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NOMENCLATURE d = Vertical distance between contours (ft. /m) G = Slope of land (%) L = Horizontal distance between points of a slope (ft. /m) INFLUENCES ON URBAN DEVELOPMENT Environment first affects how a site is developed & how building is designed, and then bldg affects community in which it was built
Historical Influences First Settlements Living quarters surrounded the granary, the temple & the palace o For security villages were walled or situated for protection Greek Cities similar to first settlements but were more highly developed o The Agora (marketplace) became a location for trading goods, meeting people, exchanging news & conducting other business o Walled Greek cities also had special facilities (theaters, stadiums, etc.) Medieval Cities Irregular layout o Started at crossroads of 2 main streets & were centered around the church & market o Structures were near center of the city & surrounding was informal ring of street loosely connected with intersecting streets running from the church to the gates of the city wall Star-Shaped City Invention of gun powder led to a need for more security o Base stations at points around the wall so the entire enclosure & all approaches could be protected o Streets radiated out from the center so defense could be controlled from one point & it was easy to move troops and materials Renaissance City Planning took on greater importance o City Plans combined symmetrical order with radial layout of streets focused on points of interest o Christopher Wrens plan for rebuilding London after the great fire of 1666 & Haussmanns plan for Paris Reflect this Haussmann advocated straight boulevards connecting historic buildings, monuments & open squares Purpose of plan was to minimize riots, facilitate defense and clear out slums. It also improved transportation & beautified the city o Camillo Sitte proposed cities be laid out on principals of medieval towns with irregular streets He felt views would be more interesting He proposed using T intersections to reduce the number intersection traffic conflicts He also created the Turbine Square: civic centers around a pinwheel arrangement of streets Industrial Revolution (England 18th & 19th Centuries) Creation of the factory forced people to be close to the factory, source of power & transportation o As factories grew, cities became overcrowded, dirty & lacked open space Garden City Concept by Ebenezer Howard ~ one of the best reform movements o A 6000 ac tract of land be privately owned by the residents o At the center there would be civic buildings in a park o Surrounding the core would be housing & shops with industrial facilities in the outermost ring o The Urban part would support 30,000 people on 1,000 ac; the remaining 5,000 ac would be reserved for a green belt & house 2,000 people Cite Industrielle Planned city concept to be built in France by Tony Garnier in 1917 o Had separate zones for residential, public, industrial & agricultural use, linked by separated circular paths for vehicles and pedestrians o Buildings would be placed on long narrow lots with ample space between them o Was the first to emphasize zoning
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Development Patterns Urban development can be viewed at two scales: the larger scale of the city and the smaller scale of the community and neighborhood o In the 20th century the pattern of development at the city scale has generally been determined by the geographic features and the layout of transportation Cities begun near major geographic features tended to develop along the water and ultimately away from it. When begun in less confining circumstances, cities have grown equally in all directions, usually in uniform grid patterns With the creation of the automobile, citied have expanded in an number of typical patterns o These patterns affect the planning of the smaller scale communities and neighborhoods and ultimately can have an effect on the design of the individual building projects
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The Superblock is an outgrowth of the New town concept, the concept minimizes the impact of the car on housing and allows the development of pedestrian circulation in park space within the block o One of the first trials was in the new town of Radburn, New Jersey by Henry Wright Here the attempt is made to plan a large piece of land that limited the intrusion of cars A continuous street surrounded the superblock and vehicular access was provided with cul-de-sacs. o The superblock this concept was used in the planning of that Chandigarh, India by Le Corbusier and of Brasilia by a Lucio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer. o The separation of the automobile on the side of the house that faces the street from the pedestrian and living area on the other side seems to be an admirable goal. However, because much of contemporary life for balls around the automobile this separation can be counterproductive to neighborhood social interaction as a result the driveways and parking spaces of superblocks are often used more than a quiet park spaces. Planned Unit Development (PUD) each large parcel of land can have a mix of uses: residential, commercial, recreational, and open space designed with variable lot sizes and densities o Industrial developments can also be planned as PUDs o PUDs must conform to certain standards as propagated by the local planning agency and must be approved by the planning agency Within the restrictions the planner has wide latitude in determining how the site is developed. The standards include: uses permitted, total floor area ratio, amount of open space required, parking spaces required, living space ratio, maximum heights, and setbacks at the perimeter. o They make more efficient use of land by grouping compatible uses without the requirements at setback regulations in zoning ordinances. This allows the extra land to be given over to open space for common use areas. They also provide a variety of housing from single-family detached to row houses to high-rise apartments and condominiums. o PUD's also provide some of the diversity and variety of urban living
The Effects of Development Patterns on Social Behavior Density the number of people are unit of area (not to be confused with crowding) o The perception of crowding also depends on cultural influences and circumstances o Studies have shown that excessive density can cause physical and mental health problems o Taking cultural and social differences into account when designing housing and other facilities is critical to successful project. People need and want social interaction with their family friends and neighbors and other groups. o Sociopetal Spaces, buildings and grounds and even furniture that tend to bring people together o Sociofugal conditions that tend to discouraged interaction or social contact Concept of personal spaces that surround each individual proposed by Edward T. Hall states that there are four basic distances that can be used to study human behavior and serve as a guide for designing environments actual dimensions very with the circumstances and with cultural and social differences but they always exist. o The closest is intimate distance - ranges from physical contact to a distance of about 6 to 18 People only allow other people to come within this distance under special conditions. If forced this close together people have defense mechanisms, such as avoiding eye contact, to minimize the effect of the physical contact. o Personal Distance, from about 1 ft to 2 ft If given the choice, people will maintain this distance between themselves and other people. Varies with culture o Social distance ranges from about 4 ft to 12 ft. This is the distance at which most impersonal business, work, and other interaction takes place between strangers or in more formal situations. o Public distance is the farthest, ranging from about 12 ft outward. The greatest amount of formality can be achieved at this distance This distance allows people to escape if they sense physical danger from another person.
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COMMUNITY INFLUENCES ON DESIGN Catchment Areas All land development is dependent on/affected by population base in area. Catchment Areas - An area that affects a development site o Example: A school district is catchment area for a school building Catchment areas can be defined by geographical features or arbitrary lines (political/school district) Catchment area size is dependent on several factors o Residential Catchment area may increase with an increase in population Catchment boundaries are reliant on availability of transportation. In depth information about a Catchment area must be known in most cases o Information usually obtained from census information Accessibility to Transportation The following should be considered when analyzing a site for development: o Is there an adequate highway system to bring the catchment area population to the site o Are there adequate traffic counts for businesses that depend on drive-by trade? o Would the development create additional traffic that would overload the (E) road system and require (N) roads to be built or expanded? o Is there adequate truck access for servicing the site? o Does the surrounding transportation network create an undesirable environment for the development (too noisy, etc.)? o Is there safe and convenient pedestrian access to the site if require? o Are there public transportation lines nearby? How can people get from the mass transit stops to the site? o Are rail lines available for industrial projects? Neighborhoods Neighborhood A relatively small area in which a number of people live who share similar needs and desires in housing, social activities and other day to day living aspects Original concept of the neighborhood as part of city planning was developed by Clarence Perry (1929) o His ideas were primarily proposed as a way of bringing people together. o He felt neighborhoods should be centered around an elementary school, which serves a center of community and be surrounded by major streets not intersected by them. The neighborhood has become the basic planning unit for contemporary American urban design Neighborhood is the scale people identify with most. o Part of city that affects their lives most Public Facilities Availability, location and relative importance of public facilities (schools, shops, churches, etc.) can affect how a site is developed
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Natural Features A complete site analysis will include a study of desirable and undesirable natural features A view analysis may be required to determine the most desirable ways to orient buildings, outdoor areas, and approaches to the buildings Significant natural features should be identified to determine whether they must be avoided or can be used as positive design elements Subsurface conditions of groundwater and rock must also be known. Sites with high water tables (6ft 8ft below grade) can cause problems with excavations, foundations, utility placement and landscaping o Generally the water follows the slope of the grade above, but it may vary o Boring logs will reveal whether groundwater is present and how deep it is Sites with a lot of rocks near the surface can be expensive (or impossible) to develop o Blasting is usually required and sometimes not allowed due to code issues Drainage Every site has a natural drainage pattern that must be taken into account during design. o Some drainage may be minor, consisting only of run-off from the site itself and a small amount from the adjacent sites. This type of drainage can be easily diverted around roads, parking lots, etc. and minor changes to the contours of the land o Some have major drainage paths such as gullies, dry gulches or rivers may traverse the site These have a significant influence on the site because in most cases they must be maintained Buildings must be built away from these or bridge them so that water is not restricted If contours need to be modified, it must be done so as not to disturb the adjacent properties
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Soil Soil pulverized upper layer of the earth formed by the erosion of rocks and plant remains o Visible layer is topsoil mixture of mineral and organic material; may range from a few inches to a foot or more o Below topsoil is mostly mineral material o Below this is a layer of fractured and weathered parent material of the soil above o Below this is solid bedrock Soil is classified according to grain size and as organic/inorganic. o Grain size classification: Gravel Particles over 2mm in diameter Sands Particles from 0.05mm to 2mm (finest visible grains) Silt - Particles from .002mm to .05mm (invisible, but can be felt as smooth) Clay Particles under .002mm (smooth & floury when dry, plastic and sticky when wet All soils are a combination of the above Soil investigation will tell if soil type will create slippage or slides = useless for development Gravel and sands good for construction loads, drainage and sewage, but unsuitable for landscaping Silt stable when dry, unstable when wet. Swells and heaves when frozen and compresses under loads. Can sustain lighter loads. o Building foundation or road base must extend below silt or be flexible enough to avoid damage. Clay expands when wet and subject to slippage. Poor for foundation, landscaping, drainage & sewage Peat & organic materials are good for landscaping, but bad for foundations; usually have to be removed from site & replaced with sands and gravel TRANSPORTATION AND UTILITY INFLUENCES Roads Road availability and capacity can be primary determinant for how a site can be developed Four basic categories of roads o Local Streets lowest capacity, provide direct access to building sites. Maybe be in form of continuous grid, curvilinear systems, cul-de-sacs or loops o Collector Streets connect Local Street with arterial streets. Have higher capacity than local street, but not for through traffic Intersections at collector & local roads will have stop signs. Intersection with arterial roads will have traffic lights o Arterial Streets major continuous circulation routes, carry large amount of traffic on 2-3 lanes Usually connect expressways Typically have no street parking Should not have direct access to building sites o Expressways limited access roads designed to move large volumes of traffic between, through and around population centers Intersections are made by a system of ramps No pedestrian access Have a major influence on land because they require a lot of space, have a visual impact and create noise Site analysis should take into consideration the (E) road configuration; planning should try to minimize congestion and dangerous intersections
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Roads should be laid out in both horizontal and vertical directions, called Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment Straight sections of road are called Tangents Should generally be a minimum of 100ft between curves in opposite directions and 200ft between curves in same direction o Multiple radius curves should be avoided Vertical alignment must be designed to provide a smooth transition between grade changes & avoid steep grades o Depending on weather conditions, streets should not have more than 10% grade
Public Transit A site analysis should include a determination of the types of public transit available & the location relative to the site o Building entrances & site feature should be easily accessed by public transit o In large cities, site development may have to include provisions for public access to subway and rail lines Service Access Service access to a site includes provisions for truck loading, moving vans an daily delivery services Ideally service access is separate from vehicle and pedestrian access Spacing for truck turn-arounds and loading dock berths need to be provided o Local zoning usually specified the number and size of loading berths Generally should be 10 - 12 wide at least 40 long and have 14 vertical clearance and must have a minimum 60 turning radius (if turnaround is needed) Utility Availability Site analysis must determine the availability, location and capacity of existing utilities The potential development of a site is dependent on the availability of necessary utilities (water, sanitary sewers, storm sewers, telephone service, gas service & other public utilities o If utilities have to be brought from a long distance it can be very expensive Generally utility lines follow the street layout and right-of-way o Sanitary sewers, storm sewers & water mains are located under roads o Electrical and communication lines are adjacent to the roads o Gas lines can be either underground or above ground o Utilities may also be located on easements (portions of privately owned land that public utility companies can access for installation and maintenance) When new services have to be installed sanitary and storm sewer locations take precedent because sewers must use the flow of gravity o Collection systems drain to city disposal systems or to private on-site treatment facilities
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Wind Patterns Prevailing wind patterns and microclimate wind effects must be studied during site analysis o Buildings can be located to take advantage of breezes or avoid cold winds Wind on top of a hill can be 20% higher than wind on flat ground o Leeward side of a hill away from the wind direction o Windward side of a hill near the wind direction Near large bodies of water, warm air rises over warm land during the day and causes a breeze from the water, at night cold air flows down hill and settles in low-lying regions Wind patterns can be modified by buildings and trees o For a line of trees 50ft -150ft deep, wind velocity can be reduced 30%-60% to a distance 10 times the height of the tree line and about half that up to 20 times the height of the tree line In temperate climates the best microclimates for wind are on the south or southeast facing slopes, in the middle of the slopes or towards the top Solar Orientation The amount of solar radiation depends on the angle of the suns rays to the surface o In the northern hemisphere south facing slopes tend to be warmer than other slopes and flat surfaces, especially in the winter Albedo the amount of radiation that is reflected off a surface, expressed as a number from 0-1 o High albedos = reflect a lot of radiation o Low albedos = absorbs a lot of radiation Natural materials (grass and plants) have low albedos, pavement and snow have high albedos Conductivity the time rate of flow of heat through a material o High conductivity = heat passes through quickly o Low conductivity = retards the passage of heat Natural materials have low conductivity Metals, concrete & masonry have high conductivity Albedo and conductivity combined affect the microclimate o Low albedo and high conductivity = moderate and stabilize microclimate Heat is absorbed quickly, stored and released when the temp. drops Surfaces with grass and plants are cooler in hot weather for this reason o High albedo, low conductivity = are much hotter than macroclimate would be SUSTAINABLE DESIGN General Ecological Considerations Ecology Study of organisms in relation to their environment Applied to site development = the need to understand the impact of construction on the surrounding natural environment o Result = Federal agencies file environmental impact statements (EISs) Req. started as part of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and is enforced by the EPA Requires a formal process to predict how a development will affect environment (air, land, water & wildlife) Another factor of site development ecology is the impact on smaller-scale buildings
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Site Analysis Sustainability issues should be considered when analyzing the site: Determine which sites or portion of sites should not be built on, this includes: o Wetlands or sites within 100ft. of wetlands o Elevations lower than 5ft. above the 100-year floodplain o Habitats for endangered species o Potential historic sites o Prime farmland Determine historical and cultural qualities of the surrounding area o Building may want to reflect significant historical or cultural influences Analyze types of developments might surround site in future o Could affect location of building on site, connection with transportation, view corridors, etc. Analyze (E) air quality as well as estimated effects of proposed development o Should be done by a professional laboratory Test soil and groundwater for contaminates o Could affect building location and mitigation methods Determine presence of endangered species (Plants, insects and animals) Site and Building Concepts Using Sustainability Building Location o Try to build on urban sites or sites with (E) infrastructure Minimizes disruption of undeveloped land Maximizes efficient use of transportation and utility services o Encourage mixed use development o Locate buildings near public transportation o Locate buildings in a way to minimize tree and vegetation clearing, take advantage of solar access and minimize detrimental effects of wind o Minimize solar shadows on adjacent properties Use setbacks or low building heights o Locate buildings in a way that maximizes desirable airflow patterns o Locate buildings in a way as to use gravity sewer systems Building Size, Shape, and Design o Minimize bldg. footprint by using multiple floors whenever possible o Design building dimensions to optimize material use and reduce waste o Use garden roofs or highly reflective coverings to minimize heat island effect o Plan buildings to include bike storage and shower/changing facilities Site Disturbance o Plan buildings and parking on previously disturbed land o Position buildings along landscape contours and shallow slopes to minimize earth work and site clearing o Plan utility corridors along new road or walkways or previously disturbed areas on site o Limit site disturbance to 40ft. beyond the perimeter, 5ft. beyond roadway curbs and walks and 25ft. beyond constructed areas with permeable surfaces Site Development
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LEGAL AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES Zoning Most common form of legal constraint on land development s is zoning Zoning took on a legal status in the first part of the 20th century o It was originally an attempt to improve problems of expanding cities Crowding, factories being built too close to housing, tall buildings blocking light and air First zoning ordinance was passed in 1916 in NYC o Was the first attempt by a municipal government to control the use of land and location of buildings Zoning the division of a city or other governmental unit into districts and the regulation of the use of land and the location and bulk of buildings on a property within those districts Zoning primarily regulates: o The uses allowed on a parcel of land depending on the zoning district o The area of the land that may be covered with buildings o The bulk of structures o The distance the buildings must be set back from the property lines o Parking and loading space requirements Other requirements, such as regulations of signs and bonuses for providing plazas and open space may also be included Special types of zoning may include: o Rural zoning: separates agricultural uses from forestry or recreational use o Floodplain zoning o Airport zoning o Historic area zoning Uses are established for the zoning districts based on residential, commercial and industrial occupancies, with subdivisions of each of these o Residential zones may include: Single-family Low-density multifamily High-density multifamily
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Easements and Rights-of-Way Easement The right of one party to use a portion of the land of another party in a particular way o Is a legal instrument and is usually recorded o Most common is a Utility Easement allows utility companies to maintain and install lines above or below ground within the easement o No permanent structure are allowed to be built within the easement without permission from the party holding the easement o Another type is an Access Easement If one parcel is not served by a public road and another parcel separates it from the road, an access easement may be granted, which allows the public and the owner if parcel #2 the right to cross o Support Easement for the construction of common party walls between properties o Joint Use Easement allows 2 or more property owners to share a common feature such as a driveway o Scenic Easement protects view and development in scenic areas o Conservation Easement limit land use in large areas Right-of-Way legal right of one party or the public to traverse land belonging to another o Most common form: a right-of-way refers to the public land used for street and sidewalks o Boundary of a right of way usually corresponds to the property line of adjacent property In most cases the street occupies on a portion of the right-of-way, the remainder is used for sidewalks, landscaping and utilities An access easement creates a private or public right of way Deed Restrictions Restrictive Covenants - Provisions in the deed that restrict the use of the property by the buyer o Common for the developer of a large tract of land being subdivided to include o Often include limitation like setbacks, minimum sq. ft. of houses, types of materials that can and cannot be used on the exterior and similar provisions o Because the covenants are in the deed the buyer can decide not to buy the property if the covenant are not acceptable o Most deed restrictions are generally established for a certain period of years.
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EVALUATING EXISTING STRUCTURES Surveying Existing Building An existing Building survey should include the following: o Site Feature parking, service access, adjacent properties, water features, etc. o Size and configuration of the structure overall size and shape, height, location of columns & other major structural components Also includes location of partitions, toilets, mechanical rooms, and other service areas o Roof including type, condition (leaks, water damage, etc.), and expected remaining life o Exterior Envelope type and condition (including windows, insulation) o Mechanical System type of heating and cooling, capacity of central plant and the condition of the distribution system o Plumbing System capacity of service to the building, sewer capacity, condition of pipes and fixtures & number of fixtures o Electrical capacity of service to building, condition of primary and secondary service, condition of wiring devices and condition of lighting and other electrical components o Fire Protection condition of the sprinkler system, pipe sizing and spacing of heads o Major equipment (if applicable) items such as refrigeration equipment or laboratory equipment o Finishes the condition and expected life of major surface finishes o Condition of the structure for accessibility, egress, and fire-rated elements Documenting Building Surveys The building survey is typically documented in several ways: manually drafted drawings, CAD drawings, notes, formal reports, photographs and videos o Normally accuracy to within is sufficient Methods of Field Measuring Hand measuring useful & low-cost o Best for buildings of moderate size and complexity o Can record small details that cannot be seen by instruments using other techniques Low-cost line of site sonic devices can be used by one person and give accuracy for many uses o Range is limited and cannot differentiate between closely spaced elements Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) uses laser-based instrument with an onboard computer to measure the distance, horizontal angle and vertical angle o Has accuracy to +/- 1/16 in 1600ft. o Two people are required to operate equipment Reflectorless Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (REDM) does not require the use of a prism reflector, but instead relies on the return signal bounced from the object being measured o Has an accuracy of +/- 1/8 in 100ft. Image-based techniques o Rectified Photography Uses large format, film-based view cameras to photograph facades The focal plane is set parallel to the faade and gives a flat image with no perspective distortion Dimensions can be scaled off the image
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Evaluating Existing Structures Evaluating existing structures involves answering the following basic question: o Does the site work for the new use or can it be adapted for the new use within the constraints of time budget? o Is this size and configuration of the existing structure adaptable for the new use within the constraints of time and budget? o Is there appearance and character of the structure consistent with the clients design goals and desired image? o How much work and cost are needed to repair, renovate or modify the structure for the new use? Will seismic renovation be required? o How much work and cost are needed to repair, renovate or modify the structure? Is the cost of adding sprinklers justified based on code requirement trade-offs and possible lower insurance rates? o Does the new occupancy work within the constraints of the existing buildings construction type and area? o What additional work is required to bring the structure in compliance with current applicable codes and regulations? o How much of the existing structure must be modified to conform to code requirements? Can this be done within the constraints of time and budget? o If budget is not already established, how much will the minimum required amount of renovation cost? How much will the desired amount of work cost? How long might the project take to complete? EVALUATING HISTORIC STRUCTURES Defining the Scope of the Problem If the structure is a national historic landmark or has similar landmark status on the state or local level, specific requirements will influence the kind of rehabilitation work allowed. If the owner wants to receive federal tax credits, the rehabilitation must qualify as a certified rehabilitation. In this case, the secretary of the Interiors Standards for Rehabilitation must be met. If the property is designated as a state or local historic landmark, the state historic preservation officer should be contacted. The four treatments, listed in hierarchical order from most historically accurate to least, are: o Preservation attempts to retain all historic fabric through conservation, maintenance, and repair. o Rehabilitation emphasizes the retention and repair of historic materials, but gives more latitude to replacement because it assumes the property is more deteriorated prior to work. Both preservation and rehabilitation focus attention on the preservation of those materials, features, finishes, spaces, and spatial relationships that give a property its historic character. o Restoration focuses on the retention of materials from the most significant time in a property's history, while permitting the removal of materials from other periods. o Reconstruction is the least historically accurate and allows the opportunity to re-create a non-surviving site, landscape, building, Structure, or object in new materials
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Coordination with Regulatory Agencies The work involved for coordinating with code agencies may include developing preliminary site plans and land-use proposals. Sketching preliminary building designs, and meeting with governmental agencies and neighborhood groups. o This work requires additional fees beyond the normal fee for building design, so the architect must estimate the time and costs required for the work. If the building presents unusual design challenges and requires zoning variances or unusual building techniques or materials, the architect will have to work with building officials or zoning regulators early in the pre-design phase to obtain advice and approval of any deviation from zoning requirements, or to use alternate means and methods of construction as allowed by building codes. Consultant Coordination The architect should involve the consultants in the project as early as possible One of the most important tasks for the architect during pre-design is the assembly and coordination of the various consultants on the project. The expected services of each consultant must be determined with the advice of the consultant and the approval of the client. o The involvement of the client is mandatory if the owner contracts directly with the consultant for services. If the owner contracts directly with the consultant, the architect avoids any problems with contract provisions and payment, but may lose some ability to direct the consultant. o If the architect writes an agreement directly with the consultant and is responsible for paying the consultant, the architect has more control but may encounter problems with paying the consultant's fees if there is delayed payment from the client. Once the consultants are retained, the architect should inform the appropriate consultants about the applicable code requirements. o The architect is also responsible for informing the consultants of any design decisions that may have code implications. o AIA document C141, the Architect-Consultant Agreement, states that the consultant is responsible for code compliance regarding their area of work in the same way the architect is responsible to the owner under the ALA B14l, Owner-Architect Agreement. o The AlA C14I document also states that each consultant is responsible for the accurate production of the consultant's own drawings and specifications. The consultant is responsible for checking his or her own various documents for consistency. o The architect is the prime consultant and is liable to the owner for the consultant's work.
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