POLYMERS and their uses.

What are polymers ? Polymers are large molecules made up of many identical repeating sub-unit called monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeated linking known as polymerisation.

Polymerisation

Polymer Monomer

TYPES OF POLYMER.

TYPES OF POLYMER

Natural polymer

Synthetic polymer

SYNTHETIC POLYMER.
Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers that are produced from chemical compounds through polymerisation.

Synthetic polymer Polythene Ethene

Monomer

Uses Make plastic bags , Shopping bags , plastic containers and insulation for electrical wiring. Make piping , bottle crates , carpets , car batteries and ropes. Make artificial leather , water pipes and records. Make lenses , safety glass reflectors and traffic signs. Make clothing , sails and ropes.

Polypropene Polyvinyl chloride , PVC Perspex Terylene

Propene Chloroethene Methylmethacrylate Hexane-1,6-diol Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid

Nylon

Hexane-1,6-diamine Make ropes , clothing and carpets. Hexane-1,6-dioic acid Example of synthetic polymers , their monomers and uses.

NATURAL POLYMER.
Natural polymer is a polymer that occurs naturally. Natural polymers are normally made by living organisms.

Natural polymer Rubber Cellulose Starch Protein Fat Nucleic acid Isoprene Glucose Glucose

Monomers

Amino acid Fatty acids and glycerol Nucleotides

Examples of natural polymers and their monomers.

a)

Monomer H H C C

Polymer H C H C

H H Ethene b) Cl C H C

H H n Polythene (polyethene)

Cl C

H C

H H Chloroethene (Vinyl chloride)

H H n Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Polychloroethene)

c)

H C

H C

H C

H C

CH3 H Propene

CH3 H n Polypropene Cl C H CH3 C

d)

H C

CH3 C

H COOCH3 Methyl-2-methylpropenoate (Methyl methacrylate)

COOCH n Perspex (Polymethyl methacrylate)

e)

H C H Styrene

H C

H C H

H C n

Polystyrene

 Examples of synthetic polymers (product of addition polymerisation) and their monomers.

H R

CH2OH C H H C OH HO C C OH OH C O H

H N C C O H H Amino acid (monomer of protein)

H H Glucose (monomer of starch and cellulose)

Structural formula of amino acid and glucose. Monomer H CH3 H H Polymer H CH3 C H C H C H C H

n H C C C C H Isoprene (monomer of natural rubber)

n Polyisoprene (polymer of natural rubber)

Polymerisation of isoprene into polyisoprene (rubber).

Polymerisation
Polymerisation is a process of combining monomers to form a long chain of molecules.

TYPES OF POLYMERISATION

Addition polymerisation

Condensation polymerisation

ADDITION POLYMERISATION
Unsaturated monomers that contain double bonds between two carbon atoms undergo addition polymerisation. Monomers undergo addition polymerisation as shown :-

H n C

H C

H C H

H C H n or ~

H C

H C

H C

H C

H C

H C ~ H

H H Ethene (monomer)

H H H H H Polythene (polymer)

Example of addition polymerisation.

If the structure of a monomer is known , the structural formula of its synthetic polymer can be determined as shown below.

Step 1

Write the symbol for two carbon atoms with double bonds in the middle. 'Push' the atom or molecule that is tied to the two carbon atoms above or below the two carbon atoms. Change or 'open' the double bond into two single covalent bonds and draw brackets.

Step 2

Step 3

Write the letter 'n' at the bottom right-hand corner of the molecule.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION

Small molecules such as water , H2O and ammonia , NH3 are released in condensation polymerization. Monomer a) Adipic acid and hexanediamine b) 1,4-dicarboxylbenzene and ethene-1,2-diol Polymer Nylon Terylene

Examples of synthetic polymers (products of condensation polymerisation)

and their monomers.

H2O

H n H N (CH2)6

H N H + nHO

O C (CH2)4

O C OH

hexanediamine

adipic acid

H N (CH2)6 Nylon

H N

O C (CH2)4

O C n + nH2O

Example of condensation polymerisation.

Synthetic polymers such as plastic Synthetic fibres and synthetic rubber have been used to replace various natural items such as cotton, silk , glass , metal , timber and rock. Natural compounds that have been replaced by synthetic polymers Cotton and silk Paper Timber Metal Glass and ceramics Marble (rock) The advantages of synthetic polymers compared to natural compounds Stronger , more durable , withstands dirt and does not wrinkle easily Waterproof , does not wrinkle or tear easily Does not rot easily Lighter , does not corrode easily , more easily forged and coloured Does not break easily Cheaper

Advantages of synthetic polymers used to replace natural compounds

Effects of the disposal of items made from synthetic polymers on the environment Synthetic polymers are not biodegradable (not decomposed by microorganisms). The careless disposal of items made from synthetic polymers such as plastic causes environmental pollution. The effects of burning and careless disposal of items made from synthetic polymers on the environment as follows :

Burning of synthetic polymers Releases pollutants that endanger health such as smoke , gases that are smelly , poisonous and corrosive such as sulphur dioxide , pollutants that cause acid rain and the greenhouse effect.

Careless disposal of synthetic polymers spoils the beauty of the environment. causes flash floods during heavy rainfall. endangers marine life like turtles that accidentally eat polymers such as plastic as its food.

The best way to manage used items made from synthetic polymers is to recycle them. Plastics that are biodegradable can be used instead to reduced environmental pollution.

GLASS AND CERAMICS.

GLASS
The main component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide , SiO2 ,which is obtained from sand. The most simple glass is the fused silica gas.This glass mainly contains silica , SiO2. Most of the glasses are produced by mixing molten silica , SiO2 , with other compounds. Glass can be recycled . Glass can also be melted and solidified repeatedly.

Does not conduct electricity

Brittle

Not permeable to gas and liquid (fluid)

GLASS Chemically inert Heat insulator

Trasnparent

Hard

The main characteristics of glass.

TYPES OF GLASS

Fused silica glass

Soda-lime glass

Borosilicate glass

Lead crystal glass

Different types of glass have different properties and uses. Types of glass 1) Fused silica glass Properties Very high melting point Not easy to change its shape Does not easily expand or shrink with changes of temperature Transparent to ultraviolet rays Uses Make lenses Make spectacles Make laboratory glassware Make ultraviolet column

2) Soda-lime glass

Transparent Low melting point Easily shaped Easily broken Cannot withstand heat and chemical reactions

Make bottles Make glass containers Make mirrors Make electrical bulbs Make glass windows

3) Borosilicate glass

Withstand heat and chemical reactions High melting point Transparent to light and infrared ray but not ultraviolet rays Expands and shrinks very little and only when temperature changes Very transparent Shiny High refractive index High density

Make bowls Make plates Make saucers Make pots Make cookware Make laboratory glassware such as test tubes, beakers and flasks. Make lenses Make prisms Make glasses Make ornamental items (crystals)

4) Lead crystal glass

CERAMICS

Ceramics are made from clay that has been heated at a very high temperature. The main component of ceramics is silicate. Most ceramics contain silicon , Si , oxygen , O and aluminium , Al. Unlike glass , ceramics cannot be recycled. Ceramics that have been solidified cannot be melted again as they are extremely heat resistant.

Inert to chemicals (withstand corrosion)

Brittle

Cracks when temperature change drastically

High melting point

CERAMICS

Extremely hard

Withstand compression

Good insulators of heat and electricity

The common properties of ceramics.

Uses of ceramics :

Manufacture of computer microchips

Make dentures (enamel)

Make porcelain , vase and ornamental items

Make plates , bowls and pots Used in manufacturing of car engines , spacecraft superconductors and nuclear reactors Make construction materials such as bricks , cement , tiles , underground piping or roof tiles Several uses of ceramics.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS.
Composite materials are produced from the combination of two or more different compounds such as alloys , metals , glass , polymers and ceramics. The characterists of the produced material are much more superior than those original components.

The Uses of Composite Materials :

In this modern world , the demand for this items with spesific properties is high.

Compounds with spesific properties are combined to produce a composite material that meets the requirements of industry , construction and transportation.

 Examples of composite materials are :-

Reinforced Concrete

Made from a mixture of cement , gravel , sand , water , iron or steel to produce nets , rods or bars. Strong , high tensile strength and cheap. Construction material for buildings bridges highways and dams. Made from various components such as the mixture of niobium and germanium. Compound that has no electrical resistance ( zero resistance ). can function only under extremely low temperatures. Used in the transportation , telecomunications and astronomy industries and in the medical field. Made from silica , SiO2 , sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 calcium carbonate , CaCO3. Good insulator of heat and electricity. Used to make protective apparel for astronauts and firefighter. Made from glass , copper and aluminium. Enables information to be transmitted in light form at high speeds ( speed of light ). Used in the fieldof communications to make electrical cables and in the field of medicine to observe internal organs without performing surgery. Produced from molten silica that is mixed with a little silver chloride , AgCl. Dark in colour when exposed to bright light ( ultraviolet ray ) and bright when in the dark. Used to make optical lenses and glass windows ( windshields ) of certai vehicles. Produced by exposing glass that contains certain amount of metals to ultraviolet rays and heating it at high temperatures. Withstand heat. Used to make cooking materials and rocket heads. Made of plastic and glass fibres. Composite plastics that are very strong , light , easily formed and can withstand corrosion. Used to make helmets , the body of cars and aeroplanes , rods and other parts of aeroplanes.

Superconductor

Fibre Glass

Fibre Optics

Photochromic Glass

Ceramic Glass

Plastic Strengthened with Glass Fibres

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID.

Uses of sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , in our daily life are as follows :

Uses of Sulphuric Acid :

Manufacture of fertilisers such as ammonia sulphate , (NH4)2SO4.

Manufacture of electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators (car battery).

Manufacture of soaps and detergents.

Manufacture of pestisides (insecticide).

Manufacture of plastic items such as rayon and nylon.

Manufacture of paints and dyes.

Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid in Industry. Sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , is manufactured in industry through the Contact Process. The manufacturing of sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , in industry involves three stage :-

Stage

Aim

Stage 1 Sulphur dioxide , SO2 , gas can be produced by To produce sulphur dioxide , burning sulphur in air. SO2 , gas. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Sulphur dioxide

Stage 2 The gas mixture of sulphur dioxide , SO2 , and To produce sulphur trioxide , oxygen , O2 , is passed over vanadium(V) oxide , SO3 , gas. V2O5 , (catalyst) at a temperature of 450-500 oC and under the pressure of 1 atmosphere. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Sulphure trioxide

Stage 3 Sulphur trioxide , SO3 , gas is dissolved in To produce sulphuric acid , concentrated sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , to form oleum , H2SO4. H2S2O7. SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

Water is then added to the oleum , H2S2O7 , to dilute it to produce sulphuric acid , H2SO4. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
Sulphuric acid

The three stages involved in the Contact Process.

Environmental pollution by sulphur dioxide.

1) Fossil fuels such as petrol and manufactured products of sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , contain sulphur , S. 2) Burning of these products will oxidise sulphur , S , to form sulphur dioxide , SO2.

S(s) + O2(g)

SO2(g)
Sulphur dioxide

3) Sulphur dioxide , SO2 , is an acidic gas . When it dissolves in rainwater , it forms sulphurous acid , H2SO3 , and causes acid rain. SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Sulphurous acid

4) Sulphur trioxide , SO3 , will also form when sulphur dioxide , SO2 , reacts with oxygen , O2 ,

gas in air. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

Sulphure trioxide

5) When sulphur trioxide , SO3 , dissolves in rainwater , sulphuric acid , H2SO4 , is also formed causing acid rain. SO3(g) + H2O H2SO4(aq)
Sulphuric acid

The effects of acid rain on the environment

Corrodes and destroys property such as bridges , buildings and statues. Reduces pH of soil and causes it to be unsuitable for plant life. Reduces Ph of water and causes the death of aquatic life. Destroys the beauty of the environment such as the collapse of limestone caves.

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA AND ITS SALT.

Uses of ammonia , NH3 , in daily life are as follow :Uses of Ammonia :

Manufacture of nitrogenous fertiliser such as ammonia phosphate , (NH4)3PO4. Manufacture of nitric acid , HNO3 , through the Ostwald process. Manufacture of electrolytes in dry cells. Manufacture of cleaning agents such as washing powder and detergents. Manufacture of explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT). Manufacture of dyes.

Colourles s gas.

Very soluble in water.

Produces thick white fumes with hydrogen chloride , HCl , gas.

AMMONIA , NH3

Has characteristics of weak alkali when dissolved in water , H2O.

Less dense than air. Pungent smell

Properties of ammonia , NH3.

Manufacture of ammonia Ammonia , NH3 , is manufactured on a large scale in factories through the Haber process. In the haber process , nitrogen , N2 , and hydrogen , H2 , gas are mixed in the ratio of 1:3 volumes (moles). N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

The hydrogen , H2 , gas is obtained from methane CH4 , type of natural gas , while nitrogen , N2 , gas is obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquefied air. The gas mixture is passed over ion (catalyst)at a temperature of 450-550 oC and compressed under a pressure of 200-500 atmosphere. The ammonia , NH3 , gas obtained is cooled ( temperature of 50 oC ) to become liquid ammonia , NH3(l).

 Synthesis of ammonia , NH3 , in industry.

 Flow chart of the Contact Process.

 Flow chart of production of ammonia , NH3 , through the Haber process.

Preparation of Ammonia fertilisers in the laboratory Ammonia fertilisers are nitrogenous fertilisers that can provide nitrogen elements to plants. Examples of ammonia salts used as fertilisers are ammonia nitrate , NH4NO3 , ammonia sulphate , (NH4)2SO4 and ammonia phosphate , (NH4)3PO4. Ammonia , NH3 , dissolves in water to form ammonia solution , NH3(aq) , (aqueous ammonia or ammonia hydroxide , NH4OH). Neutralisation reaction between ammonia solution NH3(aq) , and acid solution produces ammonia , NH4+ , salt which is used as fertiliser. Neutralisation reaction Ammonia solution + phosphoric acid Ammonia solution + nitric acid Ammonia solution + sulphuric acid Ammonia salt (fertiliser) Ammonia phosphate Ammonia nitrate Ammonia sulphate

Production of ammonia fertilisers.

ALLOYS
An alloy is a compound formed from a mixture of metal and other elements. A foreign atom (impurity atom) may be atoms of other metals or non-metals such as carbon. The process of mixing atoms of impurities with atoms of pure metal by melting is called alloying. The aims of alloying are to : i. Increase the strength and hardness of the metal. ii. Prevent corrosion of the metal. iii. Improve the appearance of the metal so that it is more attractive. Alloy Steel Stainless steel Bronze Brass Pewter Duralumin Copper nickel Pure metal atom 99% Ion 74% Ion 90% Copper 70% Copper 97% Tin 93% Aluminium 75% Copper Main foreign atom 1% Carbon 18% Chromium,8% Carbon 10% Tin 30% Zinc 2% Copper,1% Antimony 3% Copper,3% Magnesium ,1% Manganese 25% Nickel

Arrangement of atoms in pure metal 1) Pure metal is soft and not very strong. 2) Atoms of pure metals have similar size and shape and are arranged closely but there is still space between the atoms. 3) When force is applied to pure metals , the atoms slide along one another easily. 4) This property causes pure metal to be ductile , that is , it can be stretched into a wire. 5) When knocked or hammered , metal atoms slide along one another to fill spaces between the metal atoms. 6) This property causes pure metal pure metal to be malleable , that is , it can be knocked or pressed into various desired shapes.

Arrangement of alloys 1)impurity atoms which are mixed may be larger or smaller than atoms of pure metal. 2)Impurity atoms fill the empty spaces between the atoms in pure metal. 3)Impurity atoms can prevent the layers of metal atoms from sliding along one onother easily. 4)Due to this ,an alloy is harder and strong than pure metal. 5)For example,stell is harder than iron.

Properties of alloys and their uses The properties of alloy such as its strength,ability to withstand corrosion and its shiny appearance cause it to be suitable to be made into various items for daily use.

FINISH , THANK YOU

MANUFACTURE

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