Phenology of Urban Plants

Case Study of Liriope Muscari and Taxus Baccata

Dan Kahn

Abstract
In urban planning, plants are very commonly used in parks and landscaping beds to enhance both beauty and visual appeal. Liriope Muscari is one such plant known for its bright purple flowers. Taxus Baccata is another plant, whose evergreen leaves keep their color in all seasons. Landscape designers may choose to use these plants for their robustness as well as their aesthetic appeal. These plants were observed in the setting of the Johns Hopkins Homewood Campus over the course of three months to see if and how they are affected by the abundant air pollution in Baltimore. Because fruiting is so closely related to a plants health, the fruiting cycle was observed and compared to normal rural circumstances to determine if the local pollution was causing harm to the plants. At the conclusion of the observations, the plants were seemingly unaffected by environmental externalities.

Introduction
Liriope Muscari or Lilyturf is not a native plant to North America. It has violet blue flowers and variegated leaves. The plant forms thick tubers as it spreads and grows six to 12 inches tall and develops into grass-like foliage that resembles green carpeting. It is an herbaceous perennial that has yellow striped grass-like leaf blades that grow 8 to 20 inches long. The plant generally grows in clumps. The small, purple flowers arise in the summer and then berry-like fruit appear after, which are of blue-black coloring and about a half inch in length. Until recently, the plant has not been known to Liriope Muscari - Lilyturf (Flickr Commons) be invasive nor does it host serious pests. It can grow in sun but prefers shade and can tolerate most soil

types. It tolerates droughts well, but not high temperatures. It can, however tolerate temperatures down to minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit. It can grow as a border plant in landscaping or under trees. It will die if walked on continually (Gilman and Watson 1994). Taxus Baccata or English Yew is an ancient tree species that has survived from before the Ice Age. It can grow 20 to 25 feet in height. Because of its longevity, it has been revered throughout the ages and associated with immortality. It is a dark green evergreen that can spread to widths of 15 to 20 feet. The plant grows slowly, and its needle-like leaves are a half to one and one half inches in length. Flowering usually occurs in the spring, followed by fruiting in the late summer and early fall. The red fleshy fruit called an aril

4 surrounds a poisonous cone that contains a single seed. The aril, however, is not poisonous (Marshal, 1992). The toxin in the cones is found in the leaves and bark as well, although this does not prevent damage from some pests.

The plant is totally non-invasive and can grow in most soil types and both shade and sun. It

Taxus Baccata (Yew) (Flickr Commons)

tolerates winter well and moderately tolerates drought (Gilman n.d.). Healthy plants produce fruit in a cyclic fashion after they have become old enough to blossom freely. The health of a plant, which determines the size and quality of fruit yield, is often a consequence of the environment. Plants become even more susceptible to pollutants and disease when they blossom, putting fruit at risk for abnormal production. A plant in poor conditions could very likely blossom, but bear no fruit, especially if damage occurs to the reproductive structures of the plant (Griffiths 2003). Understanding that the Yew and Lilyturf are native to rural areas and that fruiting can be affected greatly by the environment, is the fruiting cycle of the two different plants affected by an urban environment?

Area of Study
Urban environments have the potential to be challenging environments for plant growth and development. Apart from areas that are near well-defined sources of pollution, such as factories located in the countryside, amounts of pollution exist less in rural than in urban areas. The main factor of concern for plants is pollution, which is produced by many

5 sources including factory emissions and automobile exhaust. Sulfur Dioxide is a common pollutant that is absorbed through plants stomata and can oxidize the cells of the plant. Oxidation will cause

Sulfur dioxide injury to raspberry. Omafra.gov

the outside of the leaves to turn reddish in color and will defensively close the stomata,

preventing photosynthesis. Nitrite ions formed by NOx dissolving into cells through stomata is toxic at high levels. Gaseous fluorides caused by iron smelting, ceramics and phosphate reduction can be harmful to plants. Common examples, such as hydrogen fluoride and silicon tetrafluoride, are know to be toxic to some plants in large quantities and can delay flowering. Fluorides can build up on leaves and have been known to cause lesions to certain species (Griffiths 2003). Ground level ozone has been known to cause chlorophyll deficiencies causing yellowing or speckling on leaves. Long exposure to ozone causes necrosis. Tissue collapse causes plants to be more susceptible to pathogens. Additionally, absorption of ozone slows carbon dioxide metabolization. Unfortunately, particulate matters (PM) effects on plants remain poorly understood. Some studies show that it can cause chlorosis, chlorophyll production inefficiency. Additionally, it has been known to inhibit the mechanisms of photosynthesis and respiration. Air pollution in general reduces sunlight, thereby inhibiting photosynthesis (Thomas 1961).

6 Baltimore has been ranked one of the most polluted cities in America. Studies show that it is in the 90-100th percentile for sulfur dioxide and NOx. PM-2.5 is between the 80-90th percentile and PM-10 is between the 70-80th. Despite these Ozone injury to soybean leaves. Omafra.gov shortcomings, ozone is very low, registering in the 10-20th percentile (Scorecard 2011).

These statistics made Baltimore a great location for a study on urban phenology.

Methods
The specific location of study occurred in an urban garden in front of a college dorm building at Johns Hopkins University, at the Homewood Campus. The site is approximately four miles from downtown Baltimore. It is surrounded by a pathway,

preventing people from stepping through it and on the specimens.

Google Maps image of the site location in Baltimore, MD.

In this setting, the study was both contained and easily documented.

7 13 Weeks of Journal Observations and Field Pictures Taken: 9/8/11 79o, Rainy, Site contains 3 plant species. Yew, Lilyturf and Sweet Bay Magnolia. Roughly 17 Lilyturf plants with purple flowers. The Yew has a few red berries. Magnolias leaves are a healthy dark green. 3031 N Charles Street site. Yew (Bushes) Magnolia (Tree) Lilyturf (Grass/ Flowers)

Close up of Yews fruit that surrounds its seeds.

Close up of Lilyturfs flowers.

8 9/12/11 73o, Sunny (Weekend was raining). Yews berries have greatly increased in number.

Yews increase in fruiting.

9/16/11 60o, Sunny, Only 10 Lilyturf plants still have flowers, the others have wilted. The yew is still covered in berries. I noticed some trash lying around my site. 9/19/11 70o, Sunny, one Lilyturf plant seems to be producing green seeds/berries. 9/21/11 62o, Foggy, Very few Lilyturf plants still have flowers, a few Lilyturf are growing more berries. 9/23/11 72o, Raining, Almost all of the Lilyturf that still appear to be living have green ball shaped berries where the flowers used to be. 9/26/11 75o, Sunny Humid, All flower petals are gone from the Lilyturf plants. 10/2/11 60o, Overcast, Green berries are beginning to turn dark green, possibly even black. Yews berries are decreasing. 10/10/11 65o, Sunny, Green berries are getting darker, Yews berries still decreasing. Magnolias leaves beginning to turn yellower. 10/24/11 55o, Sunny, Very few yew berries. Beginning of Lilyturf All of the Lilyturf berries that remain are fruiting. getting pretty dark.

Progression of Lilyturfs fruiting from left to right. Berries turn from green to black. 11/4/11 53o, Overcast, all of the yews berries are gone. All of the Lilyturf berries are black. Magnolia is losing leaves. 11/22/11 50o, Sunny, only about 5 Lilyturf plants have berries, but they seem to have swelled and are jet black. Magnolia has just about lost its leaves but a bud remains at the end of each branch. 12/1/11 40o, Overcast, Magnolia has no more leaves, but still has buds. Lilyturf still has black berries.

Results
I observed plants in an urban environment over a 13-week period and perceived no external signs of damage due to pollution. The leaves maintained a healthy green color with slight shades of yellow as the fall progressed. The fruit appeared to be in healthy condition, especially the Yew, which produced an abundance of berries. They appeared to be thriving in their environment, without being crowded out or invading their surroundings. In rural settings, Lilyturf blooms in late summer and retains its black berries into winter. This was observed in the urban garden as the flowers were in bloom by September

10 and the berries continued to remain unharmed in December. The Yew, however, did not have berries for more than a month and a half. This differs in comparison to normal maturation of 2-3 months (Gilman and Watson 1994). Both plants under study have the durability to flourish despite growing in an urban environment. As can be learned from their descriptions above, they are able to thrive in most conditions. Kelly, Larsen & Matthes (1999) show that Taxus Baccata can thrive, even on rocky precipices. This is attributed both to its hardiness and the fact that in this environment it is not subject to damage from foot traffic (Kelly, Larson and Matthes 1999). In 2008, a study was conducted about the growth-mortality relationship of several trees in the survival of forests. Taxus baccata, for example, which has the robustness to survive unfavorable environmental conditions, may improve projections for success. It is important to find strategies to increase tree growth and promote reforestation (Bigler et al 2008). In the Washington DC area, Liriope Muscari has been used in landscaping as a border plant. Raloff (2004) reported in National Wildlife, how this species, which stayed localized for years and years, suddenly started to sprout leaves in several places in lawns, apparently unconnected physically to the original plants. This also shows how durable this plant has become. Research of Lilyturf and Yew reveal their durability and excellence as a choice to be used in landscaping in Baltimore, Maryland. The observations are consistent with the literature. One must conclude that these plants are an excellent choice for use in this urban environment.

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Conclusions and Discussion

The urban environment setting of the Homewood campus does not seem to affect the two plants. The Lilyturf is a highly resilient plant, whose berries are not eaten by any animal. As a result of the plant growing off the beaten path, and thus sheltered from being stepped on, it remained healthy and fruited normally. The Yews fruit was most likely eaten by Thrushes, which migrate through Baltimore and eat the aril surrounding the seeds (Marshal and Grace 1992). Moreover, environmental pollutants had no visible effect on the foliage.

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References
Bigler, C., Brzeziecki, B., Bugmann, H., Reineking, B., Wunder, J. and Zybura, H. 2008. Growth-mortality relationships as indicators of life-history strategies: a comparison of nine tree species in unmanaged European forests. Oikos. 117 (6) p815 Gilman, E. F. n.d. Liriope Muscari Variegated Lilyturf, Variegated Liriope. Retreived December, 1 2011 from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FP/FP34900.pdf Gilman, E. F. and Watson, D. G. 1994 Taxus Baccata English Yew. retrieved December 1, 2011 from http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/database/documents/pdf/tree_fact_sheets/taxbaca.pdf Griffiths, H. 2003. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (omafra). Effects of air pollution on agricultural crops. Retrieved December 4, 2011 from http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/01-015.htm Kelly, P.E., Larson, D.W. and Matthes, U. 1999. Cliffs as natural refuges. American Scientist. 87 (5), p411 Marshall, C. and Grace, J. 1992. Aspects of development, environmental physiology and ecology. Cambridge University Press, p. 218 Raloff, J. 2004. When good plants go bad. National Wildlife. 42(3), p32-39 Scorecard. 2011. The pollution information site. Retrieved December 4, 2011 from http://scorecard.goodguide.com/envreleases/cap/county.tcl?fips_county_code=24510#air_rankings Thomas, M. D. 1961. Effects of air pollution on plants. Monograph Series. Columbia University Press retrieved December 1, 2011 from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/monograph/WHO_MONO_46_(p233).pdf