chemical fertilisers in our water

An analysis of nitrates in the groundwater in Punjab

This is Greenpeace
Report produced by Greenpeace India Society, November 2009 LE AD A UTH O R Dr. Reyes Tirado Greenpeace Research Laboratories University of Exeter United Kingdom RE S E AR C H S U PP O RT G opi Krishna Sustainable Agriculture C ampaigner Greenpeace D E SIG N A N D LAY O UT Lighthouse Creatives PRINTIN G Print Expressions Printed on 100 % recycled paper C O NTA C T gopi.krishna@greenpeace.org www.greenpeace.org C O VER IMA G E C hild drinks water from the water pump near his house in F aridkot, Punjab. B abies and infants living around agricultural areas who are fed water from wells and pumps are the most vulnerable to health risks from nitrates like blue baby syndrome and cancer. IMA G E C RE DIT Preethi H erman

G re e n p e a c e is a glo b al c a m p aig nin g org a nis a tio n th a t a c ts to c h a n g e a ttitu d e s a n d b e h a vio ur, to prot e c t a n d c o ns erv e th e e nviro n m e nt a n d to pro m ot e p e a c e by:
C a t alysin g a n e n ergy re volutio n to a d dre ss th e nu m b er o n e thre a t fa cin g o ur pla n e t: clim a t e c h a n g e. D efe n din g o ur o c e a ns by c h alle n gin g w a st eful a n d d e stru c tiv e fishin g, a n d cre a tin g a glo b al n e t w ork of m arin e re s erv e s. Prot e c tin g th e w orld's re m ainin g a n cie nt fore sts a n d th e a nim al, pla nts a n d p e o ple th a t d e p e n d o n th e m. Workin g for dis arm a m e nt a n d p e a c e by re d u cin g d e p e n d e n c e o n finit e re s o urc e s a n d c allin g for th e elimin a tio n of all nu cle ar w e a p o ns. C re a tin g a to xic fre e future with s afer alt ern a tiv e s to h a z ard o us c h e mic als in to d a y's pro d u c ts a n d m a nufa c turin g. Su p p ortin g sust ain a ble a gric ulture by e n c o ura gin g s o cially a n d e c olo gic ally re s p o nsible farmin g pra c tic e s.

We c a m p aig n for cre a tin g a p ara dig m shift in a gric ultural pro d u c tio n- to tra nsform h o w p oliticia ns, in d ustry, m e dia a n d th e p u blic s e e a gric ulture a n d to re pla c e th e in d ustrial a gric ulture of c orp ora t e c o ntrol, m o n o c ulture, g e n e tic ally e n gin e ere d cro p s, a n d synth e tic a gro c h e mic al in p uts with sust ain a ble farmin g th a t h a s lo w e xt ern al in p uts, e nh a n c e s a gro-div ersity, prot e c ts bio div ersity a n d h elp s m e e t lo c al fo o d a n d e m ploy m e nt n e e d s.

C ontents
Introduction The study - process and findings Findings Potential health impact of drinking water contaminated with nitrates Appendix 2 3 4 6 9

G re e n p e a c e e xists b e c a us e this fra gile e arth d e s erv e s a voic e. It n e e d s s olutio ns. It n e e d s c h a n g e. It n e e d s a c tio n. G re e n p e a c e's g o al is to e nsure th e a bility of th e e arth to nurture life in all its div ersity. A t G re e n p e a c e, w e b elie v e in th e p o w er of th e m a ny. T h e future of th e e nviro n m e nt re sts with th e millio ns of p e o ple aro un d th e w orld w h o sh are o ur b eliefs. To g e th er w e c a n t a c kle e nviro n m e nt al pro ble m s a n d pro m ot e s olutio ns.

Introduction
A chemical intensive model of agriculture was introduced in India in the 1960s as part of the Green Revolution. This model and the supporting government policies, such as the chemical fertiliser subsidy policy, provoked indiscriminate use of chemicals. This has not only led to deterioration of the environment but also degraded and contaminated the natural resources base, and is now posing a threat to human health. A recent Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation on the effects of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser on groundwater pollution in intensive agriculture areas in three districts of Punjab shows that 20 p erc ent of all sa m ple d w ells have nitrate levels a b ove the safety limit of 50 mg of nitrate p er litre (50mg/L N O 3- for drinking w ater esta blishe d by the World H e alth Org anisation (W H O). This nitrate pollution is clearly linked with the usage of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers as higher the a p plic ation of nitrog en (ure a) in the a djoining field, the higher the nitrate p ollution found in the drinking w ater from the sa m e farm. Nitrate pollution in drinking water can have serious health impact on humans, especially for babies and children. The most significant potential health effects of drinking water contaminated with nitrate are the blue-baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia) and cancer. Ironically, this intensive farming practice is also not living up to its promise of sustained increase in food production. As a consequence, food production is now affected by diminishing returns and falling dividends in agriculture intensive areas. Application of nitrogen fertilisers compromises future food production by degrading soil fertility, and compromises the health of the farmers and their families by polluting the drinking water they depend on. The situation is alarming as the intensive model of farming has already depleted the groundwater. This region might be suffering from widespread nitrate pollution on its diminishing sources of drinking water. There is an urgent need to shift to an ecofriendly agricultural model, and identify agro-ecological practices that ensure future food security. It is necessary now to acknowledge the pattern of the hazards that is becoming a trend, and address them with research, political will, relevant policy and practices.

Im a g e: F ertiliser industry in B hatind a, Punja b. Gre enp e a c es re c ord e d d ata on a gronomic pra ctic es sho ws an avera g e a p plic ation rate of 322 kg N p er he ctare in 2008-09 in the thre e districts of B hatind a, Ludhiana and Muktsar. It is higher than the avera g es re p orte d by the F ertiliser Asso ciation of India for Punja b (210 kg N p er he ctare for 2006-07)

G R E E N P E A C E / P R E E T HI H E R M A N

Im a g e: Alg a e bloom c overs the entire p ond m a king the w ater look gre en. The bloom is c ause d by nitrog en lo a ds in the environm ent. In urb an are as it is asso ciate d with se w a g e and in a griculture are as, with livesto c k sourc es and nitrog en fertiliser inputs.

The study - process and findings

This study is an initial Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation into the effects of synthetic nitrogen fertiliser on groundwater pollution in intensive agriculture areas in Punjab. We tested the level of nitrate in drinking water from groundwater artesian wells located within farms and surrounded by crops (mostly rice and wheat rotations). Nitrate pollution in groundwater is associated with nitrogen loads in the environment. In urban areas, it is associated with sewage and in agriculture areas, with livestock sources and nitrogen fertiliser inputs.
Im a g e: A farm er w ashes ra dish from his farm in the w ater pum p e d from the w ell. A Gre enp e a c e investig ation sho ws that 22 p erc ent of all sa m ple d w ells have nitrate levels a b ove the safety limit of 50mg/L N O 3- for drinking w ater esta blishe d by the World H e alth Org anisation (W H O).

S a m plin g a n d t e stin g m e th o d olo gy

F

We tested groundwater from artesian wells located in farms away from other potential sources of nitrate contamination (animals, human sewage), in order to focus on the impact of fertiliser application. We sampled farms located in three districts in Punjab where fertiliser consumption is highest. Districts: - Ludhiana , 18 farms sampled, average well depth 160 feet. - Muktsar , 18 farms sampled, average well depth 51 feet. - B hatind a , 14 farms sampled, average well depth 157 feet. Fifty groundwater wells were sampled in farms (with samples duplicated for higher accuracy) and 50 farmers were interviewed for data recording on agronomic practices. When sampling groundwater, we let the water outlet (i.e., a hand or electric pump) run for approximately three minutes before collecting the sample in a sterile plastic bottle. Measurements of p H and electric conductivity (E C) were taken on site at the time of sampling (H anna Instruments, U K).

Nitrate concentration (mg/L N O 3- ) in water samples was tested colorimetrically with the chromotropic acid method (Method 10020, Test N Tube Vials, H ach Lange, U K), using a portable spectrophotometer (DR2400, H ach Lange, U K). The value given for each sample is the average of testing two or three sub-samples for improved accuracy. Samples were kept in a cool box after collection and were tested with a portable H atch Spectrophotometer within ten hours maximum on the same day. All the water tested is used for drinking by farmers and families and farm workers. As control points, we sampled two wells that are also monitored by the C entral Groundwater C ontrol B oard (C G W B). These wells are located within the villages, with high pollution probably coming from concentration of human sewage and cattle. The comparable values from our tests and from the reported values by C G W B point to the agreement between our methodologies.

Ta ble 1. R esults of c ontrol tests in tw o w ells monitore d by the C entral Ground w ater C ontrol B o ard and sa m ple d by our te a m in 2009. (C G W B values provid e d by the offic e of the Dire ctor of C G W B in C handig arh, M arch 2009)

District, Blo c k, Villa g e

C G W B w ell ID

Well lo c ation In village In village

Nitrate (mg/L N O 3- ) 110.7 601.6

Muktsar, Muktsar, Muktsar Muktsar, Gidderbaha, Doda

C G W B 44J-3 C 1 C G W B 44J-3 C 8

R e porte d C G W B Nitrate value in sa m e w ell 175 578

Findings
Drinking water extracted from artesian wells in agricultural areas Punjab shows high pollution with nitrates, and this pollution correlates with intensive farming practices where nitrogen fertilisers are applied in excess (Figures 1 and 2). Ten of 50 sampled wells, i.e., 20 percent of all sampled wells, have nitrate levels above the safety limit of 50 mg/L N O 3- for drinking water established by the World H ealth Organisation (W H O) (see Table A1 in Appendix and Figure 1). The three sampled districts show groundwater wells that are highly polluted with nitrates, and 44 percent of the farming villages sampled (8 of 18 villages), have wells with pollution higher than the safety limit for drinking water. higher than the averages reported by the F ertiliser Association of India for Punjab (210 kg N per hectare for 2006-07), while the data we recorded from 50 farmer interviews show an average application rate of 322 kg N p er he ctare in 2008-09 . The nutrient demand of the crops is only about 100 Kg N per hectare, and scientific studies show that the best option is to add this nitrogen through organic fertilisers (legumes, manure, etc.) to ensure soil fertility (Mader et al. , 2002). The nitrate pollution found in this study is remarkably high given that the groundwater in this area is quite deep, and it is generally assumed that deep groundwater would be cleaner and less polluted than shallow water. This represents a worrisome fact, given the serious status of groundwater depletion in this region. In addition to depleted

Figure 1. Nitrate c onc entration in e a ch blo c ks (or tehsils) in Punja b where 50 ground w ater w ells w ere sa m ple d in ric e and whe at farms. We sa m ple d farms lo c ate d in thre e districts, B hatind a, Ludhiana and Muktsar, c overing nine blo c ks and 18 villa g es. All thre e distric ts s a m ple d within th e st a t e of P unja b h a v e farm w ells p ollut e d with nitra t e s fro m fertilis ers

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0

W H O safety limit for drinking water

limit for relatively polluted water

Bhatinda

Phul Jagraon Ludhiana Payal Raikot

Malout

Gidderbaha

Muktsar

district B hatind a

district Ludhiana

district Muktsar

This nitrate pollution is clearly linked with excess use of synthetic nitrogen fertilisers (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows the correlation between application of nitrogen in the farm (mostly urea) and the nitrate pollution found in the groundwater well on the same farm: the higher the a p plic ation of nitrog en (ure a), the higher the nitrate p ollution found in the drinking w ater from the sa m e farm. The data we recorded on agronomic practices show that nitrogen application is

groundwater linked to intensive agriculture, the region might be suffering from widespread nitrate pollution in its diminishing sources of drinking water. Excess application of nitrogen fertilisers not only compromises future food production by degrading soil fertility (as recently highlighted in our report Subsidising F ood Crisis (Roy et al. , 2009)), but also compromises the health of the farmers and their families by polluting the drinking water they depend on.

Figure 2. R elationship b etw e en nitrog en a p plic ation rate in a farm and nitrog en c onc entration in the ground w ater w ell in the sa m e farm. This analysis includ e the d ata p oints that fall within the m e dian rang e of w ell d e pth (50-150 m), to e x clud e e xtre m e sa m ples in b oth ends.

Hig h er ure a a p plic a tio n re sults in hig h er nitra t e p ollutio n

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0 250 300 350 400

R 2 = 0.4002 450

Ure a a p plic a tio n ra t e (N /h a)

Im a g e: A farm er c arrying a sa c k of che mic al fertiliser to the field in B hatind a, Punja b. A p plic ation of nitrog en fertilisers c om promises future foo d pro duction by d e gra ding soil fertility; and c om promises the he alth of the farm ers and their fa milies by p olluting the drinking w ater they d e p end on.

Potential health impact of drinking water contaminated with nitrates

Nitrate pollution in drinking water in agriculture areas come mainly from nitrogen fertilisers applied to farm soils (G alloway et al. , 2003). A large part of the nitrogen applied to soils is not taken up by the plant and ends up in the soil (Vitousek et al. , 2009), from where it moves to the atmosphere and to water bodies (groundwater, lakes, river, and coastal areas) where it contaminates drinking water and the environment (G alloway et al. , 2003). The most significant potential health effects of drinking water contaminated with nitrate are blue-baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia) and cancer. B abies and infants living around agricultural areas and who are fed water from wells are the most vulnerable to health risks from nitrates. Additionally, anyone drinking from a contaminated well or eating vegetables with high levels of nitrate could be vulnerable to the long term effects of nitrates, like various types of cancer (Ward et al. , 2005). often under- or misdiagnosed (Townsend et al. , 2003).

C anc er
Drinking water contaminated with nitrates or eating food similarly affected has a potential role in developing cancers of the digestive tract, and has also been associated with other types of cancer (non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and bladder and ovarian cancers) (Townsend et al. , 2003, Ward et al. , 2005). The link between nitrates and cancer comes from the contribution of nitrates to the bacterial formation of N-nitroso compounds (like nitrosamines) in the digestive tract, particularly in the stomach. These nitrosamines are among the most potent of the known carcinogens in mammals (C amargo and Alonso, 2006, Ward et al. , 2005). Some studies have shown that long-term consumption of drinking water with nitrate concentrations even below the maximum safety level of 50 mg/l N O 3- may stimulate the formation of these nitrate-related carcinogens (nitrosamines) in the digestive system (Ward et al. , 2005). F or example, in Iowa (U SA), the levels of nitrate in drinking water below the recommended W H O concentration standard have been linked with an increased risk of bladder and ovarian cancers in women drinking water from municipal and private farm wells (Weyer et al. , 2001). A recent study in Taiwan showed that drinking water with high levels of nitrates was associated with increased risk of cancer of the bladder (C hiu and Tsai, 2007).

Blue-b a by syndrom e
The greatest risk of nitrate poisoning (methemoglobinemia) occurs in infants fed with well water contaminated with nitrates, and affects particularly babies who are four months old or younger (Greer et al. , 2005). Blue-baby syndrome (or methemoglobinemia) occurs when the haemoglobin in the blood loses its capacity to carry oxygen, and this can ultimately cause asphyxia and death. This occurs because nitrites (resulting from the reduction of the nitrate in the anaerobic conditions of the digestive tract) block haemoglobin in the blood (Greer et al. , 2005). Blue-baby syndrome can provoke cyanosis, headache, stupor, fatigue, tachycardia, coma, convulsions, asphyxia and ultimately death (C amargo and Alonso, 2006, Greer et al. , 2005). Since 1945, more than 3,000 cases of blue-baby syndrome have been reported worldwide, most of which were associated with private wells in farming areas with high nitrate concentrations (concentrations > 50 mg/l N O 3- ). Some health professionals believe that the blue-baby syndrome is

Im a g e: This train that travels through B hatind a to Bik aner, R ajastan is also kno wn as the c anc er train. It routinely c arries c anc er p atients from B hatind a who travel to Bik aner for tre atm ent at the governm ent's re gional c anc er c enter.

A c kno wle d g e m ents: We w ould lik e to thank the 50 farm ers who allo w e d us to c arry out the investig ation tests in their fields and in the pro c ess taught us a lot a b out farming in the M alw a re gion of Punja b.

Im a g e: A child w ashes her hands in the c anal that provid es ground w ater to the ra dish fields in Punja b. B a bies and infants living around a gricultural are as who are fe d w ater from w ells and pum ps are the most vulnera ble to he alth risks from nitrates.

As synthetic che mic al fertiliser usa g e, resulting in thre at to our foo d se curity and safety of drinking w ater, has incre ase d b e c ause of governm ent subsidies to the m, Gre enp e a c e d e m ands that 1. The G overnm ent ne e ds to cre ate an alternate subsidy syste m that promotes e c ologic al farming and use of org anic soil a m end m ents. 2. The G overnm ent ne e ds to shift the irrational subsidy p olicy for synthetic fertilisers to sustaina ble e c ologic al pra ctic es in a griculture. 3. S cientific rese arch ne e ds to refo cus on e c ologic al alternatives, to id entify a gro-e c ologic al pra ctic es that ensure cle an drinking w ater and future foo d se curity und er a changing clim ate.

A P P E N DIX Ta ble A1. R esults for every farm and w ater w ell sa m ple d in Punja b in 2009. In re d are values that are a b ove the W H O safety limit for drinking w ater of 50 mg/L.

Distric t

Blo c k or Te hsil

Villa g e S a m ple ID B H12 B H13 B H14 B H5 B H6 B H7 B H8 B H9 B H10 B H11 B H1 B H2 B H3 B H4 LU1 LU2 LU3 LU6 LU7 LU8 LU9 LU11 LU12 LU13 LU14 LU15 LU18 LU19 LU20 LU16 LU17 LU4 M U8 M U4 M U5 M U9 M U10 M U14 M U11 M U12 M U2 M U3 M U21 M U22 M U15 M U16 M U17 M U18 M U19 M U20

Bhatinda Bhatinda Pathrala Bhatinda Bhatinda Pathrala Bhatinda Bhatinda Pathrala Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Raikekalam Bhatinda Bhatinda Bhairupa Bhatinda Phul Bhairupa Bhatinda Phul Dialpura Bhatinda Phul Dialpura Bhatinda Phul Manuke Ludhiana Jagraon Manuke Ludhiana Jagraon Manuke Ludhiana Jagraon Bhairo Munna Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhairo Munna Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhairo Munna Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhairo Munna Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhairo Munna Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutahari Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutahari Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutahari Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutahari Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutahari Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutta Ludhiana Ludhiana Bhutta Ludhiana Ludhiana Siahar Payal Ludhiana Siahar Payal Ludhiana Jhoorda Raikot Ludhiana Bhalaina Muktsar Gidderbaha Doda Muktsar Gidderbaha Doda Muktsar Gidderbaha Abul Khurana Malout Muktsar Abul Khurana Malout Muktsar Malout Kutianwali/Sherawali Muktsar Lambi Malout Muktsar Lambi Malout Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Sakhanwali Muktsar Muktsar Sangrana Muktsar Muktsar Seerwali Muktsar Muktsar Seerwali Muktsar Muktsar Seerwali Muktsar Muktsar Muktsar Vangal Muktsar Muktsar Vangal Muktsar Muktsar Vangal Muktsar

p H E C m S D e pth Nitro g e n of w ell a p plic a tio n (m) (N /h a) 7.3 80 276 3.6 7.1 85 430 6.3 7.2 40 272 3.6 110 7.2 272 2.2 140 7.4 385 2.2 100 7.4 398 2.4 50 7.5 272 0.7 90 7.1 272 1.7 105 7.3 385 1.2 45 7.9 340 1.7 300 7.3 272 1.5 450 7.7 302 1.3 350 7.6 306 1.2 250 7.1 272 1.8 300 7.3 315 1.0 80 7.4 335 1.1 90 7.5 385 1.3 100 7.3 263 1.0 150 7.4 320 0.9 150 7.2 335 0.8 100 7.3 335 1.0 100 7.0 331 0.8 305 7.9 372 0.3 100 7.0 341 0.7 270 7.6 306 0.3 180 7.3 306 0.5 160 6.9 284 0.7 65 7.1 306 1.0 70 6.9 249 1.1 200 7.3 311 0.7 115 6.9 306 0.7 350 7.2 442 1.2 50 7.6 306 2.0 80 6.9 272 3.3 50 7.5 335 3.2 60 7.1 385 1.4 40 7.5 1.4 40 261 7.4 2.4 80 346 6.9 1.6 25 7.7 2.3 90 431 7.3 1.3 20 374 7.5 1.8 45 278 6.9 3.8 35 278 7.3 2.6 50 335 7.2 1.8 25 324 7.0 1.5 50 267 7.0 4.2 50 312 7.1 6.5 50 306 7.2 5.2 70 335 7.4 1.6

Nitra t e (m g / L N O 3- ) 64.3 45.6 55.1 27.0 53.2 61.0 5.0 6.9 59.6 25.9 20.5 0.5 12.5 7.6 15.2 19.1 53.0 21.5 28.1 7.6 13.7 52.0 0.7 12.3 3.2 15.4 50.6 21.0 27.0 7.8 9.5 27.9 20.9 72.8 94.3 27.6 9.8 12.8 22.2 23.2 7.4 27.1 27.5 40.8 29.1 38.0 21.6 29.9 35.5 29.8

10
REFERENC ES C a m argo, J. A. and Alonso, A. 2006. E c ologic al and toxic ologic al effe cts of inorg anic nitrog en p ollution in a quatic e c osyste ms: A glo b al assessm ent. E nvironm ent International 32: 831. C hiu, H. F. and Tsai, S. S. 2007. Nitrate in Drinking Water and Risk of D e ath from Bla d d er C anc er: An E c ologic al C aseC ontrol Study in Taiw an. Journal of Toxic ology and E nvironm ental H e alth, P art A 70: 1000-1004. G allo w ay, J. N., A b er, J. D., Erism an, J. W., S eitzing er, S. P., H o w arth, R. W., C o wling, E. B . and C osby, B . J. 2003. The Nitrog en C asc a d e. BioS cienc e 53: 341-356. Gre er, F. R., Shannon, M., C ommitte e on Nutrition and C ommitte e on E nvironm ental H e alth 2005. Infant m ethe moglo bine mia: the role of dietary nitrate in foo d and w ater. P e diatrics 116: 784-786. M d er, P., Flieb a ch, A., Dub ois, D., G unst, L., Frie d, P. and Niggli, U. 2002. Soil F ertility and Bio diversity in Org anic F arming. S cienc e 296: 1694-1697. Roy, B . C ., C hatto p a dhyay, G . N. and Tira d o, R. 2009. Subsidising F oo d Crisis: Synthetic F ertilisers Le a d To P oor Soil and Less F oo d. Gre enp e a c e India. http://w w w.gre enp e a c e.org/india/press/re p orts/subsidising-foo d-crisis. To wnsend, A. R., H o w arth, R. W., B a z z a z, F. A., B ooth, M. S., C leveland, C . C ., C olling e, S. K., D o bson, A. P., E pstein, P. R., H olland, E. A. and K e eney, D. R. 2003. Hum an he alth effe cts of a changing glo b al nitrog en cycle. Frontiers in E c ology and the E nvironm ent 1: 240-246. Vitouse k, P. M., N aylor, R., Cre ws, T., D avid, M. B ., Drink w ater, L. E., H olland, E., Johnes, P. J., K atz enb erg er, J., M artinelli, L. A. and M atson, P. A. 2009. Nutrient im b alanc es in a gricultural d evelo p m ent. S cienc e 324: 1519. Ward, M. H., d e K ok, T. M. and Levallois, P. 2005. Workgroup re p ort: drinking-w ater nitrate and he alth-re c ent findings and rese arch ne e ds. E nvironm ental H e alth P ersp e ctives 113: 1607-1614. Weyer, P. J., C erhan, J. R., Kross, B . C ., H allb erg, G . R., K anta mneni, J., Breuer, G ., Jones, M. P., Z heng, W. and Lynch, C . F. 2001. Municip al Drinking Water Nitrate Level and C anc er Risk in Old er Wom en: The Io w a Wom en's H e alth Study. E pid e miology 12: 327-338.

Im a g e: Intensive mo d el of farming has alre a dy d e plete d the ground w ater and this re gion in Punja b might b e suffering from wid espre a d nitrate p ollution on its diminishing sourc es of drinking w ater. There is an urg ent ne e d to shift to an e c o-friendly a gricultural mo d el, and id entify a gro-e c ologic al pra ctic es that ensure future foo d se curity.

Gre enp e a c e is a glo b al org anisation that uses non-violent dire ct a ction to ta c kle the most crucial thre ats to our planet's bio diversity and environm ent. Gre enp e a c e is a non-profit org anisation, present in 40 c ountries a cross E uro p e, The A m eric as, Asia and the P a cific. It sp e a ks for 2.8 million sup p orters w orld wid e, and inspires m any millions more to ta k e a ction every d ay. To m aintain its ind e p end enc e, Gre enp e a c e d o es not a c c e pt d onations from governm ents or c orp orations but relies on c ontributions from individual sup p orters and found ation grants. Gre enp e a c e has b e en c a m p aigning a g ainst environm ental d e gra d ation sinc e 1971 when a sm all b o at of volunte ers and journalists saile d into A m chitk a, an are a north of Alask a, where the U S G overnm ent w as c onducting und erground nucle ar tests.This tra dition of 'b e aring witness' in a non-violent m anner c ontinues to d ay, and ships are an im p ortant p art of all its c a m p aign w ork. Gre enp e a c e India So ciety #60, Wellington Stre et, Richmond To wn, B eng aluru 560025, India. t +91 80 41154861 w w w.gre enp e a c eindia.org