Sharjah British School

Biodiversity and conservation

Classification is the grouping together of things on the basis of features they have in common. This process is a fundamental part of human nature which develops in early childhood. There are two main types of classification: 1) Artificial classifications place organisms into groups for purpose of convenience. These groups are usually based on one or a few easily observable features. For example, organisms can be placed into groups according to where they live, how they move, or their size. 2) Natural classification attempt to group organisms according to their relationships. The grouping is based on many features, internal as well as external, and uses information from many branches of biology. Taxa: a series of groups arranged in hierarchy. Each group is called taxon and contains organisms sharing some basic features indicating that they have a common ancestry. There are seven main taxa: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. They are listed in descending order of size so that the kingdom in the largest taxon, containing many organisms with the fewest features in common. The species is the most exclusive group, containing the fewest organisms: they are so similar that they can interbreed. Taxonomy the study of the classification of living organisms, including its principles, practice and rules. Binominal nomenclature is based on binominal system. In this system, each type of organism is given a name consisting of two words: the first word is the generic name (the name of the genus) and begins with an upper case letter; the second word is the specific name (the name of the species) and begins with a lower case letter. The two words are printed in italics. E.g. Humans belong to genus Homo and the species sapiens and are given the name Homo sapiens. The five kingdoms are: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Prokaryota (prokaryotes) Protoctista (protoctists) Fungi (fungi) Plantae (plants) Animalia (animals)

Kingdom Prokaryotes
Bacteria are the smallest cellular organisms and are the most abundant. They are of two types: a) Archaebacteria which are thought to have been the first organisms to have evolved on Earth about 3500 million years ago; b) Eubacteria which include cyanobacteria or blue-green bacteria Characteristic features: Genetic material Most DNA is naked, i.e. it is not incorporated in chromosomes but is a single, circular strand lying free in the cytoplasm; there is no nucleus. Some bacteria have additional small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. Cell division usually by binary fission but sometimes by conjugation; no spindle formation Ribosomes 70s ribosomes that only occur free in cytoplasm Endoplasmic reticulum no endoplasmic reticulum Organelles few organelles; no organelles are bounded by a double membrane Hair like structure flagella and pili are simple; they are extracellular (i.e. not extensions of the cell membrane) and they lack an internal system of microtubules Cell wall rigid cell wall made of protein and a polysaccharide. Murein is the main strengthening compound, not cellulose. Respiratory membranes mesosomes (infoldings of the cell surface membrane) act as respiratory surface in some bacteria; no mitochondria Photosynthetic membranes intracellular membranes not organized into stacks (grana); no chloroplasts. Summary: a) Cells with no nucleus b) DNA exists as a circular chromosome c) Smaller circular molecules of DNA called plasmids are often present d) No membrane- bound organelles (e.g. mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum) e) Ribosomes smaller than in eukaryotic cells f) Cell wall containing peptidoglycans g) Usually exist as single cells or small groups of cells
2

Economic importance of bacteria

1) The breakdown of plant and animal remains and the recycling of nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus. 2) Symbiotic relationships with other organisms. For example, supplying vitamin K and some of the vitamin B complex in humans, breaking down cellulose in herbivores 3) Food production, e.g. come cheeses, yoghurts, vinegar 4) Manufacturing processes, e.g. making soap powders, tanning leather and retting flax to make linen 5) They are easily cultured and may be used for research particularly in genetics. They are also used for making antibiotics, amino acids, enzymes and SCP single cell protein).

Kingdom Protoctista
The kingdom Protoctista (Greek protos = very first; kritos=to establish) is a diverse collection of eukaryotic organisms. Any eukaryote that is not fungus, plant or animal is classified as protoctists. This kingdom is very varied and includes all nucleated algae, all protozoa and slime moulds. 1) Protoctists are unicellular; they are regarded as the simplest eukaryotic organisms. 2) Protoctists consist of colonies or filaments of cells. 3) Sea weed are included in Protoctists because they are direct descendants of unicellular algae. 4) Some have animal-like cells (no cell wall) and are sometimes known as protozoa 5) Others have plant-like cells (with cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts) and are sometimes known as algae

Kingdom Fungi
1) They have eukaryotic cells with a rigid, protective cell wall. The wall is made of chitin; it does not contain cellulose 2) Their body is usually organized into multinucleate hyphae (thread-like structures) 3) They cannot photosynthesize; they are heterotrophs feeding saprotrophically, digesting their food extracellular by secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes. They then absorb the soluble products of digestion through their cell walls and into their hyphae. 4) Carbohydrates stores, when present, consist of glycogen, not starch. 5) They produce very large numbers of tiny reproductive spores which have no flagella (they lack undulipodia).Sometimes the spores are produces asexually, sometimes sexually.

Economic importance of fungi

1) 2) 3) 4) Decomposition of sewage and organic material in the soil Production of antibiotics, notably from penicillium and aspergillus Production of alcohol for drinking and industry Production of other foods. Citric acid for lemonade is produced by fermentation of glucose by Aspergillus. Yeasts are used in bread production and the food yeast Candida utilis has been investigated as a source of single cell protein (SCP) 5) Experimental use, especially for genetic investigations. Fungi are also harmful to humans, causing decomposition of stored foods and deterioration of natural materials such as leather and wood.

Kingdom Plantae
1) They are multicellular 2) They have eukaryotic cells with cellulose walls 3) They feed by photosynthesis: some cells contain chloroplasts. ( A few parasitic plants have lost the ability to photosynthesize and have no chloroplast, but they are so clearly related to plants that photosynthesis that they are placed in this kingdom) 4) Most plants store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose

Kingdom Animalia
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) They are multicellular, with cells that are differentiated to form tissues They have eukaryotic cells with no cell walls They are non-photosynthetic, feeding heterotrophically Except for sponges, they all have nervous coordination Cells sometimes have cilia or flagella

Maintaining biodiversity
Biodiversity the range of communities and species that are present in an area, and also the genetic variation that exists within each species. Biodiversity within an ecosystem helps to maintain stability. All the organisms in an ecosystem interact in many different ways, and if one species disappears this can affect the whole community. For example, around 7000 drugs that are prescribed by doctors in the UK are derived from plants. Almost 70% of these plants grow in tropical rainforests. There are doubtless many more that we do not know about. If we allow tropical rainforests to do=disappear then we are undoubtedly losing species that could be beneficial to us.

Endangered species
Many species have become extinct, i.e. they have not been definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years. Others are endangered, i.e. they are likely to become if the factors causing their numbers to decline continue to operate. There are a number of reasons why organisms become endangered: 1) Natural selection it is, and always has been, part of the normal process of evolution that organisms which are genetically better adapted replace those less well adapted. 2) Habitat destruction Humans exploit many natural habitats, destroying them in the process. Timber cutting destroys forests and endangered species like the orangutan. Industrial and agricultural development threatens many plant species of the Amazon forest. Clearing of river banks destroys the natural habitat of otter, and modern farming methods remove hedgerows and drain wetlands, endangering the species which live and breed there. Maintaining the diversity of organisms in a habitat is important as species may have economic importance outside their habitat, e.g. pollinating insects. They may also possess undiscovered chemicals and/or genes with future medicinal or other importance. 3) Competition from humans and their animals where a species is restricted to a small area, e.g. the giant tortoises in the Galapagos Islands, they are often unable to compete with the influx of humans and their animals. Because their habitat is restricted, in this case by water, they cannot escape. 4) Hunting and collecting - humans hunt tigers for sport, crocodiles for their skins, Oryx As trophies, elephants for ivory, whales for oil and rhinoceros for their horn. Other organisms are collected for the pet trade, e.g. tamarins and parrots; and for research purposes, e.g. frogs. These are in addition to the numerous species hunted purely as food. 5) Destroyed by humans as being a health risk many species are persecuted because they carry diseases of domesticated species, e.g. badgers (tuberculosis of cattle) and eland (various cattle diseases). 6) Pollution oil pollution threatens some rare species of sea birds. The build-up of certain insecticides along food chains endangers predatory birds like the peregrine falcon and the golden eagle.

Conservation methods
1) Development of national parks and nature reserves:-these are habitats legally safeguarded and patrolled by wardens. They may preserve a vulnerable food source, e.g. in China areas of bamboo forest are protected to help conserve the giant panda. In Africa game parks help to conserve endangered species such as African elephant. Efforts are being made to conserve the dwindling areas of tropical rainforest. Planning authorities have greater powers to control developments and activities within these areas. Even so there are problems. In the Dartmoor National Park, for example, there is soil erosion caused by walkers and ponies which regularly use the area. Rare species such as the merlin and peregrine falcon as also distributed by these groups. The difficulty is in trying to balance the increasing wish of people to escape to the solitude of National Parks such as Dartmoor with the need for conservation. 2) Planned land use on a smaller scale, specific areas of land may be set aside for a designated use. The types of activities permitted on the land are carefully controlled by legislation. Such areas include Green Bells, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Sites of Special Scientific Interest, and country parks. Some places are designated as Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) and farmers or other landowners may be compensated for restricting activities which might conflict with conserving the natural habitats in the region. In addition to statutory bodies, many volunteer organizations protect habitats. The royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), for example, is the largest volunteer conservation organization in Europe.

3) Legal protection for endangered species it is illegal to collect or kill certain species, e.g. the koala in Australia. In Britain, the Wildlife and Countryside Act gives legal protection to many plants and animals. Even legislation such as Clean Air Act may indirectly protect some species from extinction. Despite stiff penalties, such laws are violated because of the difficulty of enforcing them. 4) Commercial farming the development of farms which produce sought-after goods, e.g. mink farming, deer farming, may produce enough material to satisfy the market and so remove the necessity to kill these animals in the wild.

5) Breeding in zoos and botanical gardens endangered species may be bred in the protected environment of a zoo and when numbers have been sufficiently increased they may be reintroduced into the wild. One species conserved in this way has been the Hawaiian Goose or Ne-Ne. Its population in the wild fell to around 20 pairs before being supplemented by thousands of birds bred in captivity and released in Hawaii.Despite being less adapted to feeding and more prone to predators, these introduced pairs have stabilized the falling population. In addition to captive-breeding programmes, zoos often freeze ova, sperm and embryos for later use when natural habitats become available and finances permit. Using embryo transfer and surrogacy, these frozen genes can be later employed to yield additional individuals of endangered species (sperm banks). In the same way, plant species may be protected in botanical gardens, either as adult individuals or their genetic material temporarily preserved in seed banks.
7

6) Removal of animals from threatened areas organisms in habitats threatened by humans, or by natural disasters such as floods, may be removed and resettled in more secure habitats. 7) Control of introduced species organisms introduced into a country by humans often require strict control if they are not to out-compete the indigenous species. Feral animals (domesticated individuals which escape into the wild) must be similarly controlled. 8) Ecological study of threatened habitats careful analysis of all natural habitats is essential if they are to be managed in way that permits conservation of a maximum number of species. 9) Pollution control measures to control pollution such as smoke emissions, oil spillage, over-use of pesticides, fertilizer run-off, etc., all help to prevent habitat and species destruction. This is especially important in sensitive and vulnerable areas such as river estuaries and salt marsh.

10) Recycling- the more material that is recycled, the less need there is to obtain that material from natural sources, e.g. through mining. These activities often destroy sensitive habitats, either directly or indirectly through dumping of waste which is toxic or the development of roads to transport the products. This can be especially true of metal ores which are often found in mountainous regions, many of which are home to rare species. 11) Education- it is of paramount importance to educate people in ways of preventing habitat destruction and encouraging the conservation of organisms.