Gestalt A Learning Theory for Graphic Design Education

Ian Jackson

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Abstract
This article will begin by seeking to define the notion of learning by, through and from experience. A linkage will then be established between these notions of experiences and gestalt theory. This will be explored within a subject specific context of graphic design. Links will be highlighted between the inherent nature of graphic design and those of gestalt psychology. Although reference will be made to other learning theories, particularly behaviourism, this article will proceed into a discussion on how the pursuit of a gestaltist stance has had implications upon the learning experiences of a range of Higher National Diploma / Foundation Degree learners. The article concludes with a summary of its observations and a consideration of this upon future practical and theoretical practice within graphic design education.

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Learning and experience Experience can be conscious or unconscious. Experience can be achieved by, through and from practical or theoretical application, or a combination of the two. Experience can also relate to relevant practical or theoretical achievements obtained before, during and after the commencement of a course of study. But, experience itself does not necessarily result in learning as explained by Gibbs (1988, 9): It is not sufficient simply to have an experience in order to learn. Without reflecting upon this experience it may quickly be forgotten or its learning potential lost. It is within this context of heightened consciousness and considered reflection that I wish to define learning by, through and from experience using Schn (1983) as my guide. I have defined the by, through and from as such: By relating to reflection-in-action that is, cognitive reflection whilst a task is in process. Through, although again relating to reflectionin-action, I have extended Schns theory to include a more holistic overview. That is, reflection whilst a task is in process, but simultaneously looking at the whole picture or overall aim or objective. From relating to reflection-on-action as opposed to reflection-in-action. That is, reflective considerations after the event retrospective thought, after a task or an overall objective has been completed. Therefore, learning by, through and from experience is not a measurable shift in physical output, although this may well come later, but is an internal shift in cognitive processes. An ultimate aim being that of transferring skills and knowledge learnt to solve problems of a similar nature. This emphasis on transferable skills is particularly relevant on a Higher National Diploma / Foundation Degree course in which extensive coursework demands, such as to achieve vocational integration, academic awareness and personal development skills, require a keen emphasis on self-initiation in order to succeed. Put colloquially, transferable skills could be described as a joining up of the dots between what could be

perceived as disperse concepts, lessons or projects. The essence of graphic design As a member of the visual arts, graphic design shares many of the same concerns that affect other art and design specialisms. These concerns are known as the formal elements. Categorised at the Bauhaus School in 1920s Germany, the formal elements could be defined as Point and Line, Shape, Texture, Space, Tone and Colour. These formal principles are believed to underline and unite all the specialised disciplines of Art and Design. As such, teaching of the formal elements is a core and early part of all Visual Art studies (Lupton 1988). A distinct attribute of graphic design, when compared to other visual arts, is that of context. Graphic design requires an audience. To successfully communicate with that audience a message must be applied within an appropriate context. Context can manifest itself through how, where and when graphic design is communicated to its intended audience. It is at the production level the how that the visual manipulation of the formal elements is applied for context. Therefore, if graphic design is a subject that requires an understanding of how to unify and interrelate formal elements within a context which learning theory best supports the teaching and learning of this for Higher Education learners? Formal elements and the restrictions of behaviourism My own first experience of teaching the formal elements (although at the time I was unaware) was through behaviourist theories. This was forged through a belief that treating component formal elements in isolation would maximise clarity and aid memory retention. It was felt that a clear increase in measurable output justified and quantified, to the students not to mention myself that they were learning. Many teachers in the department in which I was at that time working advocated this as a sensible and tried methodology of achieving and generating output. This is especially pertinent within the highly pressurised environment of achievement and retention.

JADE 27.1 (2008) 2008 The Author. Journal compilation 2008 NSEAD/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The exercises I adopted involved students exploring a particular formal element, such as tone, through the relationships and interplay of typographic characters. At specific time- or quantitydriven points another formal element would be explored, either individually, or in relation to the previous formal element. This created a series of building blocks. The exercises were set to achieve goals and were sequential, systematic, linear and devoid of appropriate context. This approach lacked a distinct characteristic of graphic design studies. This, I believe, was reflected in the quality of student outcome and their inability to apply or transfer these skills beyond the confines of that learnt situation. When these skills were transferred it is notable that they were applied by students who had previous industrial or higher educational experience. Even for these students application was generally devoid of any creative flair or deeper understanding. This, I believe, is because students had become accustomed to what Thorndike (1913) termed The law of effect. The law of effect is that an act which results in a particular experience (in this case praise or criticism) will generally become associated with that situation. So work, which is praised during the insular exercises, may, in fact, be inappropriate for briefs of a contextual nature. Briefs that followed the exercises included designing a poster to advertise evening courses at the college, and a corporate identity for a multinational company. Both of these are contextually very different one being local and the other global. But because of this disposition to the law of effect, contextual outcomes tended to be technical and mechanical rather than dynamic, considered and appropriate. The outcomes aesthetically had much similarity to those that were praised in the exercises. This was perplexing for both the students and myself. I had followed a trial-and-error approach in which I had encouraged students to produce a large quantity of output. However, quantity had not converted itself into quality. This was because students were not encouraged to reflect upon their own actions and experiences, a skill they need to internalise before entering the pressurised arena of employment. Instead feedback in

critiques was continually reinforced by myself rather than being a discursive and inclusive learning environment. This was partly because the formal elements were new to many of the students. But primarily this was because without a context to compare and contrast the merits of their output, critiques were primarily teacher centred and teacher dependent. This was at the expense of a holistic, contextual analysis of output. It is clear to me now that students were learning by experience (whilst a task was in process), and learning from experience (the completed task, after the event). However, I would argue that without effective use of reflection-in-action or reflection-on-action to aid cognitive growth, student learning was minimal and not indicative of higher cognitive processes. I would also propose that students were almost certainly not engaging with learning through experience. That is learning which involves a macro, inclusive and wider structural view of the problem as well as a micro, task specific viewpoint. The emphasis was upon minor details and not on whole situations. A reference to context would have broadened the learners scope away from task-only completion. The predominant learned capability that students were using was that of motor skills learning. This was at the detriment of the cognitive strategies that Gagne (Gagne et al. 1988, 67) emphasised as internal process by which learners select and modify their ways of attending, learning, remembering and thinking. This observation is not to detract from the importance of motor skill learning indeed the precise, smooth and accurately timed execution of performances is essential in a visual subject. However, on a course striving for higher-level skills and knowledge this fulfils only technical and factual knowledge and ignores conceptual cognitive concerns. This is particularly concerning for a course that encourages an increased independence of thought and working processes. Students were therefore effective in learning skills, but not the skills most needed to apply a range of formal elements successfully across the course. Behavourism: a summary of limitations As an applied learning theory behaviourism has

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limitations for supporting adult learners by, through and from experience within the subject specialism of graphic design. The main limitations of behaviourism when applied to Higher National students are summarised below: Behaviourism does not allow for learning through experience. That is, learning that does not take place in isolation, but learning within a wider holistic context or structural overview. This is essential for the interrelating complexities of graphic design. Although behaviourism does produce learning by and from experience, this experience is insufficient. If any learning does take place, it is tacit (Smith 2003) rather than reflective and conscious. Behaviourism offers limited capabilities for outcomes of learning most notably that of cognitive strategies. Yet behavourism does offer opportunities for developing and improving students motor skills. Learning is sequential and mechanical rather than interrelated and dynamic. This reduces the opportunities for converting learnt skills and knowledge into understanding. This in turn reduces the capability of transferring skills into similar or related real world contextual briefs. Graphic design and gestalt: aesthetics and perception Whilst behaviourism could be described as sequential and mechanical, gestalt, from the German word for whole, form or shape, offers more dynamic opportunities for graphic design education. Gestalt psychology proposes that the brain is holistic with self-organising tendencies. Due to these supposed innate abilities, the brain is capable of organising and structuring individual elements, shapes or forms into a coherent, organised whole. Although the individual elements may contain some meaning, the coherent whole will have a greater meaning than the sum of the parts. This satisfies the human brains need to find, or impose, meaning to situations. As such, there are links between the perceptual qualities of gestalt

and the aesthetic and compositional concerns of art and design. These links were first identified when a representative of gestalt psychology lectured at the Bauhaus School of Art and Design: One of the reasons Bauhaus designers and artists embraced gestalt theory is that it seemed to provide a scientific validation of age-old principles of compositions (Pipes 2003, 183). It is this manipulation of perceptual qualities as identified by Koffka (1999) as closure, continuity, similarity and proximity that influences the visual manifestation of formal elements, and therefore of composition, as such, in compositions as intricate as painting [and graphic design], parts may be purposely made to connect by one grouping tendency (similarity of colour, for example), but to disconnect by others (distance or differences of shape, size or direction) (Pipes 2003, 182). All the elements must work together if they appear separate and incongruous, the composition will fall apart. This reflects the gestalt mantra that the whole must be greater than the sum of the parts. For Curzon (1985, 18), gestalt is concerned primarily with the significance of organized forms and patterns in human perception, thinking and learning. Understanding the perception of relationships within organized entities is of the very essence of learning. Graphic design and gestalt: learning through experience To ensure the formal elements are not just understood, but can be applied flexibly, relatively and discriminately, a dexterous approach to problem solving is required. Although providing short-term gain, behaviourism, in varying degrees, failed the learners in the longer term. This isolated and scientific approach to formal elements did not allow for transferable skills, context and learning through experience. Indeed, by my own definition of experience, that of a reflected-upon experience and change in cognitive patterns, behaviourism arguably failed in providing learning by and from experience within a meaningful individualised cognitive structure. I have defined learning through experience as a kind of reflection-in-action whilst a task is in process, looking at the whole picture or overall

JADE 27.1 (2008) 2008 The Author. Journal compilation 2008 NSEAD/Blackwell Publishing Ltd

aim or objective. Therefore a student rather than studying formal elements in isolation would look at the inter-relationships of the formal elements (the facts) in consideration to the context (overall aim or objective). Or, as described by Curzon (1985, 52): The teacher should aim to elicit productive thinking based on the perception of phenomena as integrated wholes. The teachers task is, in the light of this theory, the arrangement of the conditions of learning so that perception of this nature is facilitated. It is this notion of productive (or creative) thinking as opposed to uncritical application of behaviourism that I feel can be of significant benefit to students professional and personal development. Productive thinking as opposed to uncritical application Rather than allowing students to pursue a trial and error approach to problem solving learning by doing I decided to try to see if the students were able to solve problems more effectively through learning by thinking. With this, thinking begins at the earliest stages of a projects conception and is constantly revisited throughout the process of doing. To ensure productive thinking at the beginning of a project students were encouraged to participate in a critique in which they, as opposed to me, analysed and deconstructed the content of the brief. This would often take the form of a series of questions devised by the students to ask other students. These could include who is the brief for? Who is the client? Who or where is the market? Where will you need research, will you need to interview or survey? Will you need to work in pairs, groups or individually? Could it be an animation, illustration, photographic, typographic? Which formal elements are needed to achieve this? How will formal elements interrelate as so each of them is consistent in its efficiency and quality of communication? And, at this moment how do you envisage your final design to be visualised? By deconstructing the structure of the brief and revealing parts of, or the whole problem, students are then free to research this problem within the contemporary and historical breadth of graphic design.

This stage of productive thinking is defined as preparation by Wallas (1926) in which a learner explores the problem and defines it. This transfer of external stimuli into internal process contributes to an informed understanding and a growing awareness of the structure of the problem. This designer did that because? This line, shape, tone, colour is used because? The effect of this tone reduces the quality of that line because? Suddenly a series of questions is evoked in the students mind that challenges their original thoughts and preconceptions. This then allows for a kaleidoscope of creative opportunities and depth of thought: A reasonable reorganization, reorientation, which enables the subject to view the given situation in a new and more penetrating perspective. It is this factor that leads to or constitutes a discovery in a deeper sense (Wertheimer 1966, 169). It is the context of that tone in relation to that line, in relation to that overarching problem, that affects the appropriation and effectiveness of it. It is this relational thinking (Koffka 1999) that underpins cognitive thought and learning through experience. Students, through particular stages of the research, are then made to consider the effectiveness of their research and how this may be linked to the next stage of the discovery. This cyclical process of learning, achieved by and through experience, is continued across all stages of the production process. Research, production and realisation are all underpinned by a continual reflective process which examines the interrelationships which constitute the completed whole. This process culminates in reflection-on-action or learning from experience, in which the student constructively considers the outcome after the overall objective has been completed. This can be achieved through sketchbook annotation, student diary or logs, or through discursive group feedback. The challenges of gestalt Using gestaltist theories in applied teaching and learning situations can, I believe, improve the quality of students ability to learn by, through and from experience. Gestalt, as opposed to behaviourism, allowed the scope and opportunity to

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explore a more holistic and interrelated, contextualised learning experience. However, is by no means a uniform success. This is due to the implicit problems and challenges of applied gestalt. I will explore and expand upon these practical problems in this section. Gestalt is cognitive, and therefore not generally observable. This can sit uneasily with students own notion of an educational experience that is measurable. Changes in cognitive structures can be a slow. This can be a painful experience, both for student and lecturer. John Danvers (2003, 54) defined this instability as an inherent quality of struggling to problem solve and innovate within design practice: Compared to many other subjects the constant process of critical interrogation, revision and even redefinition within art and design leads to an inherent instability that is seen as positive, dynamic and productive . To enable cognitive shifts to be successful, patience, coupled with a longer-term perspective is required. Patience, perseverance and confidence must be instigated by the senior lecturer not just to the students and the staff but also to heads of department and faculty who unless sympathetic may wish to see more immediate visual responses. Although output was a concern particularly for students who equated a parallel relationship between increasing output and quality, other students remarked on how the quality of their output was of a more complete and sophisticated visual and conceptual literacy. Concerns about quantity of output were particularly prevalent amongst students who progressed from more didactic learning experiences at their previous educational institutions. The complexities of cognitive restructuring are unnecessary for facts or absolutes. Rote learning has much strength for learning definitions of facts. However, applying these facts dynamically and contextually is where a higher level of thought is required. It can also be difficult in ensuring that students are reflecting upon their learning. Materials may be produced by the lecturer to ensure that adequate reflection takes place at key points in a projects development. Written evaluations form part of this process. However, I have found that students written abil-

ities can impair reflection and support must be provided for this. Critiques are another important area for learning in Art and Design departments. However, gestalt theory does not necessarily improve students verbal information skills (Gagne et al. 1988). As such, there is an emphasis on the lecturer to extract through higher-order questioning students reflective thoughts, and then to ensure the student is aware of these thoughts. Again, learning by, through and from experiences through linking the visual evidence with the mental thoughts. Conclusion and implications for future practice I argue that pursuing a gestaltist approach has valuable implications on the quality of thought that students can apply to a range of contextual or real world projects. This is of immense benefit to learners professional and personal development whilst on the course but also for future employment opportunities. Gestalt, when applied with constructive reflection, offers real opportunities and possibilities for learning by, through and from experience. Gestalt, with its emphasis on cognitive structure, problem solving and context, has a natural affinity to the interrelating concerns of unifying formal elements with context. However, gestalt is for many students an aim rather than prerequisite. Learning how to restructure and reorganise a multiple of facts or uncertainties can be problematic. This is particularly so for students whose previous educational experiences emphasised the value of trial-and-error or step-by-step learning. It is finding this balance between learning facts and accepting that those facts are often dependent on their context where a balance between behaviourism and gestalt may lie. The learning environment has to encourage interactions between learners in which action and reflection are carefully counter-balanced (Danvers 2003, 52) Graphic Design is a visual, creative but in production a technical subject. It is because of this that it is important that the motor skills of students are not ignored. A visual manifestation of thoughts must be realised and it is here that behaviourism can take a critical role. However,

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this role will only provide the facts and procedures of production and the final technical output. It will not within itself provide the creative and dynamic cognitive process. Despite its difficulties in application as well as being sensitive to the inherent concerns of graphic design, I believe gestalt is an effective tool for learning by, through and from experience.

Thorndike, E. (1913) Educational Psychology: The Psychology of Learning. New York: Teachers College Press Wallas, G. (1926) The Art of Thought. London: Harcourt Wertheimer, M. (1966) Productive Thinking. London: Tavistock

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References Curzon, L. B. (1985) Teaching in Further Education: An Outline of Principles and Practice. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Danvers, J. (2003) Towards a radical pedagogy: provisional notes on learning and teaching in Art & Design, International Journal of Art & Design Education, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 4757 Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J. & Wager, W. (1988) Principles of Instructional Design. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. London: Further Education Unit Koffka, K. (1999) Principles of Gestalt Psychology. London: Routledge Lupton, E. (1988) Writing lessons: modern design theory. Unpublished paper for City University of New York Graduate Center (online). Available from URL: www.designwritingresearch .org/essays/modtheory.html (accessed 21 February 2006) Pipes, A. (2003) Foundations of Art and Design. London: Laurence King Schn, D. A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books Smith, M. K. (2003) Michael Polanyi and tacit knowledge, The Encyclopedia of Informal Education (online): Available from URL: www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm (accessed 2 April 2006)

JADE 27.1 (2008) 2008 The Author. Journal compilation 2008 NSEAD/Blackwell Publishing Ltd