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Tourism Management 28 (2007) 423433 www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Research article

Gender differences in online travel information search: Implications for marketing communications on the internet
Dae-Young Kima, Xinran Y. Lehtob, Alastair M. Morrisonc,
a

Hotel & Restaurant Management Program, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO, USA b Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, Indiana, USA c College of Consumer and Family Sciences Purdue University, IN 47907-2059, USA Received 30 March 2006; accepted 2 April 2006

Abstract Gender has been and continues to be one of the most common forms of segmentation used by marketers in general and advertisers in particular. In general, males and females are likely to differ in information processes and decision making. The growing predominance of Internet use has further highlighted the need for understanding online users attitudes and behaviors from a gender perspective. Reecting this research need, the purpose of this study was to examine gender differences within the context of online travel Website functionality and content preferences as well as search behavior. The data used for this study were obtained from the Internet Tourism & Travel 2001 Study conducted for the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC). There was a usable sample of 1334 qualied respondents in this study. The results indicated that there were substantial gender differences both in terms of attitudes to information channels and travel Website functionality preferences. The implications of such differences for online tourism Website message design were discussed. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gender difference; Information search process; Destination website

1. Introduction The revolutionary development of information technology has dramatically changed society and peoples everyday lives, including the way travelers search for information and plan trips. Recent studies by NFO Plog Research show that the Internet has become one of the most important information sources for travel information acquisition (Lake, 2001). Tourism by nature is an information-oriented phenomenon due to structural reasons (Schertler, Schmid, Tjoa, & Werthner, 1995). For consumers, decision-making and consumption are separated in time and space. These distances can only be overcome by the information about the product, which is available in advance and which can be gathered by the consumer (Werthner & Klein, 1999). As a result, information quality has emerged as a major research topic and providing relevant and meaningful information search
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 765 494 7905; fax: +1 765 496 1168.

E-mail address: alastair@purdue.edu (A.M. Morrison). 0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.001

experiences is perceived as essential for the success of tourism organizations. Acknowledging gender differences arising from factors such as biological factors (Buss, 1995; Everhart, Shucard, Quatrin, & Shucard, 2001; Hall, 1984; Saucier & Elias, 2001) gender identity (Bem, 1974; Fischer & Arnold, 1994; Spence & Helmreich, 1978), and gender role attitudes(Buss & Schaninger, 1987; Douglas, 1976; Eagly, 1987; Fisher & Arnold, 1990, 1994; Schaninger & Buss, 1985), gender has been frequently used as a basis for segmentation for a signicant proportion of products and services (Putrevu, 2001). The fact that men and women are different is commonly acknowledged in most societies. The prevalent research question, however, has focused on whether biological make-up or social factors drive these gender differences. That is, the study of gender differences encompasses several unexplored dimensions that lately have attracted research attention. Within the context of information search processes, relatively little research has been done on gender differences. An intriguing question facing consumer researchers is whether gender differences

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can be translated into consistent differential patterns in information-processing and judgment. In order to deliver products and services that cater to the unique needs and aspirations of each gender, marketers need to understand the origins and psychological differences between the two genders. Accordingly, the purpose of this research was to provide a review of the literature on the informationprocessing differences between females and males, empirically examine the gender differences in online information attitudes, preferences and behaviors within the domain of travel-related information, and discuss the major implications of such differences for more effective marketing and advertising strategies. 2. Literature review 2.1. Characteristics of tourism information Various typologies of information sources have been proposed. There is general consensus, however, that information search can be divided into internal search, which is a scan in long-term memory for relevant product knowledge, and external search, which happens when an internal search cannot provide sufcient and adequate information and consumers need to collect information from the external world (Bettman, 1979; Engel, Blackwell & Miniard, 1990; Fodness & Murray, 1997, 1998; Mullen & Johnson, 1990; Wicks & Schuett, 1991). Based on these two concepts, Fodness and Murray (1997) conceptualized tourist information search as a dynamic process wherein individuals use various amounts and types of information sources in response to internal and external contingencies to facilitate travel planning. For external sources, travelers rely on both marketing-dominated and nonmarketing-dominated information sources to search for travel-related information and plan their trips. The former information sources include advertising and commercials in the mass media, travel brochures, guidebooks from clubs and welcome centers; the latter includes friends, relatives and personal experiences. Further, tourist information search may vary depending on the purpose of the trip (Fodness & Murray 1998), planning horizon (Gitelson & Crompton 1983; Schul & Crompton 1983), motivation (Gitelson & Crompton 1983; Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1998), and level of involvement (Crotts, 1999; Kerstetter, & Cho, 2004; Lehto, OLeary, & Morrison, 2004). Many studies have indicated that the major purpose of information search is to support decision-making (i.e., reduce risk and uncertainty) and product choice in which the information search behavior strengthens the decisionmaking and choice behavior (Bettman, 1979; Bloch, Sherrell, & Ridgway, 1986; Moorthy, Ratchford, & Talukdar, 1997). For tourists, information acquisition is necessary for choosing a destination and for onsite decisions such as selecting accommodations, transportation, activities, and tours (Fodness & Murray, 1998; Gursoy and Chen, 2000; Snepenger, Meged, Snelling &

Worrall, 1990). In many aspects, tourist informationprocessing is different from that of other consumers. The differences are mainly due to structural reasons (Schertler et al., 1995). Tourists have to leave their daily environment, having to move to geographically distant places to consume the tourism product. According to Werthner and Klein (1999), the tourism product normally cannot be tested and controlled in advance. Thus, decision-making and consumption are separated in time and space. These distances can only be overcome by the information about the product, which is available in advance and which can be gathered by the consumer (Werthner & Klein, 1999). Another reason is due to the characteristics of the tourism product. In consumer behavior research, Nelson (1970) suggests that goods can be classied as possessing either search or experience qualities. Search qualities are those that the consumer can determine by inspection prior to purchase, and experience qualities are those that are not determined prior to purchase (Nelson, 1974, p. 730). With respect to classication, tourism is a condence good; an a priori comprehensive assessment of its qualities is impossible. This requires information from the consumer and supplier sides, entailing high information search costs and causing informational market imperfections (Williamson, 1985). Tourism organizations rely on an exchange of information with travelers through various channels to market products and build customer relationships. Travelers depend on travel-related information for functional needs such as travel planning and also other social, visual, entertainment, and creativity needs (Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1998). Recent studies show that travelers use different combinations of information sources to plan trips such as personal experience, friends and family, travel agencies, travel brochures and guidebooks, highway welcome centers, magazines and newspapers. These sources are inuenced by different search contingencies and individual characteristics (Fodness & Murray, 1998). In addition, the tourism product is a complex product; it is a set of basic products, delivered by a large number of suppliers (Werthner & Klein, 1999). The basic products are aggregated by some intermediary entities. The product aggregation and consolidation process is also information intensive. Products have to have well dened interfaces so that they match consumer needs, processes, and distribution channels. For example, a hotel may be packaged with different transportation arrangements or combined with demand-generators such as sports or cultural events. These packages can be sold to different consumer groups, if the product attributes and the consumers interests can be mapped onto each other. Another important feature of tourism products is their perishability (Kotler, Bowen & Makens, 1999). They have to be consumed when they are available and cannot be stored. This is true for nearly all components of the tourism product; a hotel bed not sold for one night represents lost income, and the same is true for a seat on an airplane or for a sports event. Thus, suppliers bear high risks and are vulnerable if consumers

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are unaware of product offerings. This risk can be somewhat reduced if suppliers or intermediaries have complete access to information about inventory and availability. In short, the unique characteristics of the tourism product further underscore the importance of successful information dissemination strategy. 2.2. Gender difference in information processing Gender is socially constructed; it is based in a persons view of him- or herself as possessing those qualities that society deems to be masculine, feminine, or both. However, sex is a biological classication; the term refers to whether an individual is biologically and genetically male or female (Wilson, 2002). The study of gender and gender-related behavior has been and continues to be one of the most important forms of segmentation used by marketing communicators (Darley & Smith, 1995; Holbrook, 1986; Meyers-Levy, 1988; Meyers-Levy & Sternthal, 1991; Putrevu, 2001). Holbrook (1986) saw gender as a key variable in moderating consumers evaluative judgments. Meyers-Levy & Sternthal (1991) and Darley & Smith (1995) suggested that the use of gender in market segmentation met several of the requirements for successful implementation: the segments were easy to identify, easy to access, and large enough to be protable. The human brain is divided into two hemispheres, and lateralization refers to the specialization in the functioning of each hemisphere: The left hemisphere specializes in verbal abilities and the right hemisphere specializes in spatial perception (Hansen, 1981). Recent clinical and experimental research shows that the two hemispheres are more symmetrically organized in females and more specialized in males (Everhart et al., 2001; Saucier & Elias, 2001). Likewise, women have speech- and language-specic areas on both sides of our brain (Whitesel, 2005). For males, speech and language are not specic brain skills, and they primarily operate on the left side of the brain. Because of this non-compartmentalizing of womens brains, talking is necessary for processing information. In regard to emotion, mens emotion is located in two areas of the right side of their brain (Gorman, Nash, & Ehrenreich, 1992). Located in only one side, mens emotions can operate separately from the other brain functions. On the other hand womens emotions are located in both hemispheres of the brain, making her more able to switch her emotions on while her brain performs other functions. The brain lateralization differences attributed to the sexes are also likely to inuence product evaluation and judgment. Like the clinical ndings about the brain lateralization, in cognitive studies, it is also widely accepted that women excel in verbal skills (Hyde & Linn, 1988), whereas men show superiority in mathematical ability (Geary, 1996; Hyde, Fennema, & Lamon, 1990) and spatial abilities (Linn & Peterson, 1986). Consistent with these ndings, a recently released 32-nation OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) study

shows that female students are better at reading and male students are better at math in every country surveyed (Sokoloff, 2001). It would be assumed that the cognitive gender differences inuence information searchers preferences and abilities to successfully search and navigate information on the Web, since there is evidence suggesting that women lag behind men in the degree to which they are experienced with and motivated by technology (Light, Littleton, Bale, Joiner, & Messer, 2000; Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001). The research literature seems consistent in ascribing specic personality traits to men and women and in suggesting that the unique interests and knowledge associated with the genders social roles guide their judgments. In general, men are reported to be more independent, condent, competitive, willing to take risks, and less prone to perceive product risk than females (Darley & Smith, 1995). Based on previous cognitive researches, Meyers-Levy (1988) examined gender differences of information search behavior in visual-spatial and verbal abilities, and argued that males had a tendency not to process all available information as a basis for judgment. Instead, they relied more on their own opinions. As a result, males made decisions more quickly than females, relying on only highly available information. Additionally, males focused on concrete, objective cues such as form and physical attributes. In contrast, females relied on multiple sources of information before making a decision. Females processed information in a more exhaustive and interpretive way, relying on a broad variety of information. Females processed information resorting more to sources in the external world rather than to their own judgments. In terms of information processes, Krugman (1966) reported that women engaged in greater elaboration of advertisements than did men, regardless of whether the advertisements focused on contents considered of more interest to men or to women. Rosenthal and DePaulo (1979) found greater stimulus elaboration among women than among men when subjects were given adequate time to process information. Similarly, Meyer-Levy and Sternthal (1991) noted that men were more likely to be driven by overall message themes or schemas and women were more likely to engage in detailed elaboration of the message content. Specically, men are considered to be selective processors who often do not engage in comprehensive processing of all available information before rendering judgment. Instead, they seem to rely on various heuristics in place of detailed message elaboration. These heuristics involve a cue or cues that are highly available and salient and imply a particular inference. Such processing implies that men often base their judgments on a select subset of all available information. In contrast, women are considered to be comprehensive processors who attempt to assimilate all available information before rendering judgment. Women usually attempt effortful elaboration of all available information unless they are restricted by memory constraints. Therefore, women give

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equal weight to self- and other-generated information, encode more message claims, and more extensively elaborate on specic claims. Despite several arguments that gender differences are not signicant (OKeefe, 2002) in cognitive theories, the research literature contains evidence of dependable gender differences in persuasibility, with women being more easily persuaded than men (Becker, 1986; Eagly & Carli, 1981). For instance, women conform more, are more susceptible to inuence, and are more adept in encoding and decoding nonverbal communications (Hall, 1984; Everhart et al., 2001). Additionally, women are considered to be more visually oriented, more intrinsically motivated, and more romantic compared to men (Holbrook, 1986). Wood (1966) also observed that women responded to nonverbal stimuli by evoking more associative, imagery-laced interpretations, and more elaborate descriptions than did their male counterparts. In a similar sense, compared to men, women show more sensitivity to a variety of situationspecic cues in determining their self-evaluations (Lenney, Gold, & Browning, 1983), and use more elaborate descriptive terms (Nowaczyk, 1982), which means that men pay less attention to the colors and details of information than women do. Men have been depicted as more analytical and logical in processing orientation, whereas women are more subjective and intuitive since they indulge in more associative, imagery-laced interpretations (Hass, 1979) (Table 1). 2.3. User information search process in online environment Concomitant with the rapid growth of the Internet, online information search behavior has become a major research topic. The Internet has gained considerable importance as a communicative and adaptive means of sharing and disseminating information. It is generally assumed that the digital media of computer networks are fundamentally different from the current mass media of television, radio, newspapers, and magazines because of their designs and the technology upon which they function. From a business perspective, the Internet makes available new tools for marketers to reduce costs, transform relationships, open new channels, streamline processes, and contribute to shareholder value (Oliva, 1998). From a consumer behavior perspective, Dholakis and Bagozzi
Table 1 Gender difference in information-processing Female (Comprehensive Processors) Engaged in greater elaboration of ads Central or systematic route Inuenced by detailed message contents More visually, intrinsically motivated Rely on external sources Use All available information

(2001) argued that the digital media are affecting the information environment and consumer behaviors in an unprecedented way as a result of the unique characteristics of the Internet such as the speed of access, scope of access, provision of interactive assistance, and exibility in representing information. Previous research has shown that people vary widely in their ability to nd and retrieve information in loosely structured information environments (Chang & McDaniel, 1995). Some factors that predict search success in such environments include level of domain knowledge and search expertise (MacGregor, 1999), ability (Chang & McDaniel, 1995), gender (ChanLin, 1999; Mantovani, 1994), learner control (Dillon & Gabbard, 1998; MacGreggor, 1999), learner style (Shute, 1993), and interest (Tobias, 1994). In general, more experienced, knowledgeable, interested, male users who are active learners and oriented towards an internal locus of control are associated with being successful in such environments. Gender difference in technology adaptation rates may exist because men and women differ in socioeconomic status, which inuences computer and Internet access and use (Bimber, 2000). Men tend to be more interested in computers than women, on average, contributing to gender differences in Internet use (Shashaani, 1997). Others speculate that technology per se is a product of social relations, so diffusion of new innovations favors particular social groups, such as men (Edward, 1995; Wajcman, 1995). In this sense, men show a greater interest in information and communications technology products (e.g., video, mobile telephones and computers), and show a greater fondness for the latest technical products (Mitchell & Walsh, 2004). It has been also reported that women are slightly less likely to live in a household with a computer (Losh, 2003), and men dominate household decisions about computer purchases (Papadakis, 2001). Some studies conclude that women are less likely to use the Internet at all (e.g., UCLA, 2001; Bimber 2000) and use the Internet less frequently, given Internet use at all (Ono & Zavodny, 2003). A recent tracking research study on online user activities performed by the Pew Internet Project (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2004a) reported some 78 percent of men thought the Internet was a good place to go for transactions, compared to 71 percent of women. Some 72 percent of men viewed the Internet as a good place to go

Male (Selective Processors) Engaged in less elaboration of ads Peripheral or heuristic route Inuenced by overall message themes Rely on internal sources (e.g., own judgment) Select subset of all available information

References Krugman, 1966; Rosenthal & Depaulo, 1979; Darley & Smith, 1995 Meyers-Levy, 1989 Holbrook, 1986; Meyers-Levy and Sternthat, 1991; Nowaczyk, 1982; Wood, 1966 Lenney et al., 1983 Meyers-Levy, 1988

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for personal entertainment, compared to 66 percent of women. There were a few notable differences in how thoroughly men and women blended Internet use into daily routines. Men were more likely than women to engage in online activities on a regular and frequent basis. Men did online activities more frequently: 66 percent checked sports scores online at least several times a week, compared to 46 percent of women. Some 79 percent of men accessed news online at least several times a week, compared to 63 percent of women. By contrast, women showed a deeper engagement with Internet use for communicating with friends and family. Some 64 percent of women communicated with friends and family online at least several times a week, compared to 59 percent of men, a nding consistent with past Pew Internet research about the importance of the Internet among women for interpersonal relationships. 3. Research objectives Despite these prior research efforts on user online activities, relatively little research attention had been given to gender differences in information seekers attitudes towards information channels and search behaviors in the online environment. It is reasonable to assume that understanding how gender-related issues affect online information search and processing behaviors is essential for tourism marketing organizations to make more effective Web-based advertising channel selection and content development decisions. Therefore, this study contributes to the literature on gender differences both in terms of attitudes toward Web travel information sources and information search behavior. The primary objectives of this research study were to: (1) Investigate gender differences in terms of attitudes towards on/off-line travel information sources. (2) Identify the underlying patterns of online channel usage based on patronage frequency to various tourism Websites and assess gender differences with regard to these patterns. (3) Delineate the underlying cognitive dimensions of Website information attitudes and preferences, and assess gender differences with regard to these dimensions.

record responses. The survey collected information on US and Canadian Internet users (iTravelers) in the following categories: (1) trip planning information search sources; (2) number and types of online information used; (3) time spent online for planning purposes for most recent trips; (4) information search timelines (before, during, and posttrip); (4) inuence of online information in the decisionmaking process; (5) online travel booking patterns; and (6) socio-demographic backgrounds of the respondents. An available sample of 1334 qualied respondents for the gender difference study resulted. Data analysis was completed following a four-step procedure. First, the demographic prole of respondents in the survey was identied through frequency analysis. Second, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted to examine whether there were statistically signicant gender differences in terms of their travel information search behaviors and attitudes toward different types of on/off-line information sources. Third, 15 items of number of visits on travel-related Website and 11 items related to attitudinal measurements of travel-related Website functionality were factor-analyzed to identify underlying dimensions of online travel information attitudes and behaviors. Fourth, one-way ANOVA tests were undertaken to detect any signicant differences between males and females based on the factors obtained. 5. Results 5.1. Prole and trip characteristics of respondents The demographic prole of the respondents by gender is summarized in Table 2. About 60 percent of the male respondents were in the age range of 40 to 59 years, compared to 55 percent of the females. One notable characteristic of the respondents was that a large majority (male90 percent/female84 percent) of the respondents were highly educated (some college education or higher), and approximately 65 percent of the males and about 45 percent of the females had household incomes over $60,000. Regarding employment, over 75 percent of the males and about 65 percent of the females were selfemployed or in full-time employment. Chi-square tests showed there were signicantly difference in demographics between men and women. It was observed that males tended to have higher education and household income levels. One-way ANOVAs tests (Table 3) revealed men were likely to have more vacation trips and nights away from home than their female counterparts. A signicant mean difference (po0:1) was also found in the number of business trips made. On average, men tended to have more frequent and longer trips than women did. The result showed, in particular, there was more difference between men and women in the number of business trips than for vacation trips. In terms of primary decisions for trips, about 63 percent of women were the primary trip decision

4. Methods The data used for the study were obtained from the Internet Tourism & Travel 2001 Study conducted among 2470 North Americans between November 8th and December 18th, 2001 for the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC). The survey was conducted in both the US and Canada primarily to evaluate online travel purchase behavior. Respondents were randomly selected from telephone directories and interviewed by telephone on a wide range of travel behavior questions. A Computer Aided Telephone Interface (CATI) system was used to

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makers; that was signicantly higher than their male counterparts. 5.2. Gender differences in online trip planning behaviors and attitudes The gender differences in online trip planning information behaviors and attitudes were rst examined by employing one-way ANOVA tests. In this analysis, the three online
Table 2 Prole of respondents Characteristic Frequency (%) Female Age 1829 3039 4049 5059 Over 60 Education High school Some college College graduate Post graduate Annual household income Less than 24,999 25,00059,999 60,00099,999 100,000149,999 Over 150,000 Employment Self-employed Employed full-time Employed part-time Homemaker Student Retired Unemployed
po0:01.

Chi-saure Male 69.22

96 (12.2) 199 (25.3) 232 (29.4) 189 (24.0) 72 (9.1) 128 266 245 148 (16.3) (33.8) (31.1) (18.8)

49 (9.0) 107 (19.6) 149 (27.3) 146 (26.7) 95 (17.4) 47.15 50 (9.2) 129 (23.6) 195 (35.7) 172 (31.5) 69.22 36 (6.8) 158 (29.8) 161 (30.4) 101 (19.1) 74 (14.0) 124.12 67 (12.3) 355 (65.3) 9 (1.7) 0 (0) 19 (3.5) 84 (15.4) 10 (1.8)

behavior variables (i.e., online hours per week, experience of Web use, and hours for trip planning) and 13 attitudes toward different on/off-line information sources variables were the dependent variables, and gender was the independent variable. The results revealed signicant mean differences (po0:05) for online hours per week, experience of Web use, and four attitudinal variables toward information sources (see Table 4). No signicant differences (po0:05) were found for hours spent online planning trips and the nine other attitudinal variables. The results indicated that females spent more time on the Internet per week and had stronger positive attitudes toward both on/off-line information sources. However, the results seemed to suggest that females longer hours online did not transfer to longer online planning trip hours. It was noted that men had more experience with Web use. This could be explained by men generally starting to use the Internet earlier than women because of social factors such as different types of employment or higher levels of education. In terms of online travel channels, females attached more value to channels such as general Websites and ofcial destination Websites than their male counterparts. Females also gave higher ratings to the value of printed materials such as brochures and travel guidebooks. Other channels such as TV, newspapers, and travel agents showed no signicant differences by gender. 5.3. Factor analysis on attitudes towards travel Website functionalities and contents To examine the dimensions underlying the perceived importance of contents and functionalities of destination Websites, a principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation was performed on the 11 categories of information. The 11 items yielded three factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 (Table 5). These factors explained 54 percent of the variance and were labeled: interactive features, search features, and information scope. Factor loadings and communalities for all 11 items were greater than 0.59 to 0.41. The reliability alpha values

104 (13.6) 324 (42.4) 217 (28.4) 71 (9.3) 48 (6.3) 78 (9.9) 416 (53.0) 66 (8.4) 101 (12.9) 26 (3.3) 67 (8.5) 31 (3.9)

Table 3 Trip behaviors and primary decision maker by gender Trip behaviors Gender Female Number of vacation trips in last yeara Number of business trips in last yearb Number of nights away on recent trip 3.04 1.35 7.50 Male 3.20 2.26 8.10 4.16 55.37 3.99 Chi-square 7.22 437 (62.5%) 351 (55.3%) 262 (37.5%) 284 (44.7%) 0.04 0.00 0.05 p-value 0.00 F-value p-value

Primary decision maker I am the primary decision maker I share the responsibility
a b

Once (1), four (4), more than 5 (5). Once (1), four (4), 510 (5), 1115 (6), 1620 (7), more than 20 (8).

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D.-Y. Kim et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 423433 Table 4 ANOVA test for gender comparison of information search behaviors and attitudes Behaviors and attitudes Gender Female (n 788) Online hours per week Experience of online useb Hours spent online planning tripc Value of been there before in choosing destinationd Value of info center in choosing destination Value of relatives/friend living there in choosing destination Value of recommended by friends in choosing destination Value of general Website in choosing destination Value of ofcial Website in choosing destination Value of travel magazine in choosing destination Value of general magazine in choosing destination Value of newspaper in choosing destination Value of TV in choosing destination Value of travel agent in choosing destination Value of brochures in choosing destination Value of travel guide books in choosing destination
a b a

429

F-value Male (n 546) 3.39 4.61 3.91 3.49 3.17 3.40 3.14 3.43 3.50 2.88 2.42 2.72 2.85 3.33 3.09 3.37 13.57 4.03 0.28 1.67 1.20 1.84 5.48 10.74 3.17 2.36 2.62 1.50 1.05 0.03 10.64 6.33

p-value

3.68 4.49 3.95 3.56 3.29 3.51 3.33 3.61 3.64 3.05 2.78 3.06 3.09 3.37 3.40 3.57

0.00 0.05 0.60 0.19 0.27 0.18 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.23 0.31 0.85 0.00 0.01

2 h or less (1), 34 (2), 510 (3), 1120 (4), 2130 (5), more than 30 (6). less than 6 months (1), 6 months to 1 year (2), 1 to 2 years (3), 34 (4), 56 (5), more than 6 years (6). c less than 1/2 hour (1), 1/2 to 1 hour (2), 12 (3), 35 (4), 610 (5), more than 10 h (6). d Measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale: not at all useful (1), very useful (4).

Table 5 Principal components factor analysis for attitudes toward destination Website functionality Constructs and items Factor Loadings 1 Interactive features Importance of wireless capability Importance of multi-media effects Importance of chat room Importance of e-newsletter Search features Importance of Importance of Importance of Importance of searching by keyword searching by location searching by activity easy to surf 2 3 Communality Item Means Female Male F-value

0.79 0.74 0.71 0.65 0.78 0.77 0.67 0.62 0.75 0.71 0.59 3.22 20.99 0.73 1.60 19.32 0.70 1.13 13.70 0.51

0.64 0.58 0.51 0.47 0.62 0.61 0.49 0.41 0.61 0.53 0.47

1.16 1.36 1.17 1.46 2.35 2.55 2.35 2.52 2.33 2.80 1.97

1.16 1.29 1.13 1.48 2.15 2.42 2.27 2.35 2.20 2.71 1.77

0.00 4.73* 2.73 0.22 19.72** 11.14** 4.78* 16.94** 10.83** 9.08** 19.52**

Information scope Importance of planning the entire trip Importance of comparing price Importance of saving personal prole Eigenvalues Variance explained Reliability coefcients

Measured on a 3-point Likert-type scale: not too important (1), somewhat important (2), very important (3) *po0:05; **po0:01.

for the three factors, designed to check the internal consistency of the items within each factor, provided adequate support for internal consistency (0.73, 0.70, and 0.51 for interactive features, search features, and information scope, respectively). Interactive features were represented by a total of four variables; importance of wireless capability; impor-

tance of multi-media effects; importance of chat room; and importance of e-newsletter. search features was labeled as the second factor; Which included high loadings for importance of searching by keywords; importance of searching by location; importance of searching by activity; and importance of easy to surf. the third factor; Information scope had high loadings for

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importance of planning the entire trip; importance of comparing price; and importance of saving personal prole.

5.5. Factor analysis on visit frequencies to travel-related Websites A principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation was performed on visit frequency to 15 categories of information in order to examine the dimensions underlying the content of destination Websites. The 15 items identied three dimensions with Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 (Table 6). These factors explained 85 percent of the variance and were labeled: pleasure and logistics, transportation and weather, and testimonials. Factor loadings and communalities for all 15 items ranged from 0.59 to 0.75. All factors had relatively high reliability coefcients, ranging from 0.61 to 0.94. Pleasure and logistics consisted of nine items; attractions, events, accommodation, package tour, entertainment, activities, local information, ight and restaurant. The second domain of transportation and weather contained four variables including weather, map, transportation, and rental cars. The third domain of testimonials includes two items: testimonials and general information. 5.6. Gender comparison of patronage frequencies to travelrelated Websites Gender differences with regard to visit frequencies to various travel-related Websites were identied by using one-way ANOVA tests (Table 6). Under the pleasure and

5.4. Gender comparison of travel Website functionalities and contents In the next phase, a series of one-way ANOVA tests were performed on each of the measurement items under on the three constructs to identify mean gender differences in attitudes towards destination Website functionality and contents. Under the interactive features construct, the results revealed a signicant mean difference (po0:05) for only one measurement item: importance of multi-media effects. Under the search features construct, all four items (importance of searching by keyword, importance of searching by location, importance of searching by activity, and importance of easy to surf) showed signicant gender differences (po0:01). For the information scope construct, all three items (importance of planning the entire trip, importance of comparing price, and importance of saving personal prole.) differed by gender (po0.01). Noticeably, all signicant mean differences indicated that females consistently had more favorable perceptions. This is consistent with previous studies which found that men are classied as heuristic processors and women are portrayed as comprehensive information processors (Meyers-Levy, 1989).

Table 6 Principal component factor analysis for the number of visits on travel-related Websites Constructs and items Factor loadings 1 Pleasure and logistics Attraction Events Accommodation Package tour Entertainment Activities Local information Flight Restaurants Transportation and weather Weather Map Transportation Rental cars Testimonial Testimonials General information Eigenvalues Variance explained Reliability coefcients 2 3 Communality Item means Female Male F-value Item means per unit cost Female Male F-value

0.91 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.71 0.67 0.62 0.89 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.89 0.59 10.11 45.11 0.94 1.48 26.32 0.78 1.20 13.84 0.61

0.94 0.89 0.84 0.81 0.89 0.90 0.87 0.75 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.90 0.89 0.85 0.77

1.77 1.54 1.97 1.20 1.43 1.45 1.40 0.90 1.57 1.54 1.79 1.37 1.36 1.13 1.59

1.74 1.51 2.13 1.21 1.33 1.49 1.31 0.93 1.45 1.66 1.66 1.41 1.48 1.13 1.67

0.16 0.43 6.56** 0.01 4.71* 0.99 4.04* 4.75* 6.74** 4.44* 7.78** 0.84 6.30** 0.01 2.18

0.66 0.57 0.75 0.44 0.52 0.54 0.50 0.64 0.58 0.54 0.68 0.49 0.50 0.41 0.58

0.57 0.47 0.69 0.37 0.41 0.46 0.40 0.58 0.45 0.47 0.52 0.43 0.47 0.34 0.53

8.63** 16.42** 2.83 15.95** 28.83** 10.54** 26.07** 2.76 25.35** 5.70* 29.69** 9.50** 1.31 23.30** 4.57*

Measured on a 3-point Likert-type scale: once (1), 2 or 3 times (2), more than 3 (3). *po0:05, **po0:01.

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logistics construct, the results exposed a signicant mean difference for two measurement items at po0.01 (accommodation and restaurant), and three items at po0:05 (entertainment, local information, and ight). Under the transportation and weather construct, two items (map, and rental car) at po0:01, and one item (weather) at po0:05 showed signicant gender differences. For the testimonials construct, it was observed that no items were signicantly different. Out of the eight gender signicant items, women tended to patronize more of sites that contained entertainment, local information, restaurant, and map information while men were more likely to seek information related to ight, accommodation, rental car and weather. Given the fact that women held consistently more favorable perceptions towards Web-based information, the results of the ANOVA tests appear to imply that females high positive attitudes did not reect proportionally on their actual information search behavior. This could potentially be explained by the economics of information theory (Stigler, 1961). The economics of information theory suggests that information searchers would acquire information till the point where the marginal cost of acquiring additional information equals or exceeds the marginal benet (Stigler, 1961; Goldman & Johansson, 1978; Urbany, 1986). That is, the differential levels in the perceived costs of information search and the expected benets of that search activity would guide individual consumers search behavior for information. Within the context of travel information search, different number of trips and trip costs would inuence the amount of traveler information search. As noted before, males, on average, had more trips than females had, and it naturally caused more information search needs. In this sense, even though males general perceived importance of information was lower than that of females on some items, males information search behaviors were a little higher or, at least at the same level as females due to the higher number of trips and trip costs. Dividing trip expenditures by the number of Websites visited, a group of variables indicating mean number of visits per unit cost was constructed. The purpose was to evaluate gender differences in the actual amount of information sought per se without the confounding effect of trip cost. Signicant gender mean differences at po:01 were observed for 10 items (attraction, events, package tour, entertainment, activities, local information, restaurant, map, transportation, and testimonial). Two items showed signicant mean difference at po:05 (weather, and general information). Noticeably, all signicant mean differences showed that females consistently had higher item visit means per unit cost. This implies that females have not only higher perceived importance attached to the functionalities as well as contents of Websites, but also had higher number of visits to various travel Websites, when information amount is measured at per unit cost level. This is consistent with

past research assertions about women being more exhaustive in information search than men. 6. Conclusions and implications This research demonstrates that there are signicant differences between females and males in terms of attitudes toward travel Website functionality and scope as well as actual online information search behavior. The results are consistent with the gender difference arguments from previous research regarding how females and males process information in different ways. For instance, it was observed that females attached higher values to a wider variety of both online and ofine information sources while choosing travel destinations. More specically, this result supports the gender difference argument that females are more exhaustive and elaborative in external information search (Meyers-Levy, 1988). Compared to their male counterparts, females are more likely to have favorable attitudes towards different types of Website functionalities and scope of contents. Moreover, based on item means per unit cost, it was observed that females are also more involved in online information search, visiting more travel websites and visiting them more frequently. This is also consistent with previous computer mediated communication (CMC) studies. A number of studies have empirically assessed gender differences in CMC as a main research focus (independent variable) (Allen, 1995; Hiltz & Johnson, 1990). Hiltz and Johnson (1990) found that females viewed CMC more favorably than males and that they had stronger online information needs for women than for men. Coupled with the fact that females do not have as much experience in online searching as males, it seems that the need for user-friendly functionalities and a wider scope of information contents are more important issues of concern for women. According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project (2004b), women have reached parity with men in the Internet population. In the year 2000, about 60 percent of Internet population was men and about 40 percent was women. In February 2004, the gender ratio among Internet users has shifted to 50 percent men and 50 percent women. In this sense, the ndings of this research have practical implications for womens participation in Web-based marketing communications, and their use of the Internet in general. The ndings of this research also seem to suggest that while most Websites may be gender-neutrally designed both in terms of functionality and content, women may actually be likely to use them more than men do, since men in general do not resort to external information as much. Consequently, females more positive attitudes to Website functions require marketers to have more appropriate Web marketing strategies. In todays competitive e-environment, the placement of appropriate messages on a Website in an appropriate manner is paramount to success. The appropriateness of the content as well as the presentation of the message, however, hinges

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upon having a good understanding of the characteristics of the audiences. Thus, marketers may benet by creating gender-sensitive Website content and presentation. Based on the ndings of this research, tourism marketers should develop gender-sensitive online communication strategies. For example, Website contents targeting men should highlight the distinctive nature of selected attributes, and the contents targeting women should focus on more affective themes underlying the various attributes identied in messages. That is, Websites targeting men should not emphasize features common to the product category, but instead focus on one or two features that are unique to the advertised product or brand. In contrast, women, as relational processors, would value category-based messages that focus on the common themes of the claim rather than the unique features. In sum, the different gender attitudes towards destination Website design and contents empirically supported in this study represent valuable inputs in designing tourism Websites, communicating with potential visitors, and dening the most appropriate messages to deliver in the online environment.

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