Civil Engineering Materials 267

Stresses in Materials

Lecture 1: Axial Stress and Strain, Modulus of Elasticity

Kerri Bland

Civil Engineering Materials 267 (Stresses)

COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulation 1969 WARNING This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of Curtin University of Technology pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the y py g yy y subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice
References Engineering Mechanics of Solids, 2nd Ed., E.P. Popov, 1991, Prentice Hall. Mechanics of Materials, 6th Ed., R.C. Hibbeler, 2005, Prentice Hall/Pearson.
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Which is the best section to resist the applied axial load? Why? Wh ?
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P
Normal Stress =
ie: = P A

P
load (or force) per unit area
Normal stress N l t Normal to plane it is affecting

For Axial Loads

(Average Normal Stress distribution)

Units: N/m2 = Pa (Pascal) (S I units) (S.I. N/mm2 = MPa (Preferred) (Megapascal)

(work in N and mm answer will come out as MPa)
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Civil Engineering Materials 267 (Stresses) The S.I. unit of stress is Newton per square metre (N/m2) or Pascal (Pa) ), (Pa). In engineering applications there is preference for use of applications, prefixes representing only the ternary powers of 10 (103, 106, 10-6, etc.). Use multiples or sub-multiples of 1000s: 1 kPa = 1000 Pa = 1000 N/m2 1 MP = 1 106 P = 1x106 N/ 2 = 1 N/ MPa 1x10 Pa 1 10 N/m N/mm2 1 GPa = 1x109 Pa = 1x103 MPa = 1x103 N/mm2 Makes it easier to convert between m and mm; N and kN; Pa, kPa, MPa and GPa etc.

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Material strength: g express in terms of allowable loads, or allowable stresses? Which is best? Why?
Steel rod: 10mm*10mm 15mm*15mm 40mm*40mm OR Steel: allowable stress = 250MPa load capacity = 25kN load capacity = 56kN load capacity = 400 kN

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Example
Material A can safely handle a stress of at least 250 MPa. Material B can safely handle a stress of at least 90 MPa.
1.

= P

If a rod of each material is to be produced, and they are each required to resist an axial load of 100kN what cross sectional area is required for 100kN, each material? If a rod of each material has the cross sectional dimensions of 30mm*50mm, 30mm*50mm what is the maximum safe axial load for each material? If a rod is to have cross sectional dimensions of 50mm*50mm, and is to be subjected to an axial load of 500kN, what is the best material to use? j

2. 3.

The Th maximum allowable stress of a material indicates a i ll bl t f t i l i di t material property that is independent of material geometry. The stress which occurs in a particular geometric shape is i d i independent of material type. d t f t i lt
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The stress caused by a tension axial force is called a tensile stress. The stress caused by a compression axial force is called a compressive stress.
Tensile stress stretching effect x Compressive stress contracting effect

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Normal Strain
When a material is subjected to load, resulting in stresses within the material, a related deformation of the f f material occurs. The concept of Strain is used to describe the deformation. Normal strain is directly related to normal stress. Tension results in an increase in length positive strain Compression results in a decrease in length negative strain

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Normal Strain
Defined as ratio between the change = L in l i length and the original length. th d th i i ll th L Strain is dimensionless (but is often stated in
mm/mm, m/m or m/m (microstrain see below)).

Independent o actual length of member. depe de t of actua e gt o e be As the number is usually very small (ie: usually have a very small d f h ll deformation per metre of material) strain is ti t f t i l) usually expressed in microstrain (). = 1*10-6 = 1mm extension in 1km
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As mentioned before when considering stresses, in engineering applications, there is preference for use of prefixes representing only the ternary powers of 10 (103, 106, 10-6, etc.). Use multiples or sub-multiples of 1000s (which is easier to read and immediately identify the largest number?):

Strain measured 0.000263 0.000091 0 000091 0.000166 0.000017 0.001018

Expressed as ternary powers 263*10-6 91 10 91*10-6 166*10-6 17*10-6 1.02*10-3 or 1018*10-6

Expressed in 263 91 166 17 1018

Non-preferred power representation 2.63*10-4 9.10 10 5 9 10*10-5 1.66*10-4 1.70*10-5 1.02*10-3

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Measuring stress and strain Stress can not be measured.

calculate based on the applied actions (direction, (direction section geometry type of action geometry, action, magnitude of action)

Strain can be directly measured measured.

Strain gauges Tension t t T i test

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STRAIN GAUGES

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(Popov, p59) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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TENSION TEST
Take a specimen with an original cross-sectional area of Ao in the central portion of the specimen, and a gauge length length of Lo.
Marks are often inscribed on test specimen. A set gauge length such as Lo (say, 100 mm, mm 200 mm, etc.) can be used as the mm etc ) reference / datum taken at central portion. Change in Lo is measured by a device called an extensometer.
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(Popov, p59) Refer to slide 2 for Cop pyright warning

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TENSION TEST (cont.)

In tension tests, either round bars or flat rectangular bars can be used. If Lo = the initial gauge length and L = the observed length under a given load then the gauge elongation L load, = (L-Lo). The tensile (or compressive) strain is the elongation per unit of the initial gauge length:g g g = L/Lo = (L-Lo)/Lo The strain is called the normal strain (or direct strain) since it is associated with the normal stress stress.
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TENSION TESTS
Often used to plot stress-strain diagrams Measure strain, calculate stress Diagrams used to determine behaviour characteristics of the tested material
Yield stress Linear elastic region g Ultimate stress Ductile or brittle material?

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Typical stress-strain curve for ductile steel

(Popov, p61) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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HOOKES LAW
The fi t Th first portion of the - curve i straight. Thi i t ti f th is t i ht This is true f materials for t i l such as steel, aluminium, glass, etc. There are also materials where th i iti l part of th - curve i near Th l t i l h the initial t f the is straight, e.g., concrete, annealed copper, cast iron, etc. The Th assumption of linear relationship b t ti f li l ti hi between and i th b i f d is the basis for Hookes Law: = E E. or E = / /

where, E = slope of linear part of curve The constant of proportionality, E, is called the: modulus of elasticity or Y d l f l ti it Youngs modulus. d l
u y
Stress Strain Typical Stress-strain Curve for Steel
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HOOKES LAW (cont.)

Graphically, E is the slope of a straight line from the origin to the proportional or elastic limit of the material. material Hookes Law applies only up to the proportional limit of the material material. E is in Pa or N/m2 (or MPa or GPa).
St tress

E is the stress required to create unit strain a very large number (Esteel = 200*103 MPa) = L/L = 1 y L = L (ie: doubles in length)

Larger E more stress required to Strain Strain at yield point create unit strain (ie: a stiffer of 400MPa = 0.002 material) Typical Stress-strain Curve for Steel
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2T

Two identical rods, one with twice the tension load of the other. other How do you think the strains will compare?
a)

2T

Assuming the strain in both cases will still be within the elastic range? Assuming th strain i one case A i the t i in will not still be within the elastic range?
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b)

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FURTHER REMARKS ON STRESSSTRAIN RELATIONSHIPS

The highest point (max. stress point) gives the ultimate tensile strength of a material. Stress at the yield plateau of the - curve i called St t th i ld l t f th is ll d the yield strength of a material.

u y
Stre ess

Fracture point
u = ultimate tensile strength y = yield strength

Strain Stress-strain Stress strain Curve for Steel

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In ductile materials, at the ultimate point, where th maximum t i t h the i tensile il stress occurs, the process of necking starts to occur.

(Hibbler, p88) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

(Popov, p62) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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Stress strain curves vary for different materials:

Typical cup and cone failure of a ductile material (actually a shear failure more on that later)

(Hibbler, p97) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

(Popov, p66) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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(Hibbler, p92) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

(Hibbler, p93) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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(Hibbler, p92) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

(Hibbler, p93) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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We can have linear elastic or Hookean - curve.

A material which has nonlinear - c r e when curve, hen unloaded, and returns back along th l di path t it l the loading th to its initial stress-free state of deformation is called a nond f ti i ll d linear elastic material.
(Popov, p69) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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In many materials, the yielding (y (yield plateau) p p ) phenomenon is absent. In order to define a recognisable recognisable, repeatable yield stress, the offset ff t method i used. th d is d An arbitrary 0.2% offset is y usually considered.

(Popov, p68) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

A line, parallel to the beginning portion of the curve is line curve, drawn. The origin of the line is at 0.2% strain 0 2% 0.2% = 0.002 = 200 The i ld t Th yield stress is defined as th point ( t i d fi d the i t (stress) where th ) h the line intersects the curve. 1 Lecture 27

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If in stressing a non-linear g material, its elastic limit is exceeded, exceeded on unloading it usually responds approx. linearly elastic manner, and a manner permanent deformation or set develops at zero l d d l load. The area enclosed by the loop corresponds to dissipated energy released through heat.
(Popov, p69) Refer to slide 2 for Copyright warning

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Summary
Normal stress due to uniaxial load d e nia ial load:

Normal strain due to uniaxial load:

L = L

Youngs modulus: (a ( measure of the stiffness of a f th tiff f linear elastic material)

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E =

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