The coast is a dynamic, forceful and incessantly transforming environment which provides an aesthetically pleasing milieu for tourists

globally. It offers a barrier between the sea and land providing protection from the turbulent ocean. However in spite of its resilience it is subject to a number of environmental stresses and human pressures deriving from the exploitation of the coastal ecosystem as a recreational resource. These problems associated with the coastal environment as a tourist resource will be identified in conjunction with the impact of global climate change, and how this can potentially exacerbate the damage of the coastline and generate other problems for tourism in coastal zones. The dilapidation of the coastal zone is a global environmental issue; adaptation and strategies to manage climate change need to be established in order to protect the environment from potentially devastating consequences. Sustainable development of the coastline needs to be integrated into the management of this ecosystem in order for it to be preserved for future generations. The environmental impacts that tourism has placed on the coastal zone have been of great magnitude due to the interference from humans to its natural processes. The sheer volume of use from recreation can put huge pressure on an area and amplify resource degradation in the form of erosion. Population density is a measure of the stresses placed on coastal areas; when more people are using a limited resource, the carrying capacity of the region can be exceeded (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p. 4). Particularly in the summer season the population of coastal communities can increase dramatically; this high concentration of people evidently exerts pressure on the environment and magnifies problems associated with erosion. The erection of hotels, restaurants and other tourist facilities together with structures such as harbours and piers have negative implications for the coastal ecology, contributing to erosion. Along the Australian coastline major erosion problems have occurred where buildings have been erected on parts of a sandy beach system that are subject to natural phases of erosion, especially where the variations in beach morphology are linked to the longer cyclical changes in climate (OzCoasts, 2009). This situation will only worsen with time resulting in the prospective desertion of infrastructure close to the shoreline. Coastal engineering projects interrupt the normal flow of sediment and starve coastal areas down drift (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, p. 43, 2002). These starved areas are therefore more predisposed to erosion. In addition to this, the development of resorts impose a need for infrastructure in the form of roads and sewage systems which lead to negative environmental repercussions in terms of their involvement in the rate of erosion due to the removal of natural vegetation. According to OzCoasts (2009) the loss of protective vegetation is a major trigger for dune erosion. The retreat of the land, attributable to erosion, places structures close to the shore at risk of collapse if the attrition of the coastline persists. A further problem of the use of this environment as a recreational resource is the consequential loss of biodiversity as a result of the development of the area. It is progressively encroaching on the habitats of numerous species of flora and fauna. Destruction of vegetation due to construction of tourist facilities and infrastructure reduces species diversity and the incidence of rare plants (Williams, 2009, p. 116). Marine eco-systems such as coral reefs can also be directly degraded by tourism activities. Snorkelling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs, and fishing and collecting can contribute to over-exploitation of reef species and threaten local survival of endangered species (Coralina, 2009). Overuse of water and water pollution are additional ecological impacts associated with the coastal environment. Tourism development can put pressure on natural resources, especially water, when it increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. The tourism industry generally overuses water resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by

tourists. This can result in water shortages and degradation of water supplies; in drier coastal regions such as the Mediterranean the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern. According to De Stefano (2004) tourism is making a major contribution to the degradation and destruction of water ecosystems as rivers are being fragmented, groundwater levels are sinking and wetlands are drying out. Water pollution can be attributable to waste water generated by tourist facilities as construction of these amenities often leads to sewage pollution. Williams (2009, p. 118) states that the industry has developed at a pace that is faster than the local infrastructures have been able to match. In parts of the Mediterranean the disposal of poorly treated sewage has created localised eutrophication of the water (Williams, 2009, p. 118). Eutrophication is caused by nutrient over-enrichment and increases the frequency of harmful algal blooms. Algae disrupts normal ecosystem functioning, using up all the oxygen in the water, leaving none for marine life (Water Pollution Guide, 2008). There are implications for all aquatic life; the lack of oxygen can result in the death of these organisms. Climate change can potentially exacerbate these environmental issues by increasing the impact of the weather. Global warming is defined as an increase in the earths average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate that may result from the greenhouse effect (Dictionaryreference.com, 2009). This is a term given to illustrate the idea of gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide being released into the earths atmosphere trapping the light energy from the sun and reflecting it back to the earths surface, consequently warming our atmosphere. In the last 100 years the Earth has warmed by 0.74oC (and by 0.4oC since the 1970s) (Direct.gov, 2009). Cooper, et al., (2008, p. 287) suggests that most of the temperature change observed since the middle of the twentieth century can very likely be attributed to human activities that are increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. The influence of our exploitation of energy resources has disturbed the equilibrium of greenhouse gases that would have naturally been created. At present, over 30 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide is emitted globally each year by burning fossil fuels (Direct.gov, 2009). It must be said however that a limited amount of contention may still exist over the extent to which global warming is a consequence of human activity or a natural occurrence (Holden, 2008, p. 211). The greenhouse effect is a natural process that has been occurring for billions of years, although according to research carried out by Holden (2008, p. 213) it would seem that there is a positive correlation between industrial development and increased levels of C02 in the atmosphere. The recent climate change has been amplified by our past contribution of emissions into the atmosphere but we have already committed ourselves to additional inevitable climate change due to todays unprecedented levels. Climate change has a great number of devastating impacts caused by long term significant changes in the weather patterns; one of the most prominent impacts has been the loss of the worlds ice mass which has resulted in the elevation of sea levels. There are three major processes by which human-induced climate change directly affects sea level; firstly, as climate change increases ocean temperatures the water will expand contributing to sea level rise due to thermal expansion. A second and less certain contributor to sea level rise is the melting of glaciers and ice caps and the final process is the loss of ice mass from Greenland and Antarctic (Climate Institute, 2008). There is ambiguity regarding exact temperature predictions, however according to research carried out by the IPPC (2007, p. 45) it is predicted that there will be a sea level rise of 0.18 - 0.38m by 2100 in the most optimistic scenario and 0.26 0.59m in the most pessimistic. Coastal zones are especially vulnerable to increases in sea level; the impact on these environments can be dramatic. Even very small amounts of sea level rise can represent significant shoreline movement in low-

lying and gradually sloping coastal areas (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p.41). These rises in sea levels erode beaches and increase the likelihood of flooding; consequently intensifying and exacerbating the erosion already caused by the use of this fragile environment as a tourist resource. Coastal wetland ecosystems, such as salt marshes and mangroves are particularly vulnerable to rising sea level because they are generally within a few feet of sea level (IPPC, 2007 cited in EPA, 2009). Wetlands protect the local areas from flooding but as sea levels rise they will erode leaving tourist facilities and recreational areas vulnerable to attrition and potential flooding leading to property damage. As much as 33% of coastal land and wetland habitats are likely to be lost in the next hundred years if the level of the ocean continues to rises at its present rate (Climate Institute, 2008). This land loss will have a significant effect on the diminishing species living in this habitat. The plants and wildlife, which are already declining due to the development of these areas for recreational purposes, will be at further risk from the threat of extinction. Sea level rise also increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to flooding during storms (EPA, 2009). Shoreline erosion eradicates beaches that would normally protect and act as a defence against storm waves. According to the EPA (2009) sea level rise also increases coastal flooding from rainstorms, because low areas drain more slowly as sea level rises. This will have serious impacts for the facilities and infrastructure of a destination and implications for tourism in terms of its recovery if this situation occurs. The Maldives are progressively becoming extremely vulnerable to rising sea-levels. According to Bryant (2004) since 80% of its 1200 islands are no more than 1m above sea level, within 100 years the Maldives could become uninhabitable. The increase in sea-levels is causing erosion of its beaches resulting in land loss and flooding; according to ERC (2001 cited in UNFCCC, 2001, p. 53) an estimated 50% of all inhabited islands and 45% of tourist resorts at present suffer from varying degrees of beach erosion. A further potential consequence of a rise in sea-level is the intrusion of saline water into the fresh water aquifers (Holden, 2008, p. 215). As sea levels rise, their saline water will be able to overcome natural barriers to move into low lying areas dominated by fresh water. This could affect groundwater and further enhance the water supply problems already caused by tourism. UNFCCC (2001, p. 53) states that the islands are among the most susceptible to inundation from water rising from the ground as well as overtopping dune ridges. The inundation of saline water into groundwater affects the availability of the supply of freshwater resulting in shortages of safe drinking water. Inundation of land and associated saltwater intrusion due to the predicted sea level rise would reduce the freshwater lenses and thus reduce the available fresh groundwater of these islands (UNFCCC, 2001, p. 72). Another major impact of climate change is the increase of extreme weather events that can appear in the form of hurricanes, cyclones, sea surges and tropical storms. According to Holden (2008, p. 215) the phenomenon of global warming will increase the magnitude, frequency and risk of extreme climatic events. Beatley (2002, p. 63) states that the physical forces are severe and the impacts potentially catastrophic as they can destroy coastal ecosystems by aggravating erosion, ensuing flooding and devastating property. Research carried out by Gray (1999 cited in Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p. 66) suggests that we are entering a period of intense hurricane activity with destruction rising to unprecedented levels. The heightened destruction can also be attributed to the proximity to the shoreline of the development of tourism infrastructure. The threat from hurricanes and other coastal storms has increased substantially because the amount of development and number of people now in highrisk coastal zones have risen dramatically (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p. 66). In conjunction with the increase in extreme weather events is the inducement of climatic variability such as droughts and flooding. The availability of water already

limits the development of tourist resorts; the impact of an increased lack of rainfall can exacerbate this issue. Flooding will further intensify the problems created by increased sea levels; erosion will be magnified and additional devastation to property will be established. Small, low-lying islands are amongst the most at risk to elevated sea levels; the Islands of Fiji are an example of coastal environments that have endured the impact of climate change and extreme climatic events. The Mamanuca Islands in Fiji are low-lying atoll islands, and as such are vulnerable to sea-level rise (Moreno & Becken, 2008, p. 479). This makes them highly susceptible to beach erosion and inundation, particularly in the event of intense climatic occurrences such as coastal storms. Within the past decade Fiji has experienced a range of undesirable climate related events, including several tropical cyclones with associated flooding and other adverse consequences (Agrawala, et al. 2003, p. 11). Fiji Meteorological Service (2009) reports that on average, some ten to fifteen cyclones per decade affect some part of Fiji, and two to four do severe damage. With increased climate change the frequency of these tropical storms can only worsen. Mimura (1999, p. 138) states that the population is concentrated on narrow, low-lying areas fringing the mountains along the coast. The devastation from climatic events is heightened due to the location of the infrastructure and development along high-risk areas. A further issue caused by rising C02 levels is its absorption into the sea; this process called acidification has huge implications for maritime species. Dissolved C02 creates carbonic acid, which reduces the ocean PH level, making it more acidic (Climate Institute, 2008). According to research done by NRDC (2009) a more acidic ocean could wipes out species, disrupt the food web and impact fishing, tourism and any other human endeavour that relies on the sea. Researchers predict that if carbon emissions continue at their current rate, ocean acidity will more than double by 2100 (NRDC, 2009). The current rate at which ocean acidification is occurring will likely to have profound biological consequences within the coming decades. The rate of change in ocean acidity is so great that many marine organisms will probably not be able to adapt quickly enough to survive these changes. Coral reefs are particularly susceptible to acidification as it is makes it more difficult to build their skeletons. NRDC (2009) states that acidity slows reef-building, which could lower the resiliency of corals and lead to their erosion and eventual extinction. The increase in sea temperatures, as mentioned earlier, also has devastating impacts on marine ecosystems such as coral reefs through a process called bleaching. The increased temperature puts stress on the highly sensitive corals causing them to expel the algae that live inside the coral polyps, if this process continues to occur the coral will eventually die (Coral Reef Adventure, 2003). In many destinations, reefs are the key pull factor for tourists as a visitor attraction and can be considered a major economic asset (Cooper, et al., 2008, p. 291). The loss of coral reefs would also reduce the protection that they offer coastal communities against storm surges and hurricanes (NRDC, 2009). Therefore this bionetwork is also essential in fortifying the coastal zone and offering defence against extreme weather events. The impacts from climate change on this fragile ecosystem will increase the devastation already caused by tourist activities. If the processes of acidification and bleaching continue, resulting in the desertion of the coral reefs, tourism in these coastal areas could also diminish. The management of climate change involves two core strategies; the mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in order to reduce the future rapidity of climate change, and adaptation of coastal zones to reduce the impact of climatic changes on this fragile environment. On an international scale mitigation of GHG emissions is essential to try to minimize the basis of global warming. Mitigation can be implemented in two main ways; carbon offsetting and carbon trading. The theory of carbon offsetting is to neutralize the C02 emissions created through paying a

contribution to projects that reduce C02 by the equivalent amount. Gossling, et al., (2007) states that there is an increasing number of organisations offering voluntary carbon offsetting schemes as a means of compensating for emissions of GHGs, mostly from transport, which could help to stabilise or reduce emissions. The compensation contributes to supplying renewable energy schemes or planting trees to counterbalance the levels of C02 in the atmosphere. However Gossling, et al., (2007, p. 241) goes on to say that offsets are environmentally risky options that do nothing to directly reduce aviation emissions. This method does not decrease the levels of pollutants which are emitted into our atmosphere. Carbon trading is a scheme adopted to manage emissions by providing monetary incentives for achieving reductions in pollution levels. Companies are given emission permits which represent the right to produce a specific amount of emissions; if they need to increase their allowance they must buy credits from those who pollute less. According to Thornton (2006) this mitigation method is more efficient and more effective because unlike a tax, it rewards and punishes particular patterns of behaviour. Businesses obtain financial reward by reducing their emissions so the incentive provides encouragement for environmental consciousness. If enforced simultaneously, carbon offsetting and trading should help manage the rate of climate change. Adaptation strategies need to be established and integrated into coastal planning in order to help manage climate changes. Cooper, et al., (2008, p. 294) defines adaptation to climate change as an adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. This implies the tourism industry should adapt to withstand the change that climate change creates whilst conserving the coastal ecosystem. The adaptive capacity of coastal destinations to climate change is low therefore planning both on national and localized levels is fundamental in order to sustain the coastal environment and protect it from further damage. Management strategies are imperative to incorporate measures needed to resist climate change while capitalizing on economic opportunities. The initiative of coastal zone management is based upon the need to integrate environmental considerations with coastal tourism policies and plans (Hall & Page, 2006, p. 310). The achievement of equilibrium between the two is vital for the survival of coastal tourism; therefore it is important to receive the involvement of local communities and businesses in order to maximise success. The European Commission (2000, p. 8) states that their policy of integrated quality management (IQM) is one that concerns everyone involved in the basic services and products supplied to tourists. Internal communication is essential to ensure that the managing structure is recognised and its tourism development plans receive the active support of local people (European Commission, 2000, p. 10). Long-term sustainable strategies based upon coastal conservation need to be incorporated into beach practises to maintain the environment for future generations. Beatley, Brower & Schwab (2002, p. 285) define sustainable coastal development as a new found respect for environmental and ecological limits, a goal of living off the ecological interest while protecting the principal, a new orientation toward the future and toward adopting a long-term planning and management time-frame. Adaptation strategies can entail different methods of defence designed to minimise the impacts of climate change and reduce the vulnerability of the coastal zone. At a fundamental level coastal jurisdictions can choose to resist these coastal forces or engage in strategic retreat from the shoreline (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p. 71). Defending against the sea involves strengthening the protection of this environment. Fortification of the coastline can take two main forms; structural and soft reinforcement. Structural reinforcement entails the modification of infrastructure to withstand extreme weather conditions, elevation of structures and construction of

physical barriers such as sea walls and other shore-armouring devices. Although these devices may temporarily block flooding and erosion, their economic and environmental impacts are substantial. Continuing sea walls can exacerbate erosion, block normal landward migration and eventually result in a highly engineered shoreline with no natural beach (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2002, p. 71). In Qoma, Fiji, the downstream community has reported frequent inundation after the construction of seawalls (Agrawala, et al., 2003, p. 28). Soft shoreline reinforcement involves the renourishment of beaches. According to Beatley, Brower & Schwab (2002, p. 71) beach renourishment can restore the recreational beach and protect structures from erosion and storm forces. However this strategy is ephemeral and not particularly cost effective. Conservation of the coastal ecosystem is imperative as the natural biodiversity protects the coastal zone from the actions of climate change. Cooper, et al., (2008, p. 295) states that establishing and enforcing protected areas is generally considered to be one of the most appropriate strategies for ensuring that terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems are resilient to the additional pressures arising from climate change. In assessing the range of adaptation measures to sea level rise recommended for Fiji a common theme that emerges is preservation of coral reef and mangrove systems to act as buffers against rising seas and storm surges (World Bank 2000, cited in Agrawala, et al., 2003, p. 32). Hence it is not only significant to preserve these vulnerable ecosystems as their beauty attracts tourism; in addition their protective qualities defend against climatic changes. Strategic retreat from the shoreline is an essential technique in order to avoid exposure to the force of storms, flooding and erosion. Beatley, Brower & Schwab (2002, p. 138) believe that one of the most effective ways to address erosion and other shoreline hazards and promote costal retreat is through setback requirements. 25 states in America now impose some form of coastal setback, requiring development to locate a certain distance landward of the ocean (Beatley, Brower & Schwab, 2008, p. 138). With regards to the coastal planning strategies of Fiji, Agrawala, et al., (2003) states that current policy with regard to sea level is to maintain a 30m setback of any development from the high water mark. Damage to the coastline already generated from use of the coastal zone as a recreational resource is heightened and intensified by the actions of climate change. The accumulation of numerous strains and pressures on the coastal environment will ultimately result in the erosion and potential disappearance of this valuable ecosystem, and for small island resorts the desertion and potential submersion of these destinations. Stresses caused by the accretion of development on the coastline accompanied by climatic changes will inevitably create implications for coastal destinations. Consequently it is imperative that coastal zone planners and managers develop suitable adaptation methods to enhance protection for these exposed areas. Moreno & Becken (2009, p. 485) suggest that identification of feasible adaptation measures based on principles of sustainable development increases resilience and preparedness of the system. Knowledge about vulnerability to climate change will therefore play an important role in present and future management strategies (Moreno and Becken, 2009, p. 484). Education of local communities, businesses and those involved in recreational activities concerning the possible implications of climatic changes is of great significance. Reducing the source of climate change is a fundamental step in lowering its impacts; strategies formed to directly lower emissions, through carbon trading, and methods to offset the C02 levels in the atmosphere are central to limiting global warming attributable to humans. Awareness concerning the ramifications of our actions inducing climatic changes in conjunction with the understanding of the pressures these changes assert on coastal areas is crucial to protect and preserve the coast for future years.