concrete
It must be stated that, when the rules are followed, the "normal" cracking of concrete is totally controlled, which means that the cracks will be of limited width. This cracking is necessary to ensure a satisfactory level of working for the steels.
Fresh concrete Green concrete
End of setting
Hardened concrete Very young concrete Chemical shrinkage Plastic shrinkage Young concrete Time
2 hours
24 hours
2 3 days
Sedimentation bleeding
Shrinkage by auto desiccation Shrinkage by evaporation Thermal shrinkage
Sedimentation / Bleeding
Dropping of the heaviest components under gravity. segregation, settlement of the concrete and formation of a film of water on the surface ("bleeding")
Plastic shrinkage
Reduction in volume during the plastic phase, due to excessive evaporation of the mixing water, either after bleeding or via the pores. The risk is particularly great in the case of flat horizontal surfaces.
Crack over reinforcement, void under reinforcement Limited evaporation: . little shrinkage only . low tensile forces High evaporation . considerable shrinkage . high tensile forces
Sedimentation, segregation and formation of a film of water (bleeding)
Early thermal shrinkage

The hydration of cement causes an exothermic reaction, which can lead to: - cracks due the large thermal gradient in the concrete unit (applicable to large units - thickness > 50 cm) - cracks caused by external constraints preventing the contraction of the concrete as it cools.
Dehydration shrinkage
Occurs when a concrete with a low W:C ratio (<0.45) and a high cement content continues to hydrate. The water is consumed, the porous network is emptied and the concrete dries out. The drying out continues in the hardened concrete: it is then called dehydration shrinkage. Reduction in volume caused by the surrendering of moisture to the atmosphere, followed by a contraction of the pores.
Page C 2
1 CRACKING / SHRINKAGE (contd.): SHRINKAGE OVER TIME

Presetting: 2 to 4 hours. Setting: 4 to 8 hours. Hardening: 8 to 50 hours. Long term: 50 hours
BLEEDING C F A A U C S T E O S R A S N D P R I N C I P L E S O F P R E V E N T I O N
Long period of vibration Large thickness of fresh concrete Long time before setting
PLASTIC SHRINKAGE
THERMAL SHRINKAGE
DEHYDRATION SHRINKAGE
High cement content
Structural units with a high surface/volume ratio Slow setting
Shape of the units (large sizes) Poor insulation of the formwork Type of cement (high hydration heat)
High evaporation Important phenomenon for high-performance concretes (W:C ratio ~ 0.3) endogenous shrinkage with no exchange with the outside (internal dehydration)
Unstable suspension (lack of fine components, insufficient quantity of cement, excessive quantity of water, etc.) Formulate the concrete properly (enough fines, limited W:C ratio) Accelerate setting (avoid slow setting) Vibrate well (but NOT the reinforcement)
High dehydration
Cure effectively WIND = DANGER Use of polypropylene fibres for concretes particularly exposed to severe weather conditions Avoid slow setting
Reduce the thermal gradient (cement with low heat release) Add additional reinforcements if necessary Avoid thermal shock on striking formwork
Enough joints Reinforce, if applicable, to distribute cracking
Never add extra water as it - Delays hardening

- Increases evaporation
Typical plastic shrinkage cracks Page C 3
2 MARITIME ENVIRONMENT
Preponderant causes and factors
Chemical parameters (corrosive ions) Exposure parameters (tides and fluctuations in sea level, freeze/thaw cycle, activation in high temperatures) Mechanical parameters (abrasion) Phenomenon of sea water attack Action of chlorides (corrosion, etc.)(Page C 16) Action of sulphates (Page C 12)
Action of CO2 (carbonation) (Page C 15)
Attack conditioned by alternating wet / dry (inter-tidal zone) and the temperature of the water Principles of prevention
Formulation with a sufficient quantity of a suitable cement Cements suitable for sea water Provide the correct cover to the reinforcement A compact and low permeability concrete (Page G 12) the use of super plasticisers or water-reduction additives for a relatively low W:C ratio Optimisation of the granular skeleton Careful placing and curing Adequate vibration (Page G 5) Effective curing (Page G 8)
Page C 4
3 ALKALI REACTION
Preponderant causes and factors (occurring in combination) Potentially reactive aggregate Active alkalis Relative humidity (external environment) > 70 80%
silica
Phenomenon of alkali reaction
water alkalis
Formation of an expansive gel
Cracking expansion
Symptoms (appearing within 2 to 10 years) Cracking: the cracks are progressive and they can open up by 0.5 mm/year Exudations, pustules or craters, colouration or discolouration, movements and deformation of the construction
Tests to determine the risk of damage by alkali reaction may extend over several months.
Page C 5
3 ALKALI-REACTION (contd.): FRENCH RECOMMENDATIONS

A: No checks necessary
Environment class
B: 6 possible ways of accepting the concrete formulation.

See proposed concrete formulation diagram below
Class 1 (XC1)
dry or slightly damp environment E.g.: Inside residential or office buildings Constructions protected from adverse weather and condensation Drained ground slabs Units thicker than 50 cm
Class 2 (XC2 to XC4)

damp environment (humidity >80% or in contact with water) E.g.: External sections (whether exposed to frost or not) Sections in contact with non-corrosive ground and/or water (whether exposed to frost or not) Internal sections where humidity is high (and whether exposed or not to frost)
C: use of non-reactive aggregate

(potentially reactive aggregate subject to conditions:
The recommendations of the French LCPC laboratory introduce, in prevention method C, a suggestion of avoiding reactive aggregates, with the possibility of using cements with a high slag content.)
marine environment damp environment with E.g.: Units completely or frost and de-icing partially submerged in products seawater or splashed by it (and whether exposed to E.g.: frost or not) Internal and external Unit exposed to air sections exposed to saturated with salt and to frost and to de-icing frost salts
Class 3 (XF1 to XF4)
Class 4 (XS1 to XS3)
I II III
Non-load-bearing units
Risk of appearance of minor or acceptable damage
A A C
A B C
A B C
A B C
Type of construction
Risk of appearance of scarcely tolerable damage

most buildings and civil engineering constructions
Risk of appearance of scarcely tolerable damage

Exceptional constructions, nuclear power stations, prestige monuments, etc.
PROPOSED CONCRETE FORMULATION YES TO ONE OF THE 6 QUESTIONS NO TO ALL THE QUESTIONS
The risk of reactivity is greater with cements in the CEM I and CEM II ranges, while cements with a high slag content are an excellent way of inhibiting the reaction In certain cases where there are potentially reactive aggregates, it would be totally unreasonable to send for non-reactive aggregate if there are other means of protection. The use of CEM III/C, for other reasons than resistance to corrosive water and low exothermic heat, has protected constructors and clients from numerous problems. Ash is an excellent means of protection, as is silica fume: they may either be added to the cement or directly to the concrete. There are two ways of judging whether there is a sufficient quantity of mineral additions: either by the performance test or by an alkali balance sheet.
Page C 6
THE CONCRETE FORMULATION IS ACCEPTED Does the formulation meet an expansion test performance criterion?
(performance test: NF P 18-454 Period of 3 to 5 months)
THE CONCRETE FORMULATION MUST BE MODIFIED Have the particular conditions for potentially reactive aggregates been met?
(LCPC recommendations, chapter 9*)
Does the study show that the aggregate is non-reactive?

(see next page)
Does the formulation one of the criteria on the alkali balance sheet?
Does the formulation have sufficiently convincing use references?**
Does the concrete contain a sufficient proportion of additions?

* The recommendations relating to protection against the phenomena of alkali-reaction are contained in a document published by the LCPC in June 1994 entitled: Recommendations for protection against damage caused by alkali-reaction ** The validation of the formulation by means of use references requires an accurate analysis of constructions carried out more than 10 years ago in the region
Aggregate identification
3 ALKALI-REACTION (contd.): GENERAL AGGREGATE CHARACTERISATION PROCESS

NR: Non-reactive Name given to aggregates for hydraulic concretes which, whatever their conditions of use, will not cause alkali-reaction problems PR: Potentially reactive Name given to aggregates likely, under certain conditions, to cause alkali-reaction problems YES PRP: potentially reactive with a Pessimum effect Name given to aggregates which, although rich in reactive silica, can be used with no risk of problems, provided that their use meets the conditions described in the document "Recommendations for protection against damage caused by alkali- reaction"
Carbonated rock where SiO2 < 4% NO Petrographic study
YES
Relative mineral species < 4% NO NO Flint > 70%
YES
PR NO Screen test NR
Qualification following the test Screen test: this is a test that uses a greatly accelerated procedure capable of diagnosing, in less than one week, the reactivity of the alkalis in an aggregate which is non-reactive, potentially reactive or potentially reactive with a Pessimum effect. Reference method: accelerated autoclave test on mortar (5 days) Alternatives: Accelerated "Microbar" test; Chemical kinetic test Long-term test: this is a diagnosis procedure which, although accelerated in comparison with the reaction kinetics observed on constructions, is sufficiently close to actual conditions to take into account the effective sensitivity of the aggregates. Principle: Expansion test on concrete samples (measurements taken at: 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 6 months and 8 months) PRP Long-term test PR YES Expansion > Threshold NO YES 40% < Flint < 70% NO *
*) If the PR qualification is considered to be sufficient, the procedure may be stopped
Page C 7
3 ALKALI-REACTION (contd.): NORMATIVE TEXTS FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN

France LCPC 1994: Recommendations for protection against damage caused by alkali-reaction XP P 18-594, Aggregates - Alkali reactivity test method FD P 18-542, Aggregates - Qualification criteria for natural aggregates for hydraulic concrete in respect of alkali reaction NF P 18-454, Concrete - Reactivity of a concrete mix in respect of alkali reaction - Performance test United Kingdom BRE Centre for Concrete Construction Alkali silica reaction in concrete Internet site: www.bre.co.uk/ BRE Digest 330 Part 1 Background to the guidance notes BRE Digest 330 Part 2 Detailed guidance for new construction BRE Digest 330 Part 3 Worked examples BRE Digest 330 Part 4 Simplified guidance for new construction using normal reactivity aggregates
Page C 8
United Kingdom BS 812-104: Testing aggregates. Method for qualitative and quantitative petrographic examination of aggregates BS 812-123: Testing aggregates: Method for determination of alkali-silica reactivity. Concrete prism method BS 7943: Guide to the interpretation of petrographical examinations for alkali-silica reactivity
3 ALKALI-REACTION (contd.): AMERICAN NORMATIVE TEXTS

Name of the test ASTM C227: Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of CementAggregate Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method) ASTM C289: Determination of the silica alkali reactivity of aggregates (chemical method) ASTM C294: Natural mineral components of aggregates ASTM C295: Petrographic examination of the aggregates in the concrete ASTM C441: Effectiveness of mineral or slag additions in concrete expansion prevention due to silica alkali reaction ASTM C856: Petrographic examination of hardened concrete Period of the test Varies: first measurement at 14 days, then at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 and 12 months, then every 6 months 24 hours Short period - as long as the visual examination takes Short period - visual examination, not requiring long test periods Varies: first measurement at 14 days, then at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9 and 12 months, then every 6 months Short period - including the preparation of the samples and the visual and microscopic examinations Comments The test must not cause significant expansion of carbonated aggregates. Long test period. The expansion is not necessarily caused by the alkali reaction of the aggregate Rapid results. Certain aggregates give low expansion, even if they have a high silica content. Not very reliable These descriptions are used to characterise the natural minerals forming the aggregates' sources Generally includes an optical microscopy. May also include an X-ray, thermal or infra-red analysis - See ASTM C294 Highly-reactive artificial aggregate, may not represent real aggregates Pyrex contains alkalis Samples may be examined with a stereo microscope, a polarising microscope, a metallographic microscope and a scanning electron microscope Identifies small quantities of gel which may or may not cause expansion Opal, a natural aggregate, and carbonated paste may light up - the results must be interpreted accordingly The tests may be supplemented by a petrographic examination and a physical test in order to determine the expansion of the concrete. More rapid alternative to ASTM C227 Used for aggregates reacting slowly or those whose expansion is delayed in relation to the reaction Requires a long test period to give significant results To be used to supplement ASTM C227, C295, C289 and C1260 More rapid alternative to ASTM C1293 Used for aggregates reacting slowly or those whose expansion is delayed in relation to the reaction
Page C 9
ASTM C856: Uranium acetate treatment procedure
Immediate results
ASTM C1260 Potential alkali reactivity of aggregates (mortar bar method) ASTM C1293: Determination of Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction (concrete prism test) ASTM C1567: Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combinations of Cementitious Materials and Aggregate (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method)
16 days Varies: first measurements at 7 days, then 28 and 56 days, then at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months, then every 6 months 16 days
4 - FREEZE / THAW
Samples subjected to 150 freeze/thaw cycles
Freeze /thaw phenomenon Action of freeze/thaw cycles Action of de-icing salts

Concrete with no entrapped air & high water/cement ratio
Action of freeze/thaw cycles

Increase in volume associated with the transformation of water into ice (in the order of 9%) Pressures caused by the movement of internal water towards "freezing fronts"
Principles of prevention
Against frost
Concrete with entrapped air & low water/cement ratio
Action of de-icing salts

Thermal shocks caused by the melting of the ice Distribution of salts through the concrete
Use an air entrainer (Page E 31) to prevent excessive pressures. Important factors: the size of the bubbles and the distance between them.
Against de-icing salts

Use a high-quality concrete Carry out its placing carefully (vibration and surface finish)
Design of the concrete

Air entrainers MUST be used Use non-frost-susceptible aggregates Avoid the use of sands that encourage bleeding (hollow sands and sands containing mica) High class of mechanical strength
Frost-susceptible aggregate surrounded by mortar
The freezing of the water contained in the aggregate causes it to expand and creates pressure on the mortar
The expansion of the aggregate causes it and its surrounding mortar to burst
Crater formed in the surface of the concrete by the bursting of frost-susceptible mortar
Cracking throughout the mass of the concrete caused by an

internal frost pressure
Installation
Production: vigorous mixing, carried out at high speed for a sufficient length of time Transport: avoid prolonged waiting before placing, which may affect the air content Placing: regular and uniform vibration ( to break up large unstable bubbles) Curing and hardening: protect the concrete from heat, dehydration and the cold as it sets and hardens In hot weather, young concrete must be kept damp. In cold weather, the concrete must be protected and, if applicable, kept at a temperature of at least 10. A long period of maturing is recommended before exposure to frost
Disintegration of the surface layer, known as spalling, which results

from a high thermal gradient close to the surface
Solution
Creating a sufficient quantity of micro-bubbles of air to act as "expansion" vessels
Design of the constructions

Reinforcement cover to be maintained Facilities for collecting water to be provided Provide falls to prevent standing water
Without entrapped air With entrapped air
Increasing % of entrapped air
Page C 10
4 FREEZE / THAW (contd.): MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS

France LCPC 2003 - Recommendations for the durability of hardened concretes subjected to frost XP P 18-420, Concrete - Spalling test on the surfaces of hardened concrete exposed to frost in the presence of saline solutions XP P 18-424, Concrete - Freezing test on hardened concrete - Freezing in water - Thawing in water XP P 18-425, Concrete - Freezing test on hardened concrete - Freezing in air - Thawing in water FD P 18-326 Frost zones in France United States ASTM C666: Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing ASTM C617: Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens ASTM C682: Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in Air Entrained Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures ASTM C672: Standard Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to De-icing Chemicals
Russia GOST 10060.0: Concretes - Method for the determination of frost resistance. General requirements GOST 10060.1: Basic method for the determination of frost resistance GOST 10060.2: Rapid method for the determination of frost-resistance by repeated alternated freezing and thawing GOST 10060.3: Concretes - Dilatometric rapid method for determination of frost-resistance GOST 10060.4: Concrete. Structure mechanical rapid method for the determination of frost resistance GOST 26134: Concretes. Ultrasonic method of frost resistance determination
Page C 11
5 SULPHATE ATTACK
Preponderant causes and factors (normally occurring in combination) Addition of permanent moisture (addition of water from outside of wetting/drying cycle) Strong heating of the concrete as it hardens High sulphate content High aluminate content Principles of prevention against Delayed Ettringite Formation Use components for the concrete that comply with the standards in order to limit the addition of sulphates Limit the heating of the concrete in the heart of the structure to 60 70C:
Preferably, if possible, use a low exothermic cement Avoid an excessive cement content Reduce the temperature of the components of the concrete Avoid insulating concrete mixes and formwork in hot weather Use systems to cool the concrete
Phenomenon of sulphate reaction Reactions of external origin = secondary ettringite

Sulphates arising from: Soils subject to the decomposition of organic substances containing sulphur (fertiliser, plants) Soils containing gypsum or anhydrite (caution if concentration >5%) Soils containing pyrites (possibility of oxidising into sulphates in contact with air and moisture) in alluvial or clayey soils De-icing salts carried by underground water Seepage water Seawater Waste water from industrial sites
Adapt the formulation of the concrete

Use cements with a low aluminate content, if possible, with the addition of slag and with a moderate alkali content (PM ES type in France, HSR elsewhere) Use mineral additions (slag, fly ash, etc.) If possible, avoid siliceous aggregates (quartz type) Test the reactivity of the concrete to sulphate attack
Phenomenon of concrete expansion and damage Reactions of internal origin = Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
Sulphates arising from the cement and other components (gypseous aggregates, sulphides in certain aggregates).
Phenomenon of micro-cracking then expansion

Ettringite: salt that is formed as the cement sets or in the longer term in the presence of sulphates (e.g. calcium sulphate present in the cement, pyrite oxide contained in the aggregate); this formation is accompanied by large expansion, which can generally damage the relevant construction. Under a microscope, it appears in the form of fine overlapping hexagonal beads or as crystal clusters. Page C 12
Avoid the addition of water from outside during the life of the construction
If possible, adapt the shape of the construction (avoiding, for example, zones where water is retained) Provide land drain systems around the construction Use suitable water-proofing systems
6 ACID ATTACK
Phenomenon of acid attack Preponderant causes and factors Natural water (pure water < fresh water < acid rain): corrosiveness will depend on three inter-dependant parameters: the pH, the hardness and the CO2 content Mineral and organic acids: Natural water: in peat bogs and marshland, humic acids may reach high concentrations. Industrial environments and associated effluent Sewage systems Sugar (even if it is not acid) Concrete is of a highly basic nature. It can, therefore, have a certain susceptibility to acid solutions: External environment (acid) + concrete (base) salt + water
acid
salt
Principles of prevention A compact and low permeability concrete (Page G 12) Sufficiently high cement content Low water content Particle size including a sufficient quantity of fine elements Suitable design of the construction Avoid creating zones where water accumulates and stands, and where surface water will create run-off channels Careful placing Suitable and homogenous vibration (Page G 5) Effective curing to avoid excessive early concrete dehydration (Page G 8) Monitor temperature and humidity during placing and on the following days This reaction will have an adverse effect on the proper behaviour of the concrete. In addition, if the salt is soluble there is risk of damage by dissolving and leaching.
Dissolving and leaching
Increase in porosity and permeability
Loss of alkalinity
Loss of mass
Increase in processes of deterioration
Drop in strength and rigidity

Page C 13
7 CORROSION OF THE REINFORCEMENT (Consequence of carbonation and chloride attack)

Diffusion of chemical species from the outside
Normal environment (CO2) - W/C ratio Permeability - Proportion of cement - Curing - Compacting Contamination by chlorides
Phenomenon of the corrosion of the reinforcement

Under normal conditions, the reinforcement encased in the concrete is protected against corrosion by the phenomenon of passivation (protective skin on the surface of the metal)
Cracks
Concrete cover
Thickness of cover Corrosion of the reinforcement Humidity Influence if HR>80%
Two main phenomena may, under certain conditions, neutralise this protection and allow corrosion of the reinforcement to start: -The carbonation of the concrete by carbon dioxide in the air (Page C 15) -Penetration of chloride ions down to the level of the reinforcement
(Page C 16)
Principles of prevention Use a compact and low permeability concrete (Page G 12) Comply strictly with the statutory concrete cover thickness Construction detailing
Avoid build-ups of water Pay attention to the layout of the bars near corners, to prevent corrosive agents penetrating from 2 directions
The cover to the reinforcement and the characteristics of the concrete encasing it are the fundamental parameters in controlling the durability of the constructions against corrosion phenomena and therefore their service lifespan. Propagation Incubation
period period
Exposure time
Depassivation of reinforcement Formation of cracks
Particular detailing for very corrosive environments

Cathodic protection This enables a metal to be protected from corrosion. The basic principle is to convert the potential of a metal to a level known as passivation. In order to modify the potential of the metal to be protected cathodically, an anode is used, installed in the same electrolyte An onerous process, applied only to constructions at serious risk Corrosion inhibitors Chemical that prolongs the passivity of the steel in the concrete in the presence of corrosive elements Coverings for the reinforcement Stainless steel reinforcement
Limit states
Incubation period Propagation period
Spalling of the concrete Destruction of structure due to the reduction of nett section and/or loss of adhesion
Stages in the corrosion of the reinforcement

As an example, an increase in the minimum reinforcement cover of 10 mm would increase the lifespan of a construction from 50 to 100 years.
Page C 14
Phenomenon of carbonation
8 CARBONATION
Preponderant causes and factors Environments: Carbonation takes place anywhere, but is more accelerated in towns and industrial environments, where pollution causes high concentrations of CO2 Factors: -Excessive porosity of the material in the surface zone -Insufficient cover to reinforcement
Principles of protection Refer to the principles of protection against corrosion (Page C 14)
Carbonated concrete
Carbonation front
Non-carbonated concrete
reinforcement Progression of the carbonation
In the presence of carbon dioxide in the air, the lime released by hydration (portlandite) carbonates. The basic environment (pH 12 to 13) becomes progressively modified and reaches a pH in the order of 9, which no longer provides protection for the reinforcement and leads to the depassivation of the steel, followed by the formation of expansive rust. The depth of carbonation can be measured by a phenolphthalein colouring test
Effect of the relative humidity of the air on carbonation
The speed of propagation of carbonation reduces with depth.

Degree of carbonation
Non-carbonated regions are coloured red or mauve and the carbonated surfaces remain unchanged
The relative humidity of the air plays, in particular, an important part: the speed of carbonation is at its maximum at a relative humidity in the order of 60%, but is negligible in a dry or saturated atmosphere.
Page C 15
9 CHLORIDE ATTACK
Preponderant causes and factors Internal origin: basic components introduced when mixing the concrete (using chlorinated additives, seawater for mixing, contaminated aggregates) External origin: Immediate surroundings of the construction -Exposure to marine spray / seawater -De-icing salts - Etc. The chloride ions may migrate by diffusion to the inside of the concrete, pass through the reinforcement cover zone, reach the reinforcement, attack the passive layer and cause corrosion, initially locally, which then spreads to the whole surface of the steel. Phenomenon of chloride attack
oxygen
water
Principles of prevention against the action of chlorides Refer to the protection measures against corrosion (Page C 14)
pinhole corrosion
The higher the chloride concentration around the reinforcement the faster the speed of corrosion. The speed of corrosion will also depend on the concrete's porosity. It decreases with the W/C ratio. In practice, it is important to restrict the quantity of chloride in the concrete Laboratory tests suggest that corrosion starts to spread at a concentration of chloride ions in the order of 0.5% by weight of cement.
Page C 16
Corrosion of the reinforcing steel caused by chlorides
10 SURFACE APPEARANCE
Preponderant causes and factors The most frequent causes of defects in appearance are of 3 orders: Badly-designed or badly-selected proportions of the concrete's components The formwork (poor choice of materials, sealing, wedging, skin preparation, striking) The vibration of the concrete (unsuitable frequency, length of time and application)
Other factors, such as the processes and speed of concreting, weather conditions, or the curing of concrete without formwork or once the formwork is struck must not be neglected, but are seen less often as causes of major defects: they are aggravating factors.
Nature of facing defects Defects in shape which only affect appearance, are
slight unevenness, inclusions, lack of flatness. Those defects that affect both appearance and durability are major unevenness, chips, spalling, cracks, bruises. In all cases, they result in insufficient protection of the reinforcement
Principles of prevention Concrete mix: use a compact and low permeability concrete (Page G 12)
Use clean sands and aggregates from uncontaminated sources Do not allow excess water to be used Use specific additives (water reducers, super plasticisers, etc.)
Production and placing of the concrete

Adapt the mixing to the composition Do not allow additional water to be added Comply strictly with the specified concrete cover thicknesses Check the watertightness of the formwork (abutments and props) and its resistance to hydrostatic thrust Do not allow the concrete to drop too far Vibrate so as obtain the best compaction and avoid segregation Protect the fresh concrete from wind, sun and frost Follow the formwork striking cycles
Defects in texture (surface irregularities) which only affect appearance are as follows: slight bubbling, bleeding, orange peeling, crazing, powdering, spalling. On the other hand, major bubbling, porosity, honeycombing and laitance leakage are defects in texture which affect both appearance and durability. Defects in colour are those to which users are most
sensitive. These include the outlines of visible aggregate, black stains, variations in shade, rust stains, marbling, dirt (writing, graffiti), efflorescence, which are evidence of improper use of the concrete.
Suitable design of the construction (Page G 25)

Avoid hollows where water can collect or run off Take into account the direction that the facework faces
ARCHITECTONIC CONCRETE
Page G 19
Page C 17
10 SURFACE APPEARANCE: ILLUSTRATIONS OF VARIOUS DEFECTS
Spalling Bubbling
Iron oxide stains
Honeycombing
Bleeding of fresh concrete Sand streaking
Page C 18
10 SURFACE APPEARANCE (contd;)

The effects of surface treatments on durability may be classified in the following way (in decreasing order, i.e. from the most effective treatment to the least effective)
Polishing
Washing
Monday's surprise with Friday's wall!!!

Monday: Wall 1 is shuttered and concreted Tuesday: Wall 1 is struck, then wall 2 is shuttered and concreted Wednesday, Thursday, Friday: Saturday and Sunday: A rest after a busy week The following Monday: Wall 5 is struck and. The colour of the finish is different Moral: Allowance must be made for work stoppages at weekends and on public holidays
Sand blasting
Thursday (4) Wednesday (3)
As cast Monday (1)
Tuesday (2)
Friday (5)
Bush hammering
Page C 19
APPENDIX SUMMARY OF THE ESSENTIAL CRITERIA FOR A DURABLE CONCRETE
Design of the concrete
Cement
Components of the concrete Aggregates
Action of frost and deicers Depending on the severity of the frostQuantity, fineness, susceptible speed of setting environment, follow the specifications for cement quantities Cracking Dimensions Frost-proof
Corrosion of reinforcement
Chemical attack Marine environment Choice depending on the environment's level of corrosiveness (composition)
Dimension depending on reinforcement cover
Particular, choice depending on type of attack
Additives Concrete W:C Production Installation Placing Curing Construction requirements
which prevent dehydration
Air entrainer creating an plasticiser, effective system of waterproofing bubbles <0.50 or 0.4 depending on circumstances Effective mixing - transport time
< 0,50
Regular vibration to ensure correct cover to the reinforcement Essential for all horizontal surfaces Avoid standing water Thickness of Provide means of reinforcement drainage cover
Creation of joints Reinforcement to prevent cracks
Page C 20
PART D: NORMATIVE AND CONTRACTUAL CONSTRAINTS
1 NORMATIVE CONSTRAINTS 1-1 EUROPE..Page D 2 1-2 USA..Page D 3 1-3 RUSSIA.......Page D 4 1-4 OTHER COUNTRIES ..Page D 4
2 CONTRACTUAL CONSTRAINTS .....Page D 4
Page D 1
1 NORMATIVE CONSTRAINTS
1-1 EUROPE European standards apply in all the countries listed below. In these notes, the particular features of French and English requirements will be explained
EUROPE
EN 1992 (Eurocode 2) Design of constructions in concrete ENV 13670 -1 Execution of constructions in concrete
EN 206-1 Concrete
EN 197 Cement EN 12350 Test on fresh concrete EN 12390 Testing hardened concrete
EN 450 Fly ash for concrete EN 13263 Silica fume for concrete EN 1934-2 Additives for concrete EN 12620 Aggregates for concrete EN 13055-1 Lightweight aggregates EN 1008 Mixing water for concrete
FRANCE
UNITED KINGDOM
NF
( French Standard)
BS
( British Standard )
Germany Austria Belgium Denmark Spain Finland Greece Ireland Iceland Italy Luxembourg Norway The Netherlands Portugal Czech Republic Sweden Switzerland
Relationship between EN 206-1 and the standards for design and execution, as well as the standards relating to components and test standards
EN 12878 Pigments for colouring construction materials Page D 2
1-2 USA
CODES Until 1997, there were 3 main model codes used in the USA (UBC, SBC et NBC) In 1997, these 3 codes have been grouped in one code, the IBC : International Building Code. Although, even to day, the 3 model codes are still in use.
Main standards used for concrete: -ACI: American Concrete Institute : The ACI develops the majority of the specifications not covered by the IBC.
STANDARDS The codes are heavily making reference to Standards such as the one published by ASTM and ACI or ANSI (American National Standard Institute) and NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Note : ANSI coordinates the development and the use of the various codes and standards used in the USA and represents the USA in the international standard organizations (ISO)
- ASTM: American Society for Testing Materials: This is the main reference source for ACI as far as specifications of materials and standard tests are concerned.
A specification is a set of characteristics and requirements with which a product, process or service must comply. Specifications are not standards.
Page D 3
1-3 RUSSIA
Russian standards relating to concrete components and test standards are grouped together in the GOST
1-4 OTHER COUNTRIES
Allowance must be made for the relevant standards in each country and for the political, historical and economic influences of other countries on these relevant standards (for example: Turkmen standards are very close to Russian standards; Hong Kong and Singapore use British standards, which may be supplemented, etc.)
2 CONTRACTUAL CONSTRAINTS
Allowance must be made for contractual constraints, which may require additional specifications. They may sometimes be more restrictive than local standards, whether in respect of the durability of the concrete, seismic constraints, the quality of facework, permissible deformation, etc.
Page D 4
Part E: MATERIALS AND CONCRETE

1 AGGREGATES...Page E 2
2 CEMENT.Page E 12
3 ADDITIVES.Page E 26
4 MIXING WATER.Page E 34
5 CONCRETE...Page E 35
6 CHECKS ON CONCRETE: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS...Page E 50
APPENDIX MAIN WORLDWIDE MATERIALS SUPPLIERSPage E 54

Page E 1
1 - AGGREGATES
1-1 MINERALOGICAL NATURE ..Page E 3 1-2 HIGH SULPHATE, SULPHIDE, CHLORINE CONTENT Page E 4 1-3 SHAPE OF THE GRAINS.....Page E 5 1-4 GRANULARITY.Page E 6 1-5 CLEANLINESS OF THE AGGREGATESPage E 7 1-6 WATER AND POROSITY.....Page E 8
APPENDIX 1 SELECTION CRITERIA DEPENDING ON THE USE OF THE CONCRETE Page E 9 APPENDIX 2 MAIN NORMATIVE REFERENCES ..Page E 10
Page E 2
1-1 MINERALOGICAL NATURE
Mineralogical origin
Granites Diorites Porphyrites Basalts
Properties
Difficulties Possibility of use for encountered concrete
Eruptive or magmatic rocks: volcanic and plutonic rocks Hard and compact; good frost resistance
Yes, mostly
Metamorphic rocks: this includes any pre-existing rock
Unfavourable influence of clays, marly limestones (expansion and long-term changes)
Quartzites Marbles Shales Gneiss
Hard and compact; chemical resistant
High quality aggregates used for facework Yes
Frost-sensitive
Existence of friable fines
Only hard shales Yes, if stable
MINERALOGICAL NATURE
Sedimentary rocks: this covers the surface of the continents and the bottoms of the oceans Limestones Dolostones Good adhesion to mortar Yes Prior tests
Most aggregates are suitable for concrete
Origin of "extraction" Rolled alluvial aggregates (shape acquired by erosion). For concrete, they are usually siliceous, calcareous or sand-limes Quarried aggregates of angular shapes (obtained by blasting and crushing). In order to select this type of aggregate, consideration must be given to: the origin of the rock, the regularity of the bed, the degree of crushing, etc.)
3 types of aggregates: Natural: of mineral origin, obtained from loose or massive rocks, having been
subjected to mechanical transformation only
Artificial: of mineral origin resulting from an industrial process including thermal

or other transformations
Recycled: obtained by processing an inorganic material previously used in

construction, such as concrete from building demolition
Page E 3
1-2 HIGH SULPHATE, SULPHIDE, CHLORINE CONTENT
Chloride ion content: chlorides modify the kinetics of the hydration of the cement and cause the reinforcement to corrode. The chloride content arising from all the concretes components is therefore limited. Reactivity to alkalis: In unfavourable conditions (aggregates containing a significant fraction of soluble silica in an alkali-rich environment) and in the presence of moisture, alkali reaction phenomena may cause the concrete to expand. (Page C 5) Sulphur and sulphate content: Aggregates may contain small quantities of sulphates and sulphides (in France: Total sulphur content <0.4% by mass and sulphate content <0.2%). The sulphides present in the aggregates may oxidise and become sulphates, which may lead to expansion phenomena. The sulphates may interfere with setting and with the action of the additives.
HIGH SULPHATE, SULPHIDE AND CHLORIDE CONTENT
Reaction with cement, cracking, corrosion of the reinforcement
Page E 4
1-3 SHAPE OF THE GRAINS, ANGULARITY
Granular class: Aggregates are described according to their granular class d/D (where d is the smaller dimension and D the greater dimension). The granular categories are specified by using sets of different-sized sieves (en mm).
Fines: D 0.063 mm Sands: D 4 mm Gravels: d 2 mm and D 4 mm
SHAPE OF THE GRAINS, ANGULARITY
Certain crushed sands may sometimes adversely affect the placing of the concrete and its final compactness.
Flatness test A: The flatness factor characterises the shape of the aggregate on the basis of its largest dimension and its thickness. The higher the value of A, the more flat elements the gravel contains. A poor shape has an effect on consistence and encourages segregation. Fineness modulus MF: This is equal to 1/100th of the sum of the cumulative sieve oversize, expressed in %, on various sieves. The lower the fineness modulus, the finer the sand.
Influence of the granulometric compactness on the compactness of the granular mixture and on the consistence of the concrete
Gravel
Sand
1 Gravel dominant: the high level of friction forces reduces consistence 2 Maximum compactness: Consistence close to optimum 3 Sand dominant: The high quantity of water required for dampening leads to a reduction of consistence
Page E 5
1-4 GRANULARITY
This is determined by sieving and is expressed as the percentage by mass of the aggregate passing through a specified set of sieves. The proportion of particles retained by a sieve is called the sieve oversize, the remainder the undersize. It is represented by a granulometric graph representing the sizes of the sieves on the Xaxis and the percentages of the cumulative undersizes passing through the successive sieves on the Y-axis.
Granulometric analysis
underflow rejection sands fine medium fcoarse gravels pebbles
GRANULARITY
The implementation method may have an influence on granularity (e.g. pumping)
This represents the dimensional distribution of the grains contained in an aggregate.
Fairly coarse sand Normal sand Sand with a majority of fine grains 3/10 continuous gravel
5/30.5 discontinuous gravel
discontinuity
Range of aggregate sizes used in concrete
The composition of the concrete generally requires discontinuous granularity. Most concretes are mixed using 2 categories. This formula enables the storage of a large number of granular categories to be limited, as only 2 standard categories are required from aggregate producers. Continuous granularity (with 3 or more aggregates) requires more accurate batching and installations that can only be considered for large sites or for ready-mix concrete manufacturing plants.
Page E 6
1-5 CLEANLINESS OF THE AGGREGATES

For gravel: Given by the percentage passing through a 0.5 mm sieve (sieving carried out under water) For sands: Provided by the "sand equivalent test" which enables the proportion of clay in the material to be measured. The higher the SE (cleanliness) value, the cleaner the sand
CLEANLINESS OF AGGREGATES Cleanliness refers to an absence of undesirable fine elements (e.g: clayey fines) in the aggregates
Impurities interfere with the hydration of the cement and cause defects in aggregate / paste adhesion, which may have an effect on the strength of the concrete
Water
Flocculate
Sand
H2 = 15
H2 = 9.2
H2 = 7.8
H1 = 7.2
H1 = 8
This may also be evaluated by the methylene blue test (VB). The lower the VB value, the cleaner the sands.
H1 = 7.3
Clean sand PS = 93
PS = 78
Polluted sand PS = 53
Page E 7
1-6 WATER AND POROSITY
Apparent density: mass of dry aggregate occupying the unit of volume. It depends on the settlement of the grains. Example: rolled calcareous silicate aggregates - Apparent: ~ 1400 to 1600 kg/m3 - Absolute (excluding voids between grains): 2500 to 2600 kg/m3
WATER AND POROSITY
The water content of aggregates stored on site must be known, in order to calculate the amount of water to be added when the concrete is mixed.
Porosity: represents the ratio of the volume of voids contained in the grains to the volume of the grains, as a percentage. The porosity of typical aggregates is generally very low. It is high in the case of lightweight aggregates. Water absorption factor Ab: represents the water absorption capacity of an aggregate. The higher it is, the more absorbent the material is.
Sands expand (increase in volume reaching up to 20 to 25%) at water contents of 4 to 5%. The quantity, if calculated by volume, must be corrected.
Page E 8
APPENDIX 1 SELECTION CRITERIA DEPENDING ON THE USE OF THE CONCRETE
Nature of the concretes and of the construction Traditional concrete for site or prefabrication plant
Nature of the aggregates All rolled or crushed aggregates, with a preference for siliceous, calcareous or sand-limes The same, but also porphyrites, basalts, granites, diorites, which provide a very rich palette of appearances and colours All of rolled or crushed origins Expanded clay or shale, expanded slag Expanded clay, pozzolana, pumice Vermiculite, cork, timber, expanded polystyrene, expanded glass Corundum, barytine, magnetite Corundum, refractory product waste, special aggregates Corundum, carborundum, metal aggregates
Density of the concrete 2200 to 2400 kg/m3
Exposed, architectonic concrete
2200 to 2400 kg/m3 2200 to 2300 kg/m3 1500 to 1800 kg/m3 1000 to 1500 kg/m3 300 to 800 kg/m3 3000 to 5000 kg/m3 2200 to 2500 kg/m3 2400 to 3000 kg/m3
Road uses for structures Lightw eight concret es semi-insulating semi-loadbearing Insulating Dense concrete Refractory concrete Concrete or screeds for industrial slabs (subject to high abrasion)
Page E 9
APPENDIX 2: MAIN NORMATIVE REFERENCES
French standards NF EN 12630: Aggregates for concrete NF EN 1305-1: Lightweight aggregates - part 1: lightweight aggregates for concrete and mortar XP P 18-545: Aggregates: elements for definition, conformity and codification Series NF EN 933: Tests to determine the geometric characteristics of aggregates Series NF EN 1097: Tests to determine the mechanical and physical characteristics of aggregates Series NF EN 1744: Tests relating to the chemical properties of aggregates
British standards BS EN 12620: Aggregates for concrete BS EN 13055-1: Lightweight aggregates - Part 1: Lightweight aggregates for concrete, mortar and grout PD 6682-1: Aggregates - Part 1: Aggregates for concrete Guidance on the use of BS EN 12620 PD 6682-4: Aggregates - Part 4: Lightweight aggregates for concrete, mortar and grout Guidance on the use of BS EN 13055-1
Russian standards GOST 5578: Slag crushed stone and slag sand of ferrous and non ferrous metallurgy for concretes. Specifications GOST 8267: Crushed stone of rocks and gravel for construction works. Specifications GOST 8735: Sand for construction work. Testing method GOST 8736: Sand for construction work. Specifications
Page E 10
APPENDIX 2: MAIN NORMATIVE REFERENCES

United States
Characteristics Signification and scope Quality index of the aggregates, resistance to wear of floors and roads Test descriptions
ASTM C131: Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine ASTM C535: Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine ASTM C779: Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Horizontal Concrete Surfaces
Resistance to abrasion and damage
Frost resistance Resistance to disintegration by sulphates Shape and surface texture of particles Particle size
Surface spalling, roughness and poor appearance Resistance to weather conditions Consistence of fresh concrete Consistence of fresh concrete, economy
ASTM C666: Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing ASTM C682: Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in Air Entrained Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures ASTM C88: Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulphate or Magnesium Sulphate ASTM C295: Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete ASTM D3398: Standard Test Method for Index of Aggregate Particle Shape and Texture ASTM C136: Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates ASTM C117: Standard Test Materials Finer than 75 m Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing ASTM C29: Standard Test Method for Bulk Density ("Unit Weight") and Voids in Aggregate
Density
Calculation of mixes, classification ASTM C127: Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
ASTM C128: Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate ASTM C128: Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
Absorption and surface moisture
Concrete quality control (water:cement ratio)
ASTM C70: Standard Test Method for Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate ASTM C127: Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate ASTM C566: Standard Test Method for Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying
Compressive and bending strength Definition of components
Acceptance of fine aggregates that have failed other tests Proper comprehension and communication
ASTM C78: Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third Point Loading) ASTM C39: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens ASTM C125: Standard Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates ASTM C294: Standard Descriptive Nomenclature for Constituents of Concrete Aggregates ASTM C142: Standard Test Method for Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates ASTM C123: Standard Test Method for Lightweight Particles in Aggregate
Components of the aggregate
Determining the quantity of harmful and organic materials
ASTM C117: Standard Test Materials Finer than 75 m Sieve in Mineral Aggregates by Washing ASTM 40: Standard Test Method for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for Concrete ASTM C87: Standard Test Method for Effect of Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregate on Strength of Mortar ASTM C295: Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
Page E 11
2 - CEMENTS
2-1 MANUFACTURE OF A CEMENT ...Page E 13 2-2 HYDRATION REACTION OF THE CEMENT ...Page E 14 2-3 EUROPE EN 197-1 2-3-1 Description of a typical cement ..Page E 15 2-3-2 Additions.Page E 16 2-3-3 French specifications ........Page E 17 2-3-4 British specifications .......Page E 19 2-3-5 Main European normative texts ..Page E 20 2-4 USA 2-4-1 ASTM C150: Specification for Portland cementPage E 21 2-4-2 ASTM C595: Specification for Blended Hydraulic cement.Page E 22 2-4-3 ASTM C1157: Standard performance for hydraulic cement..Page E 22 2-4-4 Summary table ......Page E 22 2-4-5 SMC: Supplementary Cementitious Materials...Page E 23 2-5 IMPORTANT NOTE: EUROPE / USA...Page E 24 2-6 RUSSIA: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO CEMENTS ................Page E 25
Page E 12
2-1 MANUFACTURE OF A CEMENT STAGES OF MANUFACTURE (dry process, the most common) COMPOSITION
RAW MATERIALS
Crushing < 200 m
80% limestone (CaCO3) 20% clay (SiO2 Al2O3) Correctives: bauxite, iron oxide, slag, etc.
Limestone + clay
RAW
gypsum
Chemical composition (weight) Aluminiu Lime Silica Iron oxide m oxide (CaO) (SiO2) (Al2O3) (Al2O3) 65 to 70% 18 to 24% 4 to 8% 1 to 6%
Firing 1450
Additive product
4 main cristalline phases Symbolic notation

cement
Name
Tricalcium silicate or alite Dicalcium silicate or belite Tricalcium aluminate Tetracalcium aluminoferrite
average % by weight 62 22 8 8
CLINKER
Grinding <100 m with gypsum
C3S C2S C3S C4S
CEMENT
Clinker + gypsum + other possible components: blastfurnace slag, fly ash, limestone, silica fume
Page E 13
2-2 HYDRATION REACTION OF THE CEMENT
Before setting
The water forms a system of capillaries around the grains Formation of tobermorite gel on the surface of grains The capillary interstice reduce. Appearance of a certain stiffness of the paste
During mixing water
setting
Start of hardening
The interstices are partially filled by the gel. The paste acquires strength
Subsequent hardening
Strength continues to grow for as long as the gel continues to develop. Slow phenomenon and presence of water necessary
Water/cement ratio The quantity of water is characterised by the water: cement ratio. The higher this ratio, the longer hydration will take and the weaker and less durable the concrete will be. However, the quantity of water can be greatly reduced if the concrete is heavily compacted and, especially, if plasticisers (water reducers) or super-plasticisers (significant water reduction) are used. When calculating quantities for the mix, the terms water: binder ratio (this is the mass of the water divided by that of the binders Portland cement, composite cement, fly ash, slag, silica fume,, etc.) and water: cement ratio are often used indifferently to describe the proportion by weight of the water and the Portland cement or of the water and the composite cement.
Page E 14
2-3 EUROPE EN 197-1 2-3-1 Description of a typical cement

CEM I to IV A, B or C M At least 2 main components other than clinker S, V, W, L , P, Q , T or LL, D Names of the main components other than clinker 32.5 to 52.5 Strength class at 28 days in MPa N or R Sub-class of strength at 2 days CE
Cement families
Quantity of Clinker
European Standard
CEM I Portland cement
95 to 100%
S: Ground granulated blastfurnace slag
32.5 (32.5 < Rc < 52.5) Rav = 45 MPa 42,5 (42.5 < Rc < 62.5) Rav = 55 MPa 52,5 52.5 < Rc Rav = 60 to 65 MPa The strength of the concrete is proportional to Rc i.e. fc = k Rc
According to the development of the strength
V: Siliceous fly ash
CEM II Blended Portland cement CEM III Blastfurnace cement CEM IV Pozzolanic cement CEM V Cement made from slag and fly ash
A: 80 to 95% B: 65 to 79% A: 35 to 64% B: 20 to 34% C: 5 to 19%
Yes For example M (S - LL)
W: Calcic fly ash
N: Ordinary strength development at 2 days
L or LL: Limestone R: Rapid strength development at 2 days
D: Silica fume
A: 65 to 89% B: 45 to 64%
Abroad
P: Natural pozzolan Q: Natural calcinated pozzolan
E.g.: 52.5 N Rc2 20 MPa E.g.: 52.5 R Rc2 30 MPa
A: 40 to 64% B: 20 to 38%
T: Calcinated shale
Page E 15
2-3-2 Additives Main effects of the components added to the clinker Components added S Ground granulated blastfurnace slag Natural pozzolana Calcinated pozzolana Siliceous fly ash Calcic fly ash Calcinated shale Ground limestone Mixture of components
Reduces short-term reactivity and its effects Supplements hydration by consuming Portlandite
Main effects of the component added to the clinker

Reduces short-term reactivity. Reduces shrinkage. Slower increase in strength Suitable for constructions in contact with the ground
P Q
V W
From left to right: fly ash, metakaolin (calcinated clay), silica fume, fly ash, slag and calcinated shale
Provides additional long-term strength Improves durability by reducing permeability Improves consistence. Stains the concrete black Improves consistence. Stains the concrete black Reduces short-term reactivity and its effects Supplements hydration by consuming Portlandite Accelerates the very short-term (2 to 7 days) kinetics Supplements the granular skeleton Combines the effects of the various components Reduces the price of the cement. Variable colour and properties
T L and LL M
Page E 16
2-3-3 French specifications Main cements marketed in France

Main fields of use
Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete CEM I category R: Rapid striking of formwork (prefabrication) CEM I 52.5N or 52.5R: High strength RC or PC Mechanical characteristics not suitable for standard masonry, mass concrete or lightly reinforced concrete
Particular precautions
to be avoided for mass concrete construction due to the heat of hydration (excessive rise in temperature during execution) Caution if high risk of alkali reaction
CEM I
CEM II
Suitable for mass concrete requiring a moderate rise in temperature. Category R: Works requiring higher initial strength PM or ES: Works in corrosive environments CEM II 32.5: Masonry works CEMII 32.5N and 42.5N: Any type of RC work CEM II 52.5: RC or PC Blastfurnace slag cements suitable for: - Hydraulic or underground construction, foundations, injection - Works in corrosive water: sea, selenitic, industrial and pure water; - Mass concrete works: foundations and dams - Works in an agricultural environment: storage, slurry and silage pits
Caution if attractive appearance is important: Certain CEM II cements contain high proportions of components likely to cause very wide variations in colour, particularly fly ash.
CEM II/ A-S or BS CEM III CEM V
Concretes (using these types of cement) that are liable to desiccation: keep damp during setting (curing and curing products); to be avoided for renders Do not use this type of cement in cold weather as hydration slows down in the cold CEM V: take care when mixing with the additives.
For special works, use cements that have additional characteristics: In corrosive environments: Cements for works in the sea (PM) Cements for works in water with a high sulphate content (ES) For mass concrete construction: Cements with a low initial hydration heat (CP)
Page E 17
2-3-3 French specifications (contd.)
Special cements Characteristics Main fields of use

Can be used for mortar and, if required, for concrete Standard sealing, locking in position, filling holes, water courses, caulking External wall renders (when mixed with natural limes), moulding Small constructions: tie beams, inspection chambers, sills Corrosive environments (pure water, sea water) Works at sea Works requiring a high short-term strength Concreting in cold weather (down to -10C for mass concrete) For concretes that are subject to thermal shocks of heavy abrasion For concretes that have to withstand temperatures of up to 1250C Works at sea Works in a highly and very highly corrosive environment: industrial environment, urban sewers and other drainage works
CNP: Prompt Natural Cement
Rapid setting and very high shortterm strength Resistant to corrosive water (selenitic water, pure water, acid water) There is a standard for works at sea: PM
CA: High Alumina Cement
High short-term strength Resistant to corrosive environments and acids (up to a pH of around 4) There is a standard for works at sea: PM and in water with a high sulphate content: ES Implementation in cold weather Refractory cement (up to 1300C)
Page E 18
2-3-4 British specifications Main cements marketed in the United Kingdom

Description Portland Cement Sulphate-resistant Portland cement Portland cement + another component (Fly ash, ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS), limestone) Notation I SRPC
IIA
Portland cement + 21 to 35% of fly ash
IIB-V or IIB-V+SR
Portland cement + 21 to 35% of GGBS
IIB-S
III-A
IIIB or IIIB+SR
Portland cement + 36 to 55% of fly ash
IVB or IVB+SR
Other cements for special uses: Sulphate-resistant cements: BS 4027 Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement (SRPC) Cements with low hydration heat: BS 1370 Specification for low-heat Portland cement
Page E 19
2-3-5 Main European normative texts
France NF EN 197-1, Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements NF EN 196-2, Cement testing methods - Part 2: Chemical analysis of cement NF P 15-314, Hydraulic binders - Prompt natural cement NF P 15-315, Hydraulic binders - High Alumina Cement FD P 15-316, Hydraulic binders - Use of high alumina cement in structural elements NF P 15-317, Hydraulic binders - Cements for works at sea NF P 15-318, Hydraulic binders - Cement with limited sulphide content for pre-stressed concrete XP P 15-319, Hydraulic binders - cements for works in water with a high sulphide content
Great Britain BS EN 197-1, Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria. Common cements BS EN 197-2, Cement - Part 2: Conformity evaluation BS EN 197-4, Cement - Part 4: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for low early strength blast furnace cements BS 915, Specification for high alumina cement BS EN 14647, Calcium aluminate cement - Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for calcium aluminate cement
In the future, BS 915 will be replaced by BS EN 14647 BS 1370, Specification for low-heat Portland cement BS 4027, Specification for sulphate-resisting Portland cement BS 6610, Specification for pozzolanic pulverised fly ash cements BS EN 14216, Very low heat special cements - Composition, specifications and conformity criteria
In the future, BS 6610 will be replaced by BS EN 14216
Page E 20
2-4 USA Specifications for cements in the USA are dictated by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) standards, the main ones of which are: -ASTM C 150: Specification for Portland Cement -ASTM C 595: Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement -ASTM C 1157: Standard Performance Specification for Hydraulic Cement These standards make a distinction between Portland cements and blended cements 2-4-1 ASTM C150: Specification for Portland Cement
Cements meeting ASTM C 150 are the most widely-available from cement manufacturers. It sets the physical and chemical characteristics to be met by the 5 types of Portland cement. This ASTM standard sets the content of the 4 main components of cement (C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF, and composition of the clinker). Type of cement I II III IV V IA, IIA or IIA LA I/II
Particular features General use Moderate hydration heat and sulphate-resistance High initial strength Low hydration heat High sulphate-resistance Type I, II or III with air entrainer With low alkali content Mix of types I and II, but not referenced by ASTM
This ASTM standard only permits additions of calcium sulphate and air-entraining agents to the cements. Other additives may be used; their specifications are set out in standard C 495, which sets the permissible deviations in the properties of the cements in the event of addition.
Page E 21
2-4-2 ASTM C595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic cement

These cements are much more widely-used in Europe. They are, however, gaining popularity in the USA The American standard permits the use of pozzolan Type of and slag in blended cements, provided that Description Composition cement the specifications for pozzolanic activity are met (see table). In particular, the compressive strength IP 15-40% pozzolans (P: slower strength development Pozzolanic cement of the blended cement must reach at least 75% of that of the P than type IP) reference Portland cement. This standard also specifies Portland cement with the physical and chemical specifications for the blended I(PM) 0-15% of modified pozzolans (fly ash) pozzolans cements. In addition, all these types of cement may be treated to meet criteria: moderate IS Blastfurnace cement 25-70% of blastfurnace slag sulphate-resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), hydration S Slag cement 70-100% of blastfurnace slag heat moderate (MH) or low (LH).
I(SM) Portland cement with slag 0-25% of modified blastfurnace slag
2-4-3 ASTM C1157: Standard performance specification for hydraulic cement for Portland cement
Contrary to the previous ASTM standards, which specify the composition of the various cements, this standard is based solely on the characteristics and the levels of performance of the cements. It therefore imposes no restrictions on their composition. There are 6 different types: GU, HE, MS, HS, LH, MH (see table)
2-4-4 Summary table

General use Portland Cement ASTM C150 Moderate sulphateresistance
II (sulphateresistance as an option) IS(MH) IP(MH) I(PM)(MH) I(SM)(MH) MH HE
Early strength
Low hydration heat

IV
Moderate hydration heat

II IS(MS) IP(MS) P(MS) I(PM)(MS) I(SM)(MS) MS
High sulphateresistance
V
With low alkali content

LA as an option
I IS IP, P I(PM) I(SM) S GU
III
Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C505 Hydraulic cements ASTM C1157
P(LH)
LA as an option
LH
HS
Option R
Page E 22
2-4-5 SCM: Supplementary Cementitious Materials (Additions)
More than half of ready-to-use concretes contain fly ash, ground granulated blastfurnace slag, silica fume, etc. and other pozzolana additions. These additions are known as SCMs. They may be added to the mix, either by adding them when the water is added or as a component in a Blended Cement, or may be both at the same time.
Characteristics Fly ash and other pozzolans Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag
ASTM test name

ASTM C618: Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolana for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete
Comments
Classification: Type N: natural pozzolans Type F: flyash Type C: fly ash
ASTM C989: : Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars ASTM C1240: Standard Specification for Use of Silica Fume for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Hydraulic Cement Concrete, Mortar and Grout
Silica fume
For the properties of the admixtures, refer to the table on page E 16
Page E 23
2-5 IMPORTANT NOTE: USA / EUROPE
Do not confuse CEM I, II, III, IV and V of EN 197-1 with cement types I, II, III, IV and V of standard ASTM C150. Caution, they have no connection with each other!!!!! EN 197 is not normally available in USA.
Page E 24
2-6 RUSSIA: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO CEMENTS
GOST 30515: Cements - General specifications GOST 10178: Portland cement and blast Portland cement - Standards GOST 969: Alumina and high alumina cements - Specification Cements GOST 22266: Sulphate-resisting cements - Specifications GOST 965: Portland cements, white - Specification GOST 11052: Gypsum-alumina expanding cement GOST 15825: Coloured Portland cement - Specifications Additions GOST 24640: Additions for cements - Classification
Page E 25
3 - ADDITIVES
3-1 CONSISTENCE OF THE CONCRETE
3-1-1 Plasticisers / Water reducers..Page E 27 3-1-2 Superplasticisers...Page E 27 3-1-3 Properties, mix proportions, application, ...Page E 28 3-2 SETTING / HARDENING 3-2-1 Setting / hardening accelerator.....Page E 29 3-2-2 Setting retarders ..Page E 29 3-2-3 Properties, mix proportions, application ...Page E 30 3-3 PROPERTIES OF THE CONCRETE 3-3-1 Air entrainer Page E 31 3-3-2 Integral waterproofing .Page E 31 3-3-3 Properties, mix proportions, application ......Page E 32 3- 4 CHOICE OF TYPE OF ADDITIVE DEPENDING ON ITS PROPERTIES.Page E 33 3-5 MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO ADDITIVES..Page E 33
Page E 26
3-1 CONSISTENCE OF THE CONCRETE
These additives modify the rheological behaviour of the concrete, mortar or grout in its fresh condition, before it starts to set. They lower the shear threshold and modify its viscosity.
3-1-1 Plasticisers / Water reducers

cement water cement Dispersed state of the cement
3-1-2 Superplasticisers
water Dispersed state of the cement
Addition of plasticiser lump lump Hydrarted surface Grain of cement Better hydratation Hydrarted surface
Addition of superplasticiser
Grain of cement Better hydratation
Added to a concrete, generally just before it is placed, their main function is to cause a major improvement in the consistence of the mix.
The main function of these additives, in addition to consistence, is to cause an increase in mechanical strength by a reduction in the water content of the concrete.
Fields of application:
Concrete for prefabrication Ready-mix concrete Dense and lightweight concrete Concrete for civil engineering structures Concrete for industrial slabs Concrete for use in building Prestressed concrete Pumped concrete Concrete for deep foundations Concrete for heavily-reinforced constructions Concrete subjected to a corrosive environment High-performance concrete, very high-performance Concrete, ultra-high-performance concrete Self-levelling, self-placing concrete Architectonic concrete
Fields of application:
All standard concretes up to 30 MPa Ready-mix concrete Concrete for lightweight prefabrication Concrete for civil engineering structures Concrete for roads Concrete for civil engineering Agricultural concrete
Page E 27
3-1-3 Properties, mix proportions, application

Slump (cm) 20 15 10 Slump 6 5 W:C=0.50 W:C 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 with plasticiser Slump 19 Slump (cm) W:C=0.50 control 20 15 10 W:C=0.34 5 W:C=0.50 W:C 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 5 with plasticiser Slump (cm) control 20 15 W:C=0.42 10 W:C=0.34 W:C=0.50 W:C with plasticiser W:C=0.50 control
"Fluidifying" effect at same W:C
"Water-reducing" effect at same consistence "WaterWater-reducing plasticisers
Double effect Superplasticisers Generally 0.5% to 3% In the concrete before placing
Quantity used as a % of the mass of the cement Addition Effect on the placing of the concrete
Generally < 0.5% to the mixing water At constant consistence, water reduction >6.5% Greater than that of control Minimum increase of 10% Increase in compaction, reduction in permeability Possible improvement in resistance of the concrete to corrosive chemicals
At constant water/cement ratio, large improvement in concrete fluidity; improvement in slump of at least 80 mm In comparison with control, slight reduction possible The use of such additives may enable highperformance concrete to be created, with a low water/cement ratio
Strength at all stages
Favourable secondary effects
Other effects
Possible slight increase in shrinkage

Page E 28
3-2 SETTING / HARDENING
These additives are chemicals that modify the solubility of the various components of cements and, especially, the speed at which they dissolve
3-2-1 Setting / hardening accelerator

Setting accelerator
3-2-2 Setting retarders

Reference concrete Setting retarder
Reference concrete
End of setting End of setting Start of setting Start of setting
End of setting
Start of setting End of setting time Start of setting time
The main function of a setting accelerator is to reduce the time taken for the cement to start and end its set in the concrete. The main function of a hardening accelerator is to accelerate the initial development and strength of the concrete. Both the above functions are often linked.
Added to the mixing water, their main function is to increase the length of time before the cement starts to set in the concrete.
Fields of application: Concreting in cold weather Manufactured concrete (blocks, paving slabs, pipes, etc.) Need for an increase in productivity (ready-mix or prefabrication) Rapid striking of formwork Concrete with high early strength Etc.
Fields of application: Concreting in cold weather Long-distance transport or pumping Mass concreting Continuous placing
Page E 29
Setting accelerators Quantity used/mass of cement Addition Effect on setting Initial (before 3 days) Effects on strength Final (before 28 days) 1 to 3%
Hardening accelerators 0,2 to 3% To the mixing water
setting retarders 0.1 to 1%
Acceleration will vary, depending on mix proportion, types of cement and temperature Increased to 1 or 2 days Slightly reduced (more so if setting has been accelerated) Increased Unchanged or slightly reduced
Very variable delays, depending on mix proportions, cement, temperature Reduced to 1 or 2 days
Slightly increased Improvement in consistence, with possible water reduction
Favourable secondary effects Other effects
Possible slight increase in shrinkage
Page E 30
3-3 PROPERTIES OF THE CONCRETE
3-3-1 Air entrainer
3-3-2 Mass waterproofing

WITHOUT mass waterproofing
Their function is to cause the formation of micro-bubbles of air in the concrete, evenly distributed through the mass. This characteristic improves the consistence of the fresh concrete and its frost-resistance.
Water penetration WITH mass waterproofing
The main function of integral waterproofing is to reduce the capillary absorption of the concrete.
However, it should be remembered that it is unable to make a poor or badlyproportioned concrete, or one with large voids or lack of homogeneity, waterproof.
Fields of application: Civil engineering or building constructions required to be resistant to frost and/or de-icing salt Concrete for roads Extruded concrete (safety barriers, etc.) Spun concrete (beams, etc.) Fields of application: Concrete for tanks Concrete in contact with surface water Precast concrete: paving slabs, decorative units
Page E 31
Air-entrainers Mix proportion (mass of cement) Freeze/thaw cycle resistance Resistance to atmospheric corrosion, CO2, maritime atmospheres Resistance to corrosive chemicals (selenitic water, sulphated water, etc.) Favourable secondary effects 0.01 to 0.5% Use recommended Worthwhile improvement
Waterproofing 1 to 3% Improvement in resistance thanks to a reduction in air permeability Improvement, thanks to a reduction in the permeability of the concrete
Effect varies
Possible improvement
Improvement in surface finish
Page E 32
3-4 CHOICE OF TYPE OF ADDITIVE DEPENDING ON ITS PROPERTIES

Property Additives waterreducers plasticisers super plasticisers hardening accelerators setting accelerators setting retarders air-entrainers integral waterproofin g
consistence Setting time in short term (3 days) Strength in long term (>28 days) Entrained air Frost-resistance of the set concrete Compactness Surface condition Permeability under hydraulic pressure
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ =
+ + + + +
+ -
3-5 STANDARDS: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO ADDITIVES
Europe USA EN 934-2: additives for concrete ASTM C260: air entraining admixtures
Various types of additives: Plasticisers Superplasticisers Water retainer Integral waterproofing Air entrainer Setting accelerator Hardening accelerator Setting retarder Plasticisers and setting retarders Superplasticisers and setting retarder Plasticisers and setting accelerators
Russia
ASTM C494: chemical admixtures for concrete

Classification of admixtures into 7 types: Type A: Plasticiser Type B: Setting retarder Type C: Setting / hardening accelerator Type D: Plasticiser and setting retarder Type E: Plasticiser and setting accelerator Type F: Superplasticiser Type G: Superplasticiser and setting retarder
GOST 24211-03: concrete additives. General technical requirements
Page E 33
4 MIXING WATER
Mixing water is needed for the manufacture of concrete. The total mixing water is the sum of the water added to the mix and the moisture on the surface of the aggregates The quality of the water has an influence on the characteristics of the concrete when fresh and hardened. Consequences of excess water An increase in the quantity of water used will have a direct effect on the levels of mechanical performance Lowering of compressive/bending strength Lowering of compaction Increase in porosity Increase in permeability
And on the general quality of the concrete:
Action of water It can cause deformation Shrinkage, expansion, creation of capillary systems It can reduce mechanical performance This occurs when there is too much water It can make the concrete frost-sensitive: Expansion when turned to ice It can encourage electro-chemical reactions Carbonation, corrosion, alkali reaction It can encourage mould and the development of organic materials It can dissolve: Gypsum, plaster, chlorides It can transport: Chlorides, sulphates, carbon dioxide It can carry substances: By gravity, by capillarity, as vapour Water/cement ratio The addition of 10 litres of water per m3 of concrete causes a loss of approximately 3 to 5 N/mm (MPa) in the 28-day compressive strength.
Segregation Greater penetration of external agents Defects in surface finish Sensitivity to evaporation, etc.
Optimum quantity
Addition of water
The use of drinking water for mixing concrete is considered to be a safe practice
W/C ratio Page E 34
5 CONCRETE
5-1 EN 206-1: CONCRETE Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity 5-1-1 Introduction...Page E 36 5-1-2 Classification
5-1-2-1 Exposure ....Page E 37 5-1-2-2 Consistence of fresh concrete..Page E 40 5-1-2-3 Compressive strength of hardened concrete ..Page E 40 5-1-2-4 Chloride content ..Page E 41 5-1-2-5 Maximum size of aggregates.Page E 41 5-1-2-6- Density .Page E 41
5-1-3 Definition of concretes for placing an order

5-1-3-1 BPS: Designed Concretes..Page E 42 5-1-3-2 BCP: Prescribed Concretes ..Page E 42 5-1-3-3 BCPN: Standardised Prescribed Concretes..Page E 42
5-1-4 Recommendations for the limits of concrete composition ....Page E 43 5-1-5 French specifications ...........Page E 44 5-1-6 British specifications ...........Page E 45 5-2 SPECIFICATION OF FRESH CONCRETE IN USA..Page E 48 5-3 RUSSIA: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO CONCRETE Page E 49
Page E 35
5-1 EN 206-1: CONCRETE Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity 5-1-1 Introduction
CONCRETES CONCERNED: ALL STRUCTURAL CONCRETES All structural concretes, whether ready-mixed, mixed on site by the user of the concrete or mixes intended for the prefabrication of concrete products. The standard applies also to dense concretes and to certain lightweight concretes. CONCRETES OUTSIDE THE FIELD OF APPLICATION: THOSE THAT ARE NOT STRUCTURAL Concrete in trenches Infill concrete Packing concrete Concrete blindings Aerated concrete Foam concrete No-fines concrete Refractory concrete Concrete with non-mineral aggregate Very lightweight concrete (Density <800 kg/m3)
Exposure class Max. size of aggregates
OBLIGATORY CHARACTERISTICS FOR DESIGNING A CONCRETE
Strength class
Chloride class Consistence class
Definition of concretes for placing an order:

Example of description XC1 C25/30 S3 Cl 0.40 22.4
XC1 C25/30 S3 Cl 0.40 22.4
Exposure class Compression strength class on a cylinder/cube Consistence class of the fresh concrete Chloride class Maximum size of the aggregates
Usual case
BPS: Designed Concretes
BPS concretes are products that are mainly offered by ready-mixed concrete companies Particular case (concrete formulated by the BCP: Prescribed Concretes contractor) BCP concretes must be formulated by a competent specifier and are products made mainly on site. Rare case BCPN: Standardised Prescribed (concrete with a mix proportion Concretes made by a tradesman)
Page E 36
5-1-2 Classification
5-1-2-1 Exposure classes
Exposure class X0 XC XC1 XC2 XC3 XC4 XD XD1 XD2 XD3 XS XS1 XS2 XS3 XF XF1 XF2 XF3 XF4 XA XA1 XA2 XA3 Description of the environment Concretes concerned: examples for information purposes to illustrate the choice of exposure classes
No risk of corrosion or attack: Non-reinforced concrete or reinforced concrete in a very dry environment. Corrosion caused by carbonation: Concrete containing reinforcement or cast-in metal parts, exposed to air and moisture. Permanently dry or wet Humidity, rarely dry Moderate humidity Alternately wet and drying Corrosion caused by chlorides, of an origin other than marine Moderate humidity Humidity, rarely dry Alternately wet and drying Corrosion caused by the chlorides present in seawater Exposed to air carrying marine salt, but not in direct contact with sea water Permanently submerged Inter-tidal zone, zone subject to splashing or spray Freeze/thaw attack, with or without de-icing chemicals Moderate saturation with water without de-icing chemicals Moderate saturation with water with de-icing chemicals Heavy saturation with water without de-icing chemicals Heavy saturation with water with de-icing chemicals
Concrete exposed to rain and to minor/moderate frost without de-icing. Concrete exposed to rain and to minor/moderate frost with de-icing. Concrete exposed to rain and to severe frost, without de-icing chemicals, except for particular specifications for saturation with water (horizontal surfaces for example). Concrete exposed to rain and to severe frost, with de-icing chemicals, except for particular specifications for saturation with water (horizontal surfaces for example). Structures on or near a coast. Elements of marine structures. Elements of marine structures. Surface of concrete exposed to chlorides transported through the air. Swimming pools; RC exposed to industrial water containing chlorides. Bridge elements exposed to chloride sprays; roadways; car park floor slabs RC inside "dry" building or concrete permanently submerged. Foundations, surface of concrete in contact with water for a long time. RC inside "wet" building, external concrete sheltered from rain. Surface in contact with water but not coming under XC2.
Chemical attack: Concrete exposed to the chemical attacks produced in natural soils, surface and/or underground water. Environment with low chemical corrosiveness Environment of moderate chemical corrosiveness Environment with high chemical corrosiveness Page E 37 Refer to the standard in Table 2 giving the limit values for the classes of exposure corresponding to chemical attack from soils and from underground water.
5-1-2-1 Exposure classes (contd.)

Ext or int walls protected from moisture
Residential or office building

Ext . walls unprotected from moisture
Columns, beams, lintels If protected from moisture
Boundary wall
If exposed to marine atmosphere
Protected pool
If unprotected from chlorinated water
Road or access road
underground wall, foundation, piles if protected from moisture
If corrosive soil
Internal ground slabs & slab
Parking, soil non protected
CLASS X0 No risk of corrosion / attack

In buildings, concrete is rarely used with this class of exposure
CLASS XA1 to XA3 Environment subject to chemical corrosiveness

Agricultural environment XA1 low chemical corrosiveness XA2 moderate chemical corrosiveness XA3 high chemical corrosiveness Industrial environment
Lightly reinforced with re bars cover of 5 cm and provided there is no corrosiveness
NB: an investigation is required in a corrosive environment to determine the level of chemical corrosiveness
Page E 38
5-1-2-1 Exposure classes (contd.)

Reinforced concrete, risk of corrosion by carbonation
XC1 Int /Ext walls protected from moisture
XD2 / XD3
Water + non marine chloride XD2 damp rarely dry XD3 alternately damp / drying
Class XC1, XC2

XC1 Solid slab
XC1, XC2 (F) Shallow foundation
uncovered concrete
Class XF1 to XF4 Class XS1 to XS3

XS1 in contact with marine air but not with sea water (less than 1km from sea shore) XS2 permanent immersion XS3 inter-tidal zone, spray Contact with or proximity to marine salts XF1slight or moderate frost without de-icing chemicals XF2 slight or moderate frost with de-icing chemicals XF3 severe frost without de-icing chemicals XF4 severe frost with de-icing chemicals
Attacks due to freeze/thaw cycles on wet concrete
If less than 1km from shore
Depending on climatic zone
Inter-tidal zone, spray
Page E 39
5-1-2-2 Consistence of fresh concrete
The standard defines 5 categories of consistence of concretes with a typical water content.
Consistence class of concretes
The measurement of the slump is made using an Abrams cone. The consistence may also be checked by: The Vebe time (in seconds): 5 Vebe categories (V0 to V5); The degree of compactability: 4 categories of compactability (C0 to C3); The flow table diameter (in mm): 6 categories of flow (F1 to F6).
Class Slump (in mm)
S1 10 to 40
S2 50 to 90
S3 100 to 150
S4 160 to 210
S5 220
(firm)
(plastic)
(very plastic)
(fluid)
(fluid) Figure A shows a low slump and figure B shows a higher slump
5-1-2-3 Compressive strength of fresh concrete
C X/Y where
Description C = Concrete X = Minimum typical compressive strength (in MPa) on 150 x 300 mm cylinders Y = Minimum typical compressive strength (in MPa) on 150 mm cubes Examples: C 25/30 normal or dense concretes; LC 25/28 lightweight concretes Fractile (Gauss's law): 5%, i.e. 95% of the population of all the results of the measurements of the strength of the concrete being considered are greater than the typical strength value.
C 8/10 C 45/55 LC 8/9 LC 45/50 C 12/15 C 50/60 LC 12/13 LC 50/55 C 16/20 C 55/67 LC 16/18 LC 55/60 C 20/25 C 60/75 LC 20/22 LC 60/66 C 25/30 C 70/85 LC 25/28 LC 70/77 C 30/37 C 80/95 LC 30/33 LC 80/88
Page E 40
Typical strength normal or dense concretes lightweight concretes
C 35/45 C 90/105 LC 35/38
C 40/50 C 100/115 LC 40/44
5-1-2-4 Chloride content
The categories of chlorides enable the composition of the concrete to be adapted according to the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement.
Use of the concrete Concrete not containing steel reinforcement or cast-in metal parts Concrete containing steel reinforcement or cast-in metal parts Concrete containing steel pre-stressing reinforcement Chloride class Cl 1.0 Cl 0.20 Cl 0.40 Cl 0.10 Cl 0.20
Maximum content (in Cl-) 1,00% 0,20% 0,40% 0,10% 0,20%
Standard EN 206-1 defines the maximum content of chloride ions in the concrete not to be exceeded, according to its type of use.
5-1-2-5 Maximum size of aggregates
The classification of the concrete depends on the maximum size of the aggregate: nominal size greater than the largest aggregate used in the concrete (Dmax).
5-1-2-6 Density Density (in kg/m3) Lightweight concrete Concrete of normal density Dense concrete from 800 to 2000 from 2000 to 2600 2600
Page E 41
Lightweight concretes are classified in six ranges of density.
5-1-3 Definition of concretes for placing an order

5-1-3-1 BPS: Designed Concretes Concrete for which the required properties and additional characteristics are specified to the producer by the purchaser. The producer is responsible for providing a concrete that meets these requirements. Example of description:
BPS Type of concrete Consistence class Compliance with the standard Maximum size of the aggregates Compression strength class Exposure class EN206-1 C30/37 XC1 22.4 S2 Cl 0.40 Chloride content class
This description may also include the type and the class of the cement, if they are specified. 5-1-3-2 BCP: Prescribed Concretes Concrete for which the composition and the components to be used are specified to the producer by the purchaser. The producer is responsible for providing a concrete that meets this composition. The specifier's responsibility is to carry out a formulation study and to establish the detailed composition of the concrete, which he must give to the producer. The minimum information for defining a BCP is: -The reference to standard EN 206-1 - The proportion of cement - The type and the strength class of the cement - The W:C ratio or the consistence of the concrete - The maximum nominal size of the aggregate and its maximum chloride content - If applicable, the type quantity and origin of the additives and admixtures. 5-1-3-3 BCPN: Standardised Prescribed Concretes Concrete of which the composition is defined in a standard applicable to the place of use of the concrete. The specifier is responsible, in this case, for selecting the appropriate composition for the construction from the standard.
Page E 42
5-1-4 Recommendations for the limits of concrete composition
Direction in which to read the table

Exposure classes No risk of corrosion or attack X0 Max. water:cement ratio Min. strength class Min. cement content (kg/m3) Min. air content (%) Other requirements C 12/15 Corrosion caused by chlorides Corrosion caused by carbonation XC1 0,65 XC2 0 ,60 XC3 0,55 XC4 0,50 XS1 0,50 Seawater XS2 0,45 XS3 0,45 Chlorides other than seawater XD1 0,55 XD2 0,55 XD3 0,45 XF1 0,55 Freeze/thaw attack XF2 0,55 XF3 0,50 XF4 0,45 Chemically corrosive environments XA1 0,55 XA2 0,50 XA3 0,45
C 20/25 C 25/30 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 35/45 C 35/45 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 35/45 C 30/37 C 25/30 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 30/37 C 35/45 260 280 280 300 300 320 340 300 300 320 300 300 4* 320 4* 340 4* 300 320 360
Aggregates complying with prEN 12620 with sufficient freeze/thaw strength
Sulphateresistant cement
*: If the concrete does not contain deliberately entrapped air, the performance of the concrete must be measured in accordance with an appropriate test method, in comparison with a concrete for which the freeze/thaw strength for the corresponding exposure class has been determined.
The values in the above table are based on the assumption of an anticipated structure lifespan of 50 years. The values are those for cement type CEM I and for aggregates of a maximum size between 20 and 32 mm.
Page E 43
5-1-5 French specifications The following table gives the limit values, applicable in France, of the composition and of the properties of concretes

Allowance for admixtures as a substitution for cement is only permitted, within the limits of the ratio A:A+C, with CEM I cements of class 42.5 or 52.5.
Corrosion caused by chlorides No risk of corrosion or attack Corrosion caused by carbonation Seawater Freeze/thaw attack Chlorides other than seawater
(refer to the map giving zones of frost in the standard)
Chemically corrosive environments
X0
XC1
XC2
XC3
XC4
XS1
XS2
XS3
XD1
XD2
XD3
XF1
XF2
XF3
XF4
XA1
XA2
XA3
Ratio Eeff/binder eq* max Minimum strength class Min. binder eq. content (kg/m3) when
Dmax= 20 mm
0,65
0,55
0,50
0,55
0,50
0,60
0,55
0,55
0,45
0,55
0,50
0,45
C20/25
C30/37 C35/45
C30/37 C35/45 C25/30
C25/30
C30/37
C30/37 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50
Numerical values identical to XC1
Numerical values identical to XS2
Numerical values identical to XF1
150
260*
330
350
330
350
280*
300
315
340
330
350
385
Min. air content (%) Fly ash Silica fume Ground slag Limestone addition Silica addition Nature of the cement
0,30 0,10 0,30 0,25 0,20
0,30 0,10 0,30 0,25 0,20
0,15 0,10 0,15 0,05 0,15 PM*
0,15 0,10 0,15 0,05 0,15 PM*
0,15 0,10 0,15 0,05 0,15
0,15 0,10 0,15 0,05 0,15
0,30 0,10 0,30 0,25 0,20
4** 0,30 0,10 0,30 0,25 0,20
4** 0,30 0,10 0,30 0,25 0,20
4** 0,15* 0,10 0,15 0,05 0,15 **
0,30* 0,10 0,30* 0,00 0,00 **
0,30* 0,10 0,30* 0,00 0,00 **
0,00 0,10 0,00 0,00 0,00 **
Max. ratio A:(A+C)
*Eeff= Effective water = total water water absorbed by the aggregates Binder eq = binder equivalent = Cement + k Additions (k depends on the type of cement and of the addition) **refer to the annotations in FR EN 206-1 Table NA.F.1
frost-proof aggregate Check that the concrete is suitable for the expected levels of performance
Page E 44
5-1-6 British specifications
In the United Kingdom, standard BS EN 206-1 is supplemented by BS 8500: Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. In this supplement, there is an additional way to define a concrete in an order: designed concrete (symbolised by RC, PAV, FND, GEN) for which the composition and the requirements are defined precisely in BS 8500 and which only applies to a concrete not exposed to exposure classes XS, XC and/or XA.
Page E 45
strength class, max w:c, min. cement (kg/m3), equivalent Exposure class
X0 XC1
Blended cement 15 + c
All All C20/25; 0.70; 240 or RC25 <<<< <<<< C25/30; 0.65; 260 or RC30
nominal cover 20 + c 25 + c 30 + c 35 + c 40 + c 45 + c 50 + c
<<<<
<<<<
<<<<
<<<<
<<<<
The following table gives the limit values, applicable in the United Kingdom, of the composition and of the properties of concretes
Exposure class XF1 Strength Types class, max. of W:C, min. cement cement All C28/35; 0.6; 280 C32/40; 0.6; 300 C25/30; 0.6; 280 All except IVB C25/30; 0.6; 280 Min. air content: 3.5% Use of freeze/thawresistant aggregates Min. air content: 3.5% Comments and other requirements
XC2 XC3 XC4 XD1
All All except IVB All I, IIA, IIIB-S, SRPC
<<<<
<<<<
<<<< <<<< <<<< C28/35; 0.55; 320 C25/30; 0.55; 320 C20/25; 0.55; 320
<<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<<
<<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< XF2 All
C40/50; 0.45; C32/40; 0.55; C28/35; 0.60; C25/30; 0.65; 340 or RC50 300 or RC40 280 or RC35 260 or RC30 C40/50; 0.45; C32/40; 0.55; C28/35; 0.60; 360 320 300
Restriction to nonreinforced concrete
XD2
IIIB-V, IIIA IIIB, IVB I, IIA, IIIB-S, SRPC
Directio n in which to read the table
C45/55; 0.35; C40/50; 0.40; C35/45; 0.45; 380 380 360 C35/45; 0.40; C32/40; 0.45; C28/35; 0.50; 380 360 340 C32/40; 0.40; C28/35; 0.45; C25/30; 0.50; 380 360 340 C35/45; 0.50; 340 C32/40; 0.50; 340 C25/30; 0.55; 320 C28/35; 0.55; 320 C25/30; 0.55; 320 C20/25; 0.55; 320 <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< <<<< XF4 XF3
XD3
C40/50, Use of freeze/thaw0.45, 340 resistant aggregates Use of freeze/thawC28/35, resistant aggregates 0.55, 300 Min. air content: 3.5% C40/50, Use of freeze/thaw0.45, 340 resistant aggregates
All except IVB
XS1
XS2
c is the margin of tolerance of the nominal minimum cover (generally in the order of 5 to 15 mm) Key: <<<<: do not reduce the quality of the concrete below the value indicated in the left-hand cell Page E 46
C45/55; 0.35; C40/50; 0.40; 380 380
XS3
IIIB-V, IIIA IIIB, IVB
C35/45; 0.40; C32/40; 0.45; C28/35; 0.50; 380 360 340 C32/40; 0.40; C28/35; 0.45; C25/30; 0.50; 380 360 340

Sulphate and magnesium water/soil extract SO4 g/l Mg g/l underground water SO4 g/l Mg g/l Total sulphate charge SO4 %
>5.5 <1,2 <0,4 <0,24 DS-1 5.5
Chemical attack: BS 8500 has the particular feature of dealing with exposure class XA differently. The table summarises the chemical attacks by natural soils in the majority of cases. For particular cases, refer to BS 8500.
Sulphat e class
pH
Strength class
Combinations of cement types
Max. W:C
Min. quantity Type of of cement particular (kg/m3) aggregates

180 260 300 340 300 340 400 380 400 400 380 400 B C A A B or C C
Option designated concrete
C 8/10 C 25/30 C 28/35 C 28/35
All All All except II-L or LL I, IIA except II-L or LL, IIB-S, IIB-V, IIIA IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC All except II-L or LL IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR IIIB+SR, SRPC IIB-V+SR, IVB+SR, IIIB+SR, SRPC
0.65 0.55 0.50 0.55 0.50 0.40 0.45 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.40
GEN1 for non-reinforced foundations RC30 with cover 25+c FND2z with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) FND2 with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) FND3z with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) FND4 with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) OR FND3 with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) OR
>5.5 1.2 to 2.3 0.4 to 1.4 0.24 to 0.6 DS-2 5.5 C 28/35 C 28/35 C 28/35
C 28/35 >5.5 C 28/35 C 28/35 C 28/35 2.4 to 3.7 1.5 to 3.0 0.7 to 1.2 DS-3 C 28/35
FND4 with 1 Additional Protection Measure* and cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) OR FND3 with 2 Additional Protection Measures* and cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4)
FND4 with cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) OR FND4 with 1 Additional Protection Measure* and cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4) OR
C 28/35 5.5 C 28/35 C 28/35 C 28/35 3.8 to 6.7 3.8 to 6.7 >6,7 >6,7 1,2 >1,2 1,2 >1,2 3.1 to 6.0 3.1 to 6.0 >6,0 >6,0 1,0 >1,0 1,0 >1,0 1.3 to 2.4 1.3 to 2.4 >2,4 >2,4 DS-4 DS-4m DS-5 DS-5m
0.40
400
0.35 0.40 0.45
400 400 380
A A B or C FND4 with 2 Additional Protection Measures* and cover: 25+c (XC2) or 30+c (XC3 and XC4)
Refer to BS 8500-1
A: aggregates with high carbonate content; B: aggregates with moderate carbonate content; C: aggregates with low carbonate content Additional Protection Measure: see BS 8500
Page E 47
5-2 SPECIFICATION OF FRESH CONCRETE IN USA
Standard ASTM C94 (Standard specification for Ready Mixed Concrete) describes 3 ways of ordering and specifying concrete: Option (1) Normal: When the client requires the supplier of the concrete to be responsible for the concrete mix.
The Owner shall specify the types of materials to be used, the exposure to which the concrete will be subjected, the compressive strength required for structural purposes, the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, the air content, the admixtures and any other desired property, such as slump and minimum bending strength. The supplier shall certify that the factory, the plant and the materials used meet the requirements of the standard, that the mix proportion will produce a concrete of the quality and quantity specified and that the strengths, when they are evaluated, meet the requirements of the standard.
Option (2) Prescription: When the client is responsible for the mix proportions and for the properties of the concrete.
The client shall specify, per cubic metre of concrete, the types and the quantities of materials to be used, the maximum nominal size of the aggregate, the proportions by weight of the coarse and of the fine aggregates, and the maximum mass of water. In addition, the client shall specify the air content, the type of admixture and the slump at the point of delivery. The supplier shall certify that the factory, the plant and all the materials used comply with the requirements of the standard.
Option (3) Performance: When the client requires the supplier of the concrete to be responsible for the concrete "as delivered".
The client shall specify the class of concrete that will meet the conditions of exposure and the architectural, structural and durability criteria. The supplier shall certify that his quality control guarantees the performance criteria (measured and noted) and that the concrete will meet the specified performance criteria prior to delivery.
Page E 48
5-3 RUSSIA: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS RELATING TO CONCRETE
GOST 7473: Ready-mixed concrete - Specifications GOST 25192: Concrete. Classification and technical requirements GOST 25246: Concrete. Chemical resistant. Specifications GOST 25820: Lightweight aggregates concrete. Specifications GOST 26633: Heavyweight and sand concrete. Specifications GOST 27006: Concrete. Rules for mix proportions GOST 25246: Concrete Chemical resistant Specifications GOST 25881: Chemical resistant concrete. Methods of test
Page E 49
6 CHECKS ON CONCRETE: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS

TYPICAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH Europe USA ASTM C39: Compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens RUSSIA GOST 10180: Concrete Method for strength determination using reference specimens
Standard
EN 206-1 C X/Y X: compressive strength on 150 x 300 mm cylindrical samples (fc,cyl in MPa) Y: compressive strength on 150 mm cuboid samples (fc,cube in MPa) Samples crushed at 28 days France use of fc,cyl from EN 206-1, but with 160 x 320 mm cylindrical samples United Kingdom
Notation
f'c
compressive strength on 150 x 300 cylindrical samples (in psi) 1000 psi = 6.89 MPa
Test on 150 x 150 mm cuboid samples
Samples crushed at 28 days
Particular specifications
(Compliance due to the tolerance of 10% on the nominal dimensions of the 150 x 300 cylinders no correction factors)
use of fc,cube from EN 206-1 (dimensions: 150 Samples crushed at 28 days x 150 mm)
Page E 50
6 CHECKS ON CONCRETE: MAIN NORMATIVE TEXTS (Contd.)

Main normative texts on tests of fresh concrete France
NF EN 12350: Test on fresh concrete Part 1: Sampling Part 2: Slump test Part 3: Vebe test Part 4: Degree of compactability Part 5: Flow table test Part 6: Determination of the density of fresh concrete Part 7: Determination of the air content - Pressure methods
Great Britain
BS EN 12350: Testing fresh concrete BS 1881-125: Testing concrete - Part 125: Method for mixing and sampling fresh concrete in the laboratory BS 1881-128: Testing concrete - Part 128: Method for analysis of fresh concrete BS 1881-129: Testing concrete - Part 129: Method for determination of density of partially compacted semi-dry fresh concrete
France
Main normative texts on tests of hardened concrete Great Britain

BS EN 12390: Testing hardened concrete BS 1881-112: Testing concrete - Part 112: Methods of accelerated curing of test cubes BS 1881-113: Testing concrete - Part 113: Methods for making and curing no-fines test cubes BS 1881-119: Testing concrete - Part 119: Method for determination of compressive strength using portions of beams broken in flexure BS 1881-121: Testing concrete - Part 121: Method for determination of static modulus of elasticity in compression BS 1881-122: Testing concrete - Part 122: Method for determination of water absorption BS 1881-124: Testing concrete - Part 124: Method for analysis of hardened concrete BS 1881-127: Testing concrete - Part 127: Method for verifying the performance of a concrete cube compression machine using the comparative cube test BS 1881-130: Testing concrete - Part 130: Method for temperature matched curing of concrete specimens BS 1881-131: Testing concrete - Part 131: Method for testing cement in a reference concrete
Page E 51
NF EN 12390: Testing hardened concrete Part 1: Shape, dimensions and other requirements for specimens and moulds Part 2: Making and curing specimens for strength tests Part 3: Compressive strength of test specimens Part 4: Compressive strength - Specification for testing machines Part 5: Flexural strength of test specimens Part 6: Tensile splitting strength of test specimens Part 7: Density of hardened concrete Part 8: Depth of penetration of water under pressure

United States: Hardened concrete Strength test on hardened concrete Air content United States: Fresh concrete Sampling of fresh concrete Consistence ASTM C172: Standard practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete ASTM C143: Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete ASTM C138: Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete Density and yield ASTM C231: Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method ASTM C173: Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Volumetric Method Strength sampling ASTM C31: Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field ASTM C192: Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory ASTM C403: Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance ASTM C684: Standard Test Method for Making, Accelerated Curing, and Testing Concrete Compression Test Specimens ASTM C232: Standard Test Method for Bleeding of Concrete Permeability Changes in volume and length Petrographic analysis Density, absorption, voids Portland cement content ASTM C39: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens ASTM C457: Standard Test Method for Microscopical Determination of Parameters of the Air Void Content and Parameters of the Air Void System in Hardened Concrete ASTM C642: Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete ASTM C1084: Standard Test Method for Portland Cement Content of Hardened Hydraulic Cement Concrete ASTM C1218: Standard Test Method for Water Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete Chloride content ASTM C1152: Standard Test Method for Acid Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete ASTM C1500: Standard Test Method for Water Extractable Chloride in Aggregate ASTM C856: Petrographic examination of hardened concrete ASTM C157: Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic Cement, Mortar and Concrete ASTM C512: Standard Test Method for Creep of Concrete in Compression ASTM C469: Standard Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete in Compression ASTM C215: Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens ASTM C1202: Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration ASTM C642: Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete ASTM C1012: Standard Test Method for Length Change of Hydraulic Cement Mortars Exposed to a Sulphate Solution ASTM C876: Standard Test Method for Half Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete ASTM C856: Petrographic examination of hardened concrete
Page E 52
Setting time Accelerated curing method Bleeding of concrete
Sulphate-resistance Corrosion resistance Carbonation
Russia GOST 25192: Concrete. Classification and general technical requirements GOST 10180: Concrete. Method for strength determination using reference specimens GOST 10181: Concrete mixtures. Methods of test GOST 12730.0: Concrete. General requirements for methods of determination of density, porosity, moisture content, water absorption and water lightness GOST 12730.1: Concrete. Method for determination of density GOST 12730.2: Concrete. Method for the determination of moisture content GOST 12730.3: Concrete. Method for the determination of water absorption GOST 12730.4: Concrete. Method for the determination of porosity parameters GOST 12730.5: Concrete. Method for the determination of water lightness GOST 22783: Concrete. Method of accelerated determination of compressive strength GOST 24452: Concrete. Methods of prismatic compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio determination GOST 24544: Concrete. Methods of shrinkage and creep flow determination GOST 24545: Method of fatigue tests
Page E 53
APPENDIX MAIN WORLDWIDE MATERIALS SUPPLIERS

Contractor Lafarge Website
www.lafarge.fr
Activity
Cement Aggregates Concrete Cement Aggregates Concrete Cement Aggregates Concrete Cement Aggregates Concrete Cement Concrete Admixtures Admixtures Admixtures Admixtures Admixtures Additives
Presence
75 countries
Cemex
www.cemex.com
More than 50 countries More than 70 countries
Holcim Italcementi Group Heidelberg Cement Fosroc Sika Degussa Chryso Grace Construction Products
www.holcim.com
www.italcementigroup.com
19 countries
www.heidelbergcement.com www.fosroc.com www.sika.com www.degussa.com www.chryso-online.com
50 countries More than 20 countries More than 60 countries More than 50 countries 16 countries
www.graceconstruction.com
Page E 54
PART F: PROCESS
1 DETERMINATION OF DAILY REQUIREMENTSPage F 2
2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY OF THE MIXING PLANT Page F 3
3 SURROUNDINGS OF THE CONSTRUCTION Page F 4
4 MIXING PLANT ON SITE / READY-MIX DELIVERY: SELECTION CRITERIA Page F 5
APPENDIX: DIAGRAM OF A READY-MIX PLANT...Page F 6

Page F 1
1 DETERMINATION OF DAILY REQUIREMENTS

Site programme
(use the period in the programme when concreting is the busiest)
Determination of the average daily quantity of concrete to be produced: Q
Determination of the peak (maximum daily quantity of concrete to be produced): Qmax Q max = Q x 1.30
Determination of the time taken each day for concreting: d (in hours) See note below
Determination of the hourly quantity of concrete to be produced: Q time spent placing = Q max / d
For indicative purposes, Q time to be calculated > ~ 80 m3/hr Large quantity Q time to be calculated < ~40 m3/hr Small quantity
For indicative purposes, concreting on typical building sites runs in cycles. The organisation of the cycles will depend on the size of the site. An estimate of approximately 3 to 4 hours per day on average of concreting can be used (generally placed at the end of the day). Particular case: Floor slabs in industrial buildings, which can be placed continuously throughout the day. Large civil engineering sites, which require a longer period for the preparation of formwork and of reinforcement, as the units to be constructed are generally larger.
Page F 2
2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY OF THE MIXING PLANT

OR Case 1: Approach based on an existing plant (its theoretical output is known) Practical site output = Theoretical supplier output / 1.20 Case 2: Approach based on site requirements
Theoretical supplier output = Q time for placing x 1.20
Q time for placing Practical site output?
A plant must be selected that has a theoretical production output that is not less than that calculated above.
YES
In this case, the plant is capable of supplying the site with concrete
NO
In this case, the capacity of the plant is insufficient. A different or additional plant must be selected
Why 1.20? The supplier's theoretical output takes into account a theoretical minimum mixing time. In reality, this time will be longer on site.
Page F 3
3 SURROUNDINGS OF THE CONSTRUCTION

Site location
Is the site located in a country and in a location to which read-mixed concrete can be delivered? For indicative purposes, ready-mix plants are rare in Africa.
NO YES
Carry out a comparative study of the cost of setting up a mixing plant on site / ready-mix deliveries. See next page
Supply of components (cements, aggregates, etc.)

Are supplies of components regular in this country? For indicative purposes, developed and developing countries generally do have regular supplies. It should be noted that Africa and Russia have irregular supplies
YES
Allow for a stock for approximately 3 days and for the necessary space
NO
Allow for a stock for approximately 7 to 10 days, or even more under exceptional conditions, and for the necessary space
Space available on the site

How much on-site space is available? Is there enough space to set up a mixing plant? In order to measure the space needed to set up a mixing plant on site, allowance must be made: - for the size of the plant (which will depend on the daily quantity of concrete to be produced) - for the space needed to store the components
YES Installation of a mixing plant on site
NO Look for space to rent close to the site

Page F 4
4 MIXING PLANT ON SITE / READY-MIX DELIVERY: SELECTION CRITERIA

If there is enough space on site to set up a mixing plant:
Comparative study of the cost of ready-mix / plant on site
Ready-mix is more expensive Choose the location for a mixing plant on site
Ready-mix is less expensive
In general, if the site is located in a country with an active concrete industry, ready-mix will be more competitive
Conditions generally favourable for setting up a plant on site: -Large quantities of concrete to be placed -Enough space available -The market of suppliers of concrete components independent from that of readymixed concrete
With effect from the instruction to start work, it will take about 3 to 5 months for the installation of the plant
Check the quality of the concrete Check that the mixing plant is capable of supplying the site by visiting it Recommendations when inspecting the ready-mix plant: - Look at the reliability of the installations (appearance of the equipment and maintenance) - Ask for test graphs and analyses - Find out about the types of concrete that can be produced, their strength ranges, etc. - Find out about the origin of the cements and the types used - Find out about the origin of the aggregates, their treatments, their storage (under shelter / exposed to bad weather), etc. (if importation necessary, estimate the costs) - Check the reliability of production and of supplies (transport)
The mixing plant is reliable Choose ready-mixed concrete deliveries
The mixing plant is not reliable Choose to set up a mixing plant on site
Page F 5
APPENDIX: DIAGRAM OF A READY-MIX PLANT
A delivery of aggregates B aggregate reception hopper C aggregate storage D conveyor belt E storage of cementitious materials F hopper scales G delivery of cement H mixer
I admixtures I mixer lorry with excess concrete K recycled water L recovered aggregates M pump N water storage O loading into a mixer lorry P control room
Page F 6
Part G: PLACING AND SPECIAL CONCRETES

1 GENERAL PLACING OF CONCRETE
1-1 FORMWORK..Page G 2 1-2 TRANSPORT.. .Page G 4 1-3 VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE.. .Page G 5 1-4 CURING OF THE CONCRETE...Page G 8 1-5 STRIKING FORMWORK.....Page G 10 1-6 DAY JOINTS IN CONCRETE............Page G 11
2 SPECIAL CONCRETES
2-1 COMPACT AND ONLY SLIGHTLY PERMEABLE CONCRETE .Page G 12 2-2 BHP: HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETES...Page G 13 2-3 BAP: SELF-PLACING CONCRETES.Page G 15 2-4 FIBRE CONCRETES..Page G 18 2-5 CONCRETE FOR FACEWORK .....Page G 19 2-6 LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETES AND DENSE CONCRETES...Page G 22 2-7 PUMPED CONCRETESPage G 23 2-8 OTHER SPECIAL CONCRETES....Page G 24
3 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.................Page G 25 4 PARTICULAR APPLICATIONS

4-1 COMPLEX SHAPES AND HIGH DENSITIES OF REINFORCEMENT ..Page G 26 4-2 CONCRETING OF LARGE CONSTRUCTIONS. .....Page G 27 4-3 CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER. ...Page G 28 4-4 CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER. ...Page G 29
Page G 1
1 GENERAL PLACING OF CONCRETE

1-1 FORMWORK
Formwork provides as its main functions: - moulding of the shape - moulding of the surface texture - maintaining stability until hardening - protection against drying out during setting and hardening
bad
Main components Whatever the nature of the formwork, there are always the same components: - A skin former which determines the final appearance (shape and texture) of the moulded item - A framework which limits deformation of the skin former (thrust of fresh concrete, self-weight of the concrete, etc.) - Spacer rods, struts for stability, props to enable the position of the formwork surfaces to be adjusted - Units built into the formwork or independent, to enable workers to work perfectly safely The main types of formwork
Use planks that are sufficiently thick (27 to 40 mm) made from species of timber free from tannin, dry and stabilised to prevent any warping Modification of the characteristics of the timber as it is reused (lower porosity, surface wear) influence on the surface colour and appearance
Timber formwork
Suitable for constructions of complex, non-repetitive shapes Possible use to imitate timber facings
Metal formwork
Speed of installation and assembly Possibility of reuse for units of a repetitive nature (vertical walls, suspended floors) Encourage the dispersal of the heat caused by the hydration of the cement favourable criterion in hot weather Smooth surface of the concrete Very suitable for external vibration if the design of the formwork permits
Concrete less well protected against drops in temperature in cold weather ( lagging of the formwork if necessary)
Page G 2
1-1 FORMWORK (contd.)
Recommendations Check that the formwork is clean, and properly oiled or waxed Before fixing the reinforcement, check that the mould oil specified is suitable for the conditions of temperature and for the quality of surface finish and that it has been applied uniformly and without excess Inserts, holes and pre-frames: Before closing, check the setting out and the quality of the holding devices Check that the pre-frames can be withdrawn without difficulty Check compliance with the proper rules for spacing between services cast into the concrete (electricity, heating, etc.) Tightening rods Before tightening, check that they are suitable for the pressure of the concrete (diameter and quantity) Setting out and watertightness Check the setting out and the verticality of the formwork, the correct tightening of the rods and the watertightness of the formwork Stability Carefully check the stability of the formwork
Page G 3
1-2 TRANSPORT The concrete must be placed before it starts to set, otherwise it will lose strength and, in addition, there is a risk of extra water being added by the site in the mixer in order to restore its initial consistency, with all the risks that that includes. Setting may be more or less rapid, depending on the type of cement, the water content, the temperature of the fresh concrete and the type of additive.
Recommendations to be followed during transport The equipment used to transport the concrete must be cleaned frequently with water, in order not to introduce foreign bodies or rubbish into the concrete The equipment must be such that the height that the concrete drops, as it is being placed, or the mechanical impacts as it is being handled, are not such as to create problems of segregation in the concrete The time taken to transport the concrete must be limited, depending on the ambient temperature, humidity and wind conditions. For indicative purposes, in France, it must not exceed 1 hours, as far as transport of ready-mixed concrete in a rotary mixer lorry is concerned. Concrete produced on site must be placed within 30 mins of production In hot weather (T> 25C), the use of retarded concrete is recommended, in order to prevent setting starting before placing is complete.
The addition of water on delivery must not be permitted, due to the harmful effect of such additions on the strength of the concrete. For indicative purposes, the addition of 20 litres of water per m3 of concrete type C25/30 makes its strength drop by 5 MPa.
Page G 4
1-3 VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE
Objective of vibration
Usual general rules: Internal vibration

Rapidly submerge the vibrator into the heart of the mass of concrete and raise it slowly and regularly.
de-aerating the concrete
compacting it
Vibration = high-quality concrete Placing made easier Improved strength Durable concrete More attractive facework
Never bring the vibrator into direct contact either with the reinforcement (risk of segregation), or with the formwork (risk of segregation, bubbling, staining, etc.). Never use the vibrator to reposition the concrete (risk of segregation). The choice of vibrator will depend on its capacity (depending on the nature of the concrete) and its diameter (depending on the size of the construction and the density of reinforcement).
filling the mould
Vibration equipment:
Equipment providing internal vibration of the concrete (or pervibration): the vibrator acts directly in the concrete Equipment providing external vibration: the vibrator acts on the concrete via the formwork, which is specifically designed.
Stop vibration as soon as: The concrete is no longer settling Air bubbles are no longer being released (excess vibration may lead to recycling of the air, leading to further bubbles and possibly segregation). Laitance begins to appear on the surface; this becomes shiny. The noise emitted by the vibrator stabilises. Choice of vibrating head: Diameter of action (in cm) = diameter of the vibrator (in mm) E.g.: vibrator = 50 mm action = ~50 cm
Page G 5
1-3 VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE (contd.) Vibration of vertical units External wall or cross wall Vibration in layers 50 to 60 cm high of concrete Penetration of the head into the layer immediately below by about 10 cm Spacing (e) between 2 points of vibration: e ~ 1.7 x radius of action of the vibrator
Dia too large
formwork formwork
In situ concrete Window in central opening:

Vibration in layers of 50 cm on one side only (1) until concrete appears on the other side (2), and checking that the section underneath has been filled (3).
Vibration of horizontal units: Suspended slabs, ground slabs, rafts Do not slope the vibrator by more than 45 Do not drag the head horizontally
Gaps between immersion points for the vibrator(s) identical to those for the vibration of vertical units.
Opening for door or blank opening:
Columns and piers

Application of the above criteria, especially the thicknesses of the layers and day joints for a thickness of 10 to 15 cm into the layer below
If the reinforcement is too close together, provide a shaft of a suitable size for the passage of the vibrator, or consider external vibration.
Page G 6
1-3 VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE (contd.)
Usual general rules: External vibration May be usefully advised when the construction has tightlypacked reinforcement or very dry concrete, or if automation on the site is well developed.
Position the centre line of the vibrator perpendicularly to the strut supporting the fixing system Set the direction of rotation of the vibrator towards the formwork Harmonise the vibrations of all the vibrators (speed of rotation, frequency, centrifugal force)
With external vibration, the compaction of the concrete is more homogenous than with internal vibration. Period of vibration and laboriousness are reduced.
Reminder In order to avoid the need to vibrate the concrete, self-placing concrete, for example, should be used
Page G 7
1-4 CURING OF THE CONCRETE Objectives of curing Curing enables the concrete to retain the water used in its composition so as to: Obtain the specified compressive strength Improve durability Ensure the routine maintenance and finish of the concrete
A
Relative humidity (%)
Concrete temperature (C)
B C D
A-Continual treatment against moisture B-In air after 28 days of wet curing C- n air after 7 days of curing D-Continually in air
The water will evaporate faster as the temperature increases, as ambient humidity drops and as the wind increases.
(see figure opposite)
Air temperature (C)
Wind speed (km/h)
Risks in the absence of curing

Open cracks (increased shrinkage) Reduction in surface strength Increase in the porosity of the surface concrete Reduction in durability (corrosion of reinforcement, frost resistance, etc.) Example:
Air temperature = 22C Concrete temperature = 36C Relative humidity = 90% Wind speed 5 kph D=0.6 kg/m/hr OK 22 kph D=1.8 kg/m/hr Danger
1- starting from air temperature, find the graph of relative humidity 2- move to the right up to concrete temperature 3- move down to wind speed 4- move to the left to read approx. level of evaporation
Evaluation of levels of evaporation of moisture from the surface of concrete covered with water
Level of evaporation (kg (m2/h))
DANGER
Page G 8
1-4 CURING OF THE CONCRETE (contd.) Methods of curing

Use of non-permeable formwork Limit the time the formwork is needed to avoid cracking by restrained shrinkage Use of watertight forms Not to be used in the case of unfinished facework Application of curing products To be sprayed onto the fresh concrete to prevent the mixing water from evaporating Preferably use approved products and check compatibility with the mould oil and subsequent finishes No curing product on day joints Curing by humidification: This can be carried out by: Working in a saturated atmosphere Use of mats, canvas, etc., kept wet by intermittent watering
Minimum curing period, days a) b)
Period of curing
It must be continuous and homogenous. The curing must be continued until the concrete has reached a strength of approximately 0.5 fc28
Surface temperature of the concrete (t) in C
Development of the strength of the concrete d) r = fcm2 / fcm28 rapid r 0.50 medium r = 0.30 r 2,0 4,0 6,0 slow r = 0.15 2,0 3,0 7,0 10,0 very slow r < 0.15 3,0 5,0 10,0 15,0
For indicative purposes, the table opposite is extracted from ENV 13670: Execution of concrete structures. It indicates the minimum curing periods for the classes of exposure in EN 206 apart from X0 and XC1
t 25 25 > t 15 15 > t 10 10 > t 5 c)
1,0 1,0 2,0 3,0
a) Add any setting time in excess of 5 hrs b) Linear interpolation between the values of the rows is permitted c) For temperatures lower than 5C, the period of time for which the temperature is lower than 5C must be added d) The development of the strength of the concrete is the ratio of the strength at 2 days to the average strength after 28 days, determined by prior tests or based on the experience of concrete of a comparable composition
Page G 9
1-5 STRIKING FORMWORK

The formwork and its props must not be dismantled until the concrete has achieved sufficient strength: In order to withstand damage to the surface as the formwork is struck In order to support the loads it has to carry at this stage In order to avoid deflection that exceeds the specified tolerances
Recommendations Cold weather = slowing of hardening = keeping formwork and props for longer Remove the formwork and the props progressively, without impact, without damaging the concrete, when the strength of the concrete is sufficient Avoid overloading a floor slab locally during and after the striking of formwork; otherwise take it into account in the determination of the minimum strength If there is a need for uniformity of colour for the facework, strike at constant maturity (same length of time and same actual strength on striking) If the formwork forms an element of the curing system, the time prior to striking must be taken into account
For indicative purposes, in France, except in the case of the use of sliding forms or thermal treatments, striking is not carried out until the compressive strength of the concrete has reached a sufficient value of at least 5 MPa. In average weather conditions (ambient temperature of 10 to 25C, relative humidity greater than 60%), it can be estimated that this strength is reached 12 to 14 hrs after the end of placing. This value will depend, in particular, on the nature of the cement, the amount used and on the shape of the construction.
Page G 10
1-6 DAY JOINTS
A "Day Joint" is formed where fresh concrete is poured in contact with old concrete, in order to ensure aesthetic or mechanical continuity between the two concretes.
Recommendations
General recommendations: The surface of the old concrete must be clean: dust, laitance, curing products and any mould release agents must be removed by blowing with compressed air and/or with water under pressure The surface of the old concrete must not be covered with standing water The reinforcement must be stripped clean and correctly positioned The vibration of the fresh concrete poured close to the surface of the old concrete must be carried out particularly carefully Precaution in hot weather: the surface of the old concrete must be protected from exposure to the sun and must be dampened regularly Fresh concrete in a thin layer: The old concrete must be dampened particularly at the contact with the fresh concrete and particularly careful curing must be carried out after the new concrete is poured. Day joint on a vertical or steeply sloping surface: the support must be cleaned in order to remove all traces of mould release agent. The support is generally prepared by blasting the surface with water under pressure or by blowing with air plus water. The roughness of the contact surface is given by the formwork for the concrete in the first phase. Day joint on a horizontal surface. The support may be prepared by: - blowing with air plus water onto the fresh concrete just after setting begins - blasting the surface of the old concrete with water under pressure - sand blasting or blasting the old sound concrete with water at very high pressure
Page G 11
2 The various types of CONCRETES

2-1 COMPACT AND ONLY SLIGHTLY PERMEABLE CONCRETE General definition
Suitable formulation Adequate cement content, sufficiently high (see example opposite) Low water content: use of additives (superplasticisers which enable large reductions of water content while maintaining excellent behaviour when placed, without reducing the plasticity and consistence of the mix) Particle size including a sufficient quantity of fine elements to fill the gaps between the larger aggregates. The increase in the extent of the granular skeleton by the use of ultrafine particles (silica fume, microfiller, limestone, etc.) will enable the compactness of the concrete to be increased even more Low W/C ratio (<0.6) Careful placing Suitable and homogenous vibration (Page G 5) Effective curing to avoid excessive drying out of the concrete at a young age (Page G 8) Monitor temperature and humidity during placing and on the following days Suitable design of the construction (Page G 25) Avoid creating zones where water accumulates and stands and where surface water will create run-off channels
Page G 12
Example with a high quality C25/30 Sufficient quantity of fines Q (<80m) 350 kg/m3 including at least 250 kg/m3 of CEM1 Q (<160m) 400 kg/m3 Q (<315m) 520 kg/m3 Fluid consistence (S4) Limited quantity of water (CEM 1 + additions E/Lq 0.55 to 0.60) Reminder: Leq = binder equivalent = Cement + k Additions (k depends on the type of cement and of the addition) Mixing continued for approximately 1 min after adding the final ingredient Clean and watertight formwork Correct cover to reinforcement Release agent (previously tested and a minimum quantity) No further water added after mixing in the mixing plant Concrete placed without a long wait Dropping height limited to 1.50 m Placing in horizontal strips approximately 40 to 60 cm high Good vibration
Class
Rc at 28 days (MPa) on cyl. 20 to 50 60 to 100 100 to 150 > 150
2-2 BHP: HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETES

High Performance Concretes are characterised by: a 28 day compressive strength on cylinder of more than 50 MPa an Effective Water/Binder Equivalent ratio less than 0.4
Raccourcissement de fluage en
Ordinary concretes High performance concretes (HP) Very high performance concretes (THP) Exceptional concretes
Racoourcissement du au fluage - Bton ordinaire
Shortening due to creep Standard concrete

raccourcis sem ent du au fluage 30 Shortening ans aprs 30 years after raccourcis sem ent du au fluage la fin de la construction Shortening at end of construction
Shortening due to creep in meters
0,1 0,09 0,08 0,07 0,06 0,05 0,04 0,03 0,02 0,01 0 0
Characteristics Compressive strength: This is a characteristic that is often used to classify HP

concretes. Gains in strength can be seen from a young age; a 60 MPa concrete at 28 days may exceed 15 MPa at 24 hours and 40 MPa at 7 days.
Creep: This is much less than that of usual concretes. The creep ratio (deferred
deformation / instantaneous deformation), in the order of 2 for usual concretes, drops to between 1 and 1.5 for a 60 MPa concrete.
mtre
20
40 N no Florr de l'tage
60
80
100
Raccourcissement de fluage Shortening due to creep inen meters
Properties
Good consistence of fresh concrete: these are fluid concretes with a very low W:C ratio. Good performance at young ages Very low porosity Improvement in the resistance to chemical attack (favourable behaviour in a marine environment), to freeze/thaw phenomena and better protection of the reinforcement (reduction in the progression of carbonation) Reduction in deformation under instantaneous and permanent loads
Racourcissement du Shortening due to creep Highau fluage - BHP performance concrete

0,1 0,09 0,08 0,07 0,06 0,05 0,04 0,03 0,02 0,01 0 0 20 40
N de l'tage Florr no
raccourciss em ent after Shortening 30 years du au fluage 30 ans aprs raccourciss em nt du au fluage Shortening at end of construction la fin de la construction
mtre
60
80
100
Advantages
Improved durability Optimisation of structures Reduction of planned and reactive maintenance costs Architectural durability of the constructions Possibility of accelerating construction speed
Points at risk
Fire resistance: in buildings, limited resistance (C80/95), due to spalling problems at high temperatures; otherwise need to add polypropylene fibres Shrinkage: total shrinkage of HP concrete equivalent to ordinary concrete, but high initial endogenous shrinkage Delayed Ettringite Formation: need to limit rises in temperature in large units in a damp environment
Page G 13
2-2 BHP: HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETES (contd.) Components and mix proportions
C 25/30 Cements Increase in the quantity of cement Reduction of the W:C ratio For indicative purposes: ORDINARY CONCRETE CONCRETE WITH IMPROVED MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS C 50/60 Superplasticisers and water reducers: Enable a reduction in water content at the same consistence and increase the short-term strength of the concrete. Proportion depends on the desired W:C ratio, their effectiveness and their compatibility with the cement Ultrafines (silica fumes): Supplement the particle size of the concrete and increase compaction and mechanical strength Aggregates: Must have: A high strength (hard and compact material) A high G:S (gravel:sand) ratio An irregular shape (preferably crushed) to improve paste / aggregate adhesion A D in the order of 10 to 16 mm Cements Cement with a high strength at a young age Cement quantity of between 400 and 500 kg/m3 Examples of exceptional concretes: UHPFRC: Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Ductal BHP HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE
For a C 25/30, Cement ~ 280 300 kg/m3; For a C 40/50, Cement ~ 380 390 kg/m3; The aggregates must have a higher strength if the mechanical strength is to be increased
W:C ~ 0.55 0.60 W:C ~ 0.45
C100/115 BTHP VERY HIGH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE C 150/180 EXCEPTIONAL CONCRETE
Example of HP type formulation

CEM I 52.5 Silica fume Sand 0/5 Gravel 4/12 Gravel 10/20 Effective water Superplasticiser 4 to 7 kg/m3 385 kg/ m3 30 kg/ m3 690 kg/ m3 220 kg/ m3 940 kg/m3 130 kg/m3 28 day strength 7 day strength Creep factor 87 MPa 75 MPa 0,8
Page G 14
2-3 BAP: SELF-PLACING CONCRETES
Other terms defining this concrete: Self-levelling concrete Self-compacting concrete: SCC Hyper-fluid concrete
Self-placing concrete is characterised by its hyperfluidity, meaning that it can be placed by gravity, without the need for vibration.
Properties Very fluid and pumpable Absolutely homogenous Placing without vibration and without impact Has similar strength and durability to those of traditional concretes and of high-performance concretes
Consequences Productivity improvements Rapidity of placing Improved construction speed Reduction in maintenance costs Saving of labour Reduced placing time Limited making good Improvement in working and environmental conditions Difficulty of tasks Site safety Reduced noise problems Improvement in the quality of facework
Points at risk Formulation: Water content must be closely controlled Continuous particle size (otherwise risk of bleeding) Not negligible additional cost Setting delayed in cold weather (if no precautions) Increased thrust in formwork
Page G 15
2-3 BAP: SELF-PLACING CONCRETES (contd.) Composition and production Optimisation of the granular structure (sand and gravel) of the concrete: Continuous particle size graphs Lower Dmax of aggregates High fines content Systematic use of "superplasticiser" or "water reducing" plasticiser additives W:(C + fines or additions) ratio close to 0.35 (main quality factor of a self-placing concrete) Increase in mixing time in comparison with a traditional concrete Strict control of the water content of the mix (within 10 litres) and, consequently, of the aggregates
Example of typical formulation
CEM I 42.5 (R) / 52.5 (R) Fly ash Sand 0/5 Gravel 4/12 Gravel 10/20 Effective water Superplasticiser 28 day strength 300 kg/m3 180 kg/m3 750 kg/m3 220 kg/m3 650 kg/m3 190 kg/m3 3 to 6 kg/m3 38 / 43 MPa (depending on cement)
Page G 16
2-3 BAP: SELF-PLACING CONCRETES (contd.)
Recommendations for placing:

Specific site preparation and organisation: self-placing concretes require a change of habits and the adaption of traditional construction methods: plant staff construction phasing rigorous wedging of the reinforcement and of inserts to form holes Use of clean, watertight and stronger formwork in order to compensate for the hydrostatic thrust on the formwork. In typical uses (walls 2.8 m high), the thrust during placing does not exceed the strength limits of the formwork. In the case of walls of great height and/or with very many openings, the formwork must be specially designed. Falls: limit falls to 2% Use of suitable mould release products in order to avoid the phenomena of micro-bubbling Careful curing: as these concretes are more sensitive to the phenomena of shrinkage due to drying out (particularly horizontal surfaces) As for all concretes, it is necessary, during the concreting phases, to take the weather conditions into account and to implement particular arrangements outside the temperature range (+5C to 35C)
Placing with a traditional mixer and discharge pipe The concrete is placed from the top of the formwork by means of a discharge pipe. The pipe is slid into the formwork in order to limit the drop height. The diameter of the pipe under the mixer drum has to be adapted in comparison with traditional concrete (60 to 80 mm diameter instead of 150 to 200 mm diameter) so that it can be inserted between the reinforcement. Placing by pumping from the bottom of the formwork: "source" pumping This method is suitable, in particular, for vertical units of great height. It avoids the need for working at the top of the formwork. Placing by pumping at the top of the formwork with a plunger tube The plunger tube must be inserted far enough into the formwork to limit the dropping height as much as possible.
Page G 17
2-4 FIBRE CONCRETES

The objective sought is to give the concrete better resistance to tensile forces and to deformation, thus enabling the construction of thin units that are more ductile and that have good wear- and impact-resistance. As opposed to traditional reinforcement, the fibres are distributed throughout the mass of the concrete and thus give rise to a material which, considered on a macroscopic scale, has a homogenous nature. Characteristics The properties may vary according to the nature of the fibres used; however, certain trends can be seen that are common to all fibre concretes Improved tensile strength: the material develops micro-cracks as it lengthens, the role of the fibres being to delay failure by opposing the spreading of the cracks ("sewing" effect) Encourages micro-cracking of the concrete, less detrimental and more attractive than wide cracks Without fiber With fiber Improvement in the mechanical strength of the concrete Early strength Impact resistance Shear strength Wear- and abrasion-resistance Improvement in surface appearance for synthetic fibre and glass fibre concretes Improvement in respect of plasticity and moulding for synthetic fibre concretes Bridge deck with steel fibres Improvement in fire resistance for glass fibre concretes Different types of fibres Synthetic fibres (acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon, polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene) Natural fibres (asbestos, cellulose) Metal fibres Glass fibres Main uses Ground slabs for industrial buildings (metal or polypropylene fibres) Does away with the need for an anti-cracking welded mesh
Polypropylene fibres on the left and steel fibres on the right
Page G 18
2-5 FACEWORK CONCRETES
Mechanical surface treatments Washing: This is carried out on fresh water using a water jet. The material is finely washed at very low pressure. The water removes surface laitance and enhances the aggregate. This treatment does not affect the colour of the aggregates used Brushing: The facing is brushed (hard non-metallic brush), with or without water. Sand blasting: This consists of attacking a hardened facing with a jet of sand projected by compressed air, in order to strip, more or less, the aggregates, which, depending on their hardness, are more or less rounded by this technique. Dark aggregates are made lighter by this treatment Bush hammering: Once the facing has completely hardened, it is attacked with a manual or pneumatic bush hammer, with teeth or needles at variable spacings to suit the desired appearance. Filling: Intermediate operation in the polishing and sand-blasting of the skin of the concrete after hardening, which consists of filling any small cavities that may have appeared during this surface treatment with a cement paste. Grinding: This is a rough grinding mill, which exposes more or less all of the components of the concrete and gives a rough surface. The ground concrete is passed over once with the grinder before filling Polishing: This is based on the use, after rough grinding, of mills with finer and finer grains, which, by eliminating the traces left by the previous mills, bring out the texture of the mass concrete and give a perfectly smooth facing. The polished concrete is given 2 or 3 passes, depending on whether the aggregate is light- or dark-coloured, before being filled. As for a marble polish, this is obtained by between 4 and 6 passes, depending on the nature of the aggregate, before being buffed and filled.
Page G 19
2-5 FACEWORK CONCRETES (contd.)
Chemical surface treatments Deactivation: This is based on the use of a setting retarder deactivator, applied to the formwork before the concrete is placed, which delays its setting on the surface. The skin of the concrete may also be removed by washing with a jet of water, followed by brushing. Acid etching: This consists of attacking the facing of hardened concrete with a solution based on hydrochloric acid. The depth of the attack varies according to the concentration of the solution and the length of time of the treatment. This must be followed by washing with a large quantity of water in order to avoid the depassivation of the concrete and the corrosion of the reinforcement. It is used only on siliceous aggregates
Colouring of the concrete Through-colouring: The general colour of the concrete can be modified by adding pigments. Mineral pigments, the only pigments that can be used in concretes, are capable of absorbing part of the white light that they receive, by only reflecting the fraction corresponding to their colour. Some of these pigments can be found in nature, whence their name of natural pigments (e.g.: oxides of certain minerals, such as iron, chromium, titanium, cobalt, etc.). Depending on their particle size, pigments of an identical colour have different colouring powers. This must be taken into account in the quantity used. Paint: This is a traditional means of adding colour to concrete. By hiding the background material, the paint substantially modifies its appearance. Stains: Neither paints nor varnishes, stains for concrete are acrylic polymers in solution, which colour the concrete and enhance it without concealing it. Stains protect the concrete from water while allowing dirt to wash off and from attack by carbon dioxide and sulphates.
Page G 20
2-5 FACEWORK CONCRETES (contd.)
Washed beige
Washed ochre
Washed blue
Washed green
Washed grey
Washed black
bush-hammered beige
bush-hammered ochre
bush hammered blue
bush hammered green
bush hammered grey
bush hammered black
sand-blasted beige
sand-blasted ochre
sand-blasted blue
sand-blasted green
sand-blasted grey
sand-blasted black
polished beige
polished ochre
polished blue
polished green
polished grey
polished black Page G 21
2-6 LIGHTWEIGHT AND DENSE CONCRETES

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETES The attraction of lightweight concretes lies in the large saving that can be made in the self-weight of the construction. Lightweight concretes have densities of between 300 and 1800 kg/m3, against 2300 kg/m3 for a traditional concrete. This quality is also sought for thermally insulating concretes, their conductivity varying in the same way as their density. They also have better fire resistance. On the other hand, the use of very dense aggregates (barite, magnetite) enables the production of concretes of a density in excess of 3000 kg/m3. These concretes are used for protection against radiation or to construct abutments, counterweights (where the dead weight of the concrete is an overriding requirement), etc. DENSE CONCRETES
These concretes are obtained: Either by the use of lightweight aggregates (clay or shale or expanded glass or pumice) Or by the creation of a multitude of millimetric micro-bubbles (foam or cellular concrete) Or by the use of very lightweight micro-beads (perlite, vermiculite, expanded polystyrene) Or by the production of a no-fines concrete (porous concrete)
These concretes are twice as likely to shrink or creep
Page G 22
2-7 PUMPED CONCRETES

Concrete transported by pipework and not in a lorry. This process for delivering concrete is pushed through tubes from a supply hopper to the location of placing. It enables horizontal distances of up to 400 m (or even 1.5 km) and vertical distances of 100 m (or even 300 m) to be covered. The typical flow rate of the pumps varies between 8 m3/hr and 70 m3/hr. It may reach 160 m3/hr on large items.
Advantages
Liberation of the crane Access to difficult locations Transport over great distances Continuous supply of fresh concrete Improved construction speed
Points at risk
Ensure a constant supply of fresh concrete (pump hopper always loaded, in order to maintain the homogeneity of the concrete) Check that a constant flow rate is maintained in the supply pipes and clean the pipes at the end of each operation Pumping through vertical, angled or flexible pipes considerably reduces the maximum pumping distance
Recommendations Formulation of the concrete

Fines content (including cement) must be in the order of: -400 to 420 kg/m3 for fines less than 0.160 mm -350 kg/m3 for fines less than 0.080 mm Aggregates: - if possible rolled - particle size as continuous as possible - the diameter of the coarsest gravels must be less than one quarter of the diameter of the pipes Additive: : if possible, add a plasticiser to reduce W:C; add a superplasticiser for a slump greater than 15 cm The consistence of the concrete must be plastic: cone slump between 5 and 15 cm
Principle
Pumping through a flexible tube is carried out by crushing a flexible tube between rubber rollers, driven by a chain or a rotor. This system is used for pumping over short distances (length 50 m, difference in level 10 m) and for flow rates in the order of 15 m3/hr. Piston pumps comprise two pistons working in opposition. One cylinder pushes the concrete into the tubes while the other sucks the content of the supply hopper. A distribution system using a swivelling tube ensures continuity of pumping.
Plant
Equivalent transport distance = D + 5xH + 10xC1 + 5xC2 (in m) where D: horizontal distance in m, H: difference in level in m upwards; C1: number of 90 bends; C2: number of 135 bends Protect the pipework from the sun in hot weather (light colour, watering, etc.) or use of a setting retarder Provide a straight length of at least 4 m at the outlet from the pump At the beginning of the operation, it is recommended to send "lubricating mortar" through the pipe, which, as a general rule, is not used in the construction Floor slab: tilt the end of the pipe upwards (see photograph above)
Characteristics and sizing of the pump

For a given manufacturer, the choice will depend: -On the flow rate of the concrete in m3 per hour -On the diameter of the distribution pipes -On the length of the pipes and the height to be raised -On the consistence of the concrete to be used
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2-8 OTHER SPECIAL CONCRETES

NO-FINES CONCRETES ULTRA-HIGH-PERFORMANCE FIBREREINFORCED CONCRETE - DUCTAL
Concrete obtained by the omission or very great reduction of fine aggregate: it is therefore the product of a mixture of coarse aggregates and cement paste. No-fines concrete is used particularly for insulation.
Fibre-reinforced concrete with exceptional levels of performance (very great consistence, very high compressive strengths 150 to 200 MPa - , very great durability). Their formulations require specific superplasticiser additives, specific aggregates, ultrafine particles and fibres.
UNDERWATER CONCRETES Concrete placed under water and, therefore, poured in the presence of water pressure, for which allowance must be made when carrying out the works
The composition of this concrete must be studied very carefully, using, in particular, water-repellent colloidal agents that increase the forces of attraction between particles and, thus, the cohesion of the concrete
REFRACTORY CONCRETES
Concretes capable of withstanding continuous very high temperatures of up to 1600C, whereas a traditional concrete "lets go" at 300C. An aluminous cement with a high alumina content must be used in the formulation, together with refractory aggregates.
SPRAYED CONCRETES
Concrete sprayed, after mixing either wet or dry, onto a background in the form of a jet, in successive layers. It enables the most complex shapes to be formed (domes, shells, etc.). It is also often used in underground works.
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3 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN (a few examples)

A properly adapted design of the construction will avoid the formation of zones where water can collect and stand and of locations where surface water will create run-off channels Avoid traps where water can collect (hollows, projections, etc.) Prevent water running down the construction (drips, cornices, flashings, etc.)
Joinery profile to form weather drip Joinery or face of wall
Outside face
inside face
slope
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4 PARTICULAR APPLICATIONS
4-1 COMPLEX SHAPES AND HIGH DENSITIES OF REINFORCEMENT High density of reinforcement: ratio > 200 kg of steel per m3 Examples complex shapes, heavily-reinforced load-bearing elements (High Rise Buildings)
Traditional concretes: Concretes that have to be vibrated so as to prevent segregation when passing through the reinforcement or in restricted spaces Formulation of the concrete
Small particle size (Dmax < 12.5 mm) Fluid consistence of the fresh concrete (S4 or S5) High proportion of fines (Q(< 80 m) >~ 400 kg / m3) Water-reducing additive to achieve consistence targets
Self-placing concretes: Particularly suitable solution for constructing very complex shapes and constructions with very high densities of reinforcement
Placing
Limit the dropping height and provide tipping templates suitable for the spacing of the reinforcement Favour, if possible, placing by pumping Vibration equipment compatible with the construction (vibrating heads of a diameter to suit the spacing of the reinforcement) Vibration time suitable for the consistence of the concrete Avoid causing the formwork and the reinforcement to vibrate Particular care to be paid to the waterproofing of the formwork
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4-2 CONCRETING OF LARGE CONSTRUCTIONS
Objectives:
To limit the maximum temperature of the concrete during its hardening phase (do not exceed 65 to 70C for Portland-based cements To limit the thermal gradient generally to 20C, between the skin and the core of the concrete in order to avoid any danger of cracking
Recommendations
Favour cements with a low heat of hydration Measure the heat in the core of the concrete using sensors In summer, lower the initial temperature of the concrete by using ice in the mixing water and by watering the aggregates Preferably use aggregates with a high Dmax in order to limit the quantity of cement Protect the skin of the concrete (curing) from the thermal shocks that may be caused by the external environment If the thermal gradient is well in excess of 20C, provide the necessary reinforcement to absorb the thermal forces and to limit the danger of cracking.
Importance of the choice of cement in the construction of a raft in hot weather: For a large construction with a fresh concrete temperature on delivery = 25C, cement content 350 kg/m3 Example 1: cement CEM I 52.5 N CE CP2 NF Tmax = ~ 70C (T calculated at 2 days in the core of the mass) To be avoided Example 2: cement CEM III/C 32.5 N CE PM ES NF Tmax = ~ 45C (T calculated at 2 days in the core of the mass) OK
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4-3 CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER When young, concrete is sensitive to heat.

A rise in temperature accelerates setting and hardening, causes the evaporation of the mixing water and may therefore have an unfavourable effect on the characteristics of the hardened concrete. Recommendations Recommendations relating to formulation Preferably use a cement with a low hydration heat and avoid a cement with rapid development Never add extra water in excess of the formulation Add a plasticiser, if necessary, or a water-reducing superplasticiser Add a setting retarder
As a general rule, as soon as the temperature measured on site (temperature taken in the shade, 1.50 m above the ground) is sustainably greater than 25C, previously defined particular arrangements must be taken for concreting. Above 35C, as far as possible, concreting should be deferred to a more favourable period.
Recommendations for production and transport Protect the water, the cement and the aggregates from the sun as much as possible Preferably use the aggregates in the morning, after they have cooled down at night, or cool them before use by watering them (in this case, allow for the additional water) Use cold water If supply is from a ready-mix plant, take steps to limit the temperature of the fresh concrete on departure, reduce transport and waiting time and limit the time the mixer lorries spend parking in full sun. Recommendations for concreting Adapt the times for concreting according to the temperature (coolest times of the day) Carry out placing as quickly as possible Do not add water to try and improve the consistence of the concrete Protect the formwork (in particular metal formwork) from direct sunlight and, possibly, cool it by wetting it before concreting
Protection of the concretes Protect from evaporation immediately after placing, particularly surfaces exposed to the sun and to the wind, using a curing product, by a tarpaulin (wet mats, polyethylene film, etc.) or by using a water spraying system. Maintain the protection for the first few hours, or even a few days, depending on how the weather changes Provide all arrangements to enable the heat to escape so as to keep the concrete at an acceptable temperature (protection from sunlight, frequent watering of the formwork, etc.).
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4-4 CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER Cold and frost may have harmful consequences on the quality and the levels of performance of the concrete
Below a temperature of 5C, setting may be sufficiently affected to change the development of the hydration reaction. The hydration kinetics stop as soon as the temperature of the concrete drops below 0C. The time after placing before the concrete is "frost-proof" is in the order of 3 days at a temperature of at least 5C. A concrete subjected to frost within this time is practically irrecoverable, whereas, after that time, the cold only causes hardening to slow down.
Time before striking formwork versus temperature
(compressive strength in MpA)
On site, the temperature must be measured regularly, as it conditions the steps to be taken. The site thermometer must be positioned 1.50 m above ground level, sheltered from rain and sun.
Seen in a microscope, traces of frost in the paste of a fresh concrete. The ice crystals form as the fresh concrete freezes
Start of concrete setting versus temperature
At an external temperature of 5C: The setting time is in the order of 10 hrs against 2.30 hrs at 20C. The compressive strengths at 2 days are in the order of 2 MPa against 15 to 20 MPa at 20C
Minimum striking time
time
Start of setting
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4-4 CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER (contd.)

Recommendations Recommendations relating to formulation Preferably use rapid-hardening cements, with high hydration heat and high early strength If necessary, increase the quantity of cement Reduce the quantity of water by using suitable additives: water reducers, setting accelerators, hardening accelerators Carry out prior studies of cement/additive compatibility under conditions close to those of the site. Recommendations to create and maintain a quantity of heat in the fresh concrete Use heated mixing water and maintain the temperature after placing by heating the formwork Store the aggregates in a frost-free place and, in an extreme case, possibly heat them before adding them to the mixing plant If possible, use formwork that has insulation (lagging) (namely: timber formwork more insulating than metal formwork) Reduce the transport time between the concrete production plant and the site by as much as possible and place the concrete in the formwork as quickly as possible If the water temperature > 60C, modify the way the components are added to the mixer so that the water is not directly in contact on its own with the cement Maintain the protective devices Keep the concrete warm, if possible, as it hardens, by using insulating tarpaulins and by adding heat Protect the surface of the concrete in contact with air from cold (for example: insulating tarpaulin, insulation boards) and, more especially, units that are not very thick Keep the concrete at a minimum temperature of between 15 and 20C (never dropping, especially, below 5C) during its setting and its initial hardening (use of electric heaters for example) Recommendations for striking formwork Keep the surface protection for at least 72 hrs Only strike the formwork if the concrete has reached sufficient minimum strength in the order of 5 MPa to 10 MPa so as to be able to withstand subsequent forces during the following phases of concreting. An increase in the temperature of the components of the concrete may raise its temperature, for example: An increase of 10C of the water raises the temperature of the concrete by 2C An increase of 10C of the aggregates raises the temperature of the concrete by 7C An increase of 10C of the cement raises the temperature of the concrete by 1C
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Concrete Tech Guide

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Bouygues btiment International Engineering division BES BA Practical Guide : The concrete on the international market

Author: Camille dArnoux Supervisor : Marc Blondeau

Pathway to determine a suitable concrete for a construction

Specific characteristics of the construction

Surroundings and exposure of the construction

Normative / contractual restraints

Materials and concrete

Placing / Special concretes

Geographical zone Immediate surroundings Ground / Water table

Normative constraints Contractual constraints

C2 C4 C5 C10 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C20

E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E13 E14 E15 E16 E17 E19 E20 E21

Part A: SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONSTRUCTIONS

5 ATTRACTIVE APPEARANCE .Page A 6

Key used on the following slides

High forces in the vertical elements HEIGHT

Concerns high rise buildings: -Residential towers -Office towers - etc.

Differential settlement between structural elements

High forces in the vertical elements

Increase the strength of the concrete

Non-compliance with permissible deformations of horizontal elements in bending

Choose a suitable concrete and / or suitable construction processes

PRE- / POSTSTRESSED ELEMENTS

3 DISTANCE BETWEEN JOINTS

Increase the number of joints if possible

Include suitable reinforcement

Careful supervision of concreting

Choose a suitable concrete

LARGE CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS

Surface or throughout cracking resulting from the concretes exothermic reaction

METHOD OF PHASING / PLACING

Careful supervision of installation

Comply with the construction specifications

Defect in appearance, colour, texture

Choose a suitable concrete

PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION ON FACINGS

Careful supervision of installation

Part B: SURROUNDINGS AND EXPOSURE OF THE CONSTRUCTION

Heavily-loaded structural elements Careful supervision of installation

VIBRATION OF THE CONCRETE

Choose a suitable concrete

PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION FREEZE / THAW

Reduction in the durability of the various construction Sundry pathologies

CONCRETING IN COLD WEATHER

Careful supervision of installation

CONCRETING IN HOT WEATHER

EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT AIR

PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION CARBONATION

Reduced construction durability

PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION MARITIME SITE

Follow the prevention principles

PATHOLOGY / PREVENTION FREEZE / THAW

TABLE OF CORROSIVE AGENTS

3 GROUND / WATER TABLE

Reduced construction durability

Identify the risk(s) and follow the prevention principles

4 PARTICULAR CONDITIONS OF USE

PRESENCE OF CORROSIVE PRODUCTS

Reduced construction durability

Identify the risk(s) and follow the prevention principles

TABLE OF CORROSIVE AGENTS

5 BUILDING LIFE TIME

ANNEXE CORROSIVE EFFECT OF CHEMICALS