The following study material has been prepared as just a guide to what needs to be prepared under the subject

t matter. Wave: A disturbance in the medium Lets energy travel Particles of the medium dont travel
a A One cycle B C

The motion of the particles of the medium due to propagation of the wave is simple harmonic motion. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the particles from the mean position Frequency: The number of cycles completed in one second Time period: The time taken to complete one cycle Wave length: The distance covered by the wave in one cycle OR the distance between two successive points in the wave in phase (two successive crests or troughs) Wave velocity: If f be the no. of cycles completed in one second, and be the distance covered by the wave in one cycle, then it can be understood that the wave covers a distance of f in one second. Hence, velocity of the wave, v is given by the wave equation written as: =

Phase: The relative orientation of the displaced particles of the medium due to the propagation of wave. It should be noted that the orientation of the particles repeats itself after a certain interval. o the particles with same orientation are said to be in phase o the particles with exactly opposite orientation are said to be out of phase o the orientation of the wave at any position, say P is expressed as the angular component in the wave equation: = asin ( )
Phase lag on Q =2 x/ x P A

displacement O

Profile at same instant

Wave direction

o it should be noted that this equation is for the wave at a position P where the wave reaches after passing through conventional origin O where the equation of the wave is written as y=asin(t) and there is a phase difference between the points O and P denoted by . o since the wave repeats itself in one cycle travelling the distance of (the wavelength) and the phase(angular value) has a period of 2, so we have: the phase for traversal of distance = 2 the phase for traversal of unit distance = 2/ the phase for traversal of x distance say from O to P ( )= 2x/ then the path difference from O to P= x Wave number: The ratio of the angular frequency to the wave velocity of the wave. So the wave number is denoted by as written as: ( ) 2 2 = = = ( ) Types of waves: o On the basis of medium requirement: Mechanical waves require material medium to travel and they never attain velocity equal to that of light(c). Electromagnetic waves dont require material medium to travel and the velocity is always equal to that of velocity of light(c). o On the basis of vibration of particles of the medium: Transverse wave Longitudinal wave I. The particles vibrate in a direction I. The particles vibrate in a perpendicular to the direction direction along the direction of of the wave. the wave II. The vibrations can be II. The vibrations are multidirectional. unidirectional. III. The velocity can attain maximum III. The velocity never reaches c. value c. IV. These waves cannot be IV. These waves can be polarized. polarized. Students are expected to show the graphical representations of both transverse and longitudinal waves. Progressive wave: It lets energy travel. It can be written as: o y = asin (t kx) o y = asin (t o y = asin
2x t

o y = asin2 (T )
x

(vt x)

2x

Principle of superposition: If at any point, two waves of the same kind reach simultaneously, the resultant displacement at that point is the sum of the displacements due to the individual waves. If y1, y2,..yn be the displacements at a point when n waves superpose each other, then the resultant displacement is given as: y=y1+y2+..yn. o Examples: Suppose two waves are of same frequency travelling in the same medium with different amplitudes and , then if they reach a certain point in phase with each other, as in the figure, then the resultant displacement is equal to the sum of the two amplitudes, + as in the figure (a). And if the two waves are out of phase with each other, then the resultant displacement is equal to the difference of the two amplitudes, - as in the figure (b). If = , the resultant amplitude will be zero as in figure (c).

(a).

(b)
Fig. Superposition

(c)

Standing or stationary waves: standing wave is formed when two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and frequency travel in opposite directions through a medium and are superposed. o The points where the displacements are permanently zero are called nodes. o The points between successive nodes where displacement is maximum are called antinodes. o The distance between two successive nodes and antinodes is /2. o The vibrations are all in phase between two adjacent nodes in a segment. o The vibrations are out of phase in the adjacent segment. o Although there is energy of vibration within the vibrating segment, there is no energy transferred by the standing wave. Students are expected to be able to use concept of standing waves in pipes and stretched strings.

Fig. Standing waves

Coherent sources: these are a pair of sources of waves which emit light waves of the wavelength and frequency which are always in phase with each other or have a constant phase difference. To create coherent sources, which is a task not easily done, two sources obtained from a single source are used as two coherent sources. o Interference: when a source of wave is single, the distribution of energy in a medium is uniform, but when there are two sources with same wavelength and frequency having same phase or with a constant phase difference, then due to superposition of two waves, the distribution of energy in the medium is not uniform. Thus when the two waves superpose, then the resultant amplitude in that region is different to the amplitude of individual waves. This non uniform distribution of the energy of the waves due to superposition of light is seen as a pattern of brightness and darkness(fringes) in light waves. Such a phenomenon occurring in waves is termed as interference. There are two kinds of interference. o Constructive interference: the interference obtained at a point where the crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other, or the trough of one on that of the other, there is a constructive interference. In such interference, the amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves. Hence, the amplitude will increase. The path difference between the two waves has to be an integral multiple of wavelength. The waves are to be in phase.

Fig. Constructive interference

o Destructive interference: this kind of interference is obtained when the crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other or vice versa. In such a case, the amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference of the amplitudes of the two waves and hence, zero. The path difference has to be an odd number multiple of half of the wavelength. The waves are to be out of phase.

Fig. Destructive interference

o The conditions required for interference to occur: The sources must be coherent. The sources must be close by. The sources must be fine (narrow). The sources must emit monochromatic light (in case of light, each white light will consist of seven different colored waves). If white light is used, each color of light produces its own interference pattern. The fringes of different patterns will overlap and hence, produce white light again, limiting the number of fringes observable. Youngs double slit experiment:

The arrangement used by Young is shown in the figure. Light from a monochromatic source(wavelength ) of light is allowed to fall upon a vertical slit S which further serves as a fine source for illuminating two other parallel and equally distant fine slits S1 and S2 separated by a small distanced. Two slits act as coherent sources. A screen is kept at a suitable distance D. Alternate bright and dark bands are seen in the screen called interference fringes.

Fig. Youngs double slit experiment

The point C lies midway between S1 and S2 and CO is perpendicular from C into the screen. The point O is equidistant from S1 and S2. Thus the wave from S1 and S2 arrive at O with zero path difference and in phase. So, the point O will be bright. For any arbitrary point M at a distance x from O, the path difference =S2M-S1M. From figure, in the CMO, assuming that angle MCO = , so tan = x D

And in S1S2T, geometrically, angle S2S1T=, so

For very small values of , =sin=tan. And also, S1M=TM. So, the path difference=S2M-S1M=S2M-TM=S2T. So we get; path difference = d

sin =

S2 T d

o If there were brightness or maxima(constructive interference) at M: For maxima at M, the path difference would have to be an integral multiple of wavelength. So, path difference = n or, x= xd = D nD d

Hence, the path difference =

xd D

Where n=1, it gives the zero order and n=1,2,3give first, second,orders of fringes. Thus for irst order n = 1; x2 = 2D d x1 =

for order n = 2;

D d

for order n = 3; for order n; xn =

Since the distance of the nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe is nD d

xn =

x3 =

nD d

3D d

And the distance of the (n-1)th bright fringe is xn1 =

so the fringe width of dark fringe is, = xn xn1 =

(n 1)D d

o If there were darkness minima(destructive interference) at M: For minima at M, the path difference has to be odd number multiple of half of the wavelength. So, path difference = (2n + 1) or, x= xd = (2 + 1) D 2 (2n + 1)D 2d 3D 2d D 2d 2

nD (n 1)D D = d d d

When n=0,1,2,3give first, second,orders of fringes thus for n = 0, x0 = for n = 2, x2 = for n = 1, x1 =

Since the distance of the nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe is

for nth fringe, xn =

(2n + 1)D 2d

5D 2d

And the distance of the (n-1)th bright fringe is xn1 =

xn =

(2n + 1)D 2d

Thus it is observed that distance between each consecutive bright and dark fringe are equal and =

so the fringe width of a bright fringe is, = xn xn1 = D d

(2n 1)D 2d

(2n + 1)D (2n 1)D D = 2d 2d d

o Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of waves round the corners of an obstacle and spreading (into the region of geometrical shadow by light) is called diffraction. The diffraction of light produces the dark and bright fringes known as diffraction fringes. For diffraction to occur, the size of the obstacle must be comparable to the wavelength of the wave. o Diffraction at a single slit: A source S is placed at a very far distance from a narrow slit AB. After the wave is diffracted, a pattern is seen on the screen. A convex lens is used to better focus the bands. The screen is place at a distance equal to the focal length from the slit and the lens is placed very close to the slit. In the pattern, the central fringe is wide and of maximum intensity. On either side of the central fringe, bright and dark fringes of decreasing intensities are observed.

Consider O as the mid-point of the slit AB =d and P be a point on the screen, OP is perpendicular to AB. The secondary wavefront from the wavefront at slit AB travelling parallel to OP, alond AX and BY are focused at P. Thus a bright fringe is obtained at P. The secondary waves from points equidistant from o and located in upper and lower halves OA and OB of the wavefront reaching P has the path difference zero. Thus the point P will have maximum intensity. o Minimum intensity at Q: (when the ray makes certain angle ). Consider a point Q on the screen in a direction making an angle with OP. let the slit AB be divided into two equal parts OA and OB. The effect at Q would be due to the interference of waves starting from the two halves. The points A and B as well as E and F are called corresponding points. Since they occupy similar positions in their respective halves AO and BO. AC and BC are normal to each other. Now, it should be clear that the path difference between the waves from B and A reaching at Q is BC. And between those starting from A and O is OD. OD is half of BC. From the right angled ABC, = , = =

\, =

Where d is the width of the slit and BC is the path difference between the secondary waves originating from A and B. If BC = (or any integral multiple of ), then the point Q will be a minima. This is because when BC= then OD=/2 which means that the path difference between the waves starting from the corresponding points in the two halves of the aperture would be half of the wavelength. For example, the waves starting from A travel /2 more than the waves from O. In the same way the wave starting from E travels a distance /2 more than that starting form its corresponding point F. Thus, we find that if path difference BC=, the upper and lower halves of AB destroy each other by interference. And if BC =2 then AB will divide into four equal parts AE, EO, OF and FB. Waves from FB will destroy those from FO as the path difference between the corresponding points in them is /2 as before. Similarly, the portion EO destroys the effect of position AE. So, every point in the upper half will have its contribution cancelled by its corresponding point in the lower half.

Thus, destructive interference takes place and the point Q is a minima. So, the condition for minima is AC=dsin =n . For n=1,2,3the order of the minima, we can write, , = 1: 1 = =

, = 2: 2 = 2

o Maximum intensity at Q: If the path difference AC=/2 the point Q will be maximum intensity. For example, when the BC=3/2, then the slit AB can be divided into 3 equal parts, AK,KL and LB, each differing from adjacent part by /2 as in the figure. Any two adjacent portions (AK and KL) cancel each others effect leaving the third portion LB free. This remaining free portion causes secondary maxima. So, the path difference for the secondary maxima is,

, = (2 + 1) = (2 + 1) 2

So, for n=1,2,3..the first, second,secondary maxima:

, = 2: 2 = 5/2 o Intensity of the diffraction pattern: The diffraction pattern in the case of single slit is found to have central bright maxima at P followed by a secondary maxima and minima on both sides. The intensity of secondary maxima goes on decreasing as in the figure.

, = 1: 1 = 3/2

Diffraction grating: A diffraction grating is a large number of close parallel equidistant slits ruled on a glass or metal. In a diffraction grating, there are a large number of extremely narrow parallel slits separated by equal opaque spaces. If the width of a slit is a and the thickness of the opaque space is b the spacing d of the slits is (a+b).

The distance d=(a+b) is known as the grating element or grating space. In the figure, the points like A and C, C and K, K and R, etc which are separated by a distance d are known as corresponding points. If the number of lines per unit length of the grating be N, then = + = 1

If a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength be incident on the grating, each slit will diffract light in all directions. This diffracted light is focused by the lens on a screen placed on the focal plane of the lens.

The diffraction patterns consist of: a) Central maxima at the center O of the screen. At the points M1 and M2 above the center and at points M1 and M2 below the center, secondary maxima are formed. b) A large number of faint subsidiary maxima and minima at points P1, P2, P1, P2 are formed in between the maxima. Principal maxima: Most of the incident light travels in straight line and after passing through the lens, a strong bright point is obtained at M0. This is called central maxima. Next, let us assume that the light is diffracted in a direction making an angle 1 with that of the incident beam. A normal is drawn on SE from A. Consider the direction 1 is such that light from a slit is one wavelength behind the light from the adjacent slit CX= , KG= 2 , RF=3 and SE=4, then the rays from one slit S1 are in phase with the corresponding rays of the adjacent slit S2,S3,S4. Thus, they would reinforce each other and so, produce the primary maxima at M1. , = ( + )1 = 1 =

Similarly, if the angle 1 increases to 2 such that CX=2 , HG=4, RF=6 and SE=8 and so on, then the wavelets from corresponding points reinforce and produce second order primary maxima at M2. , = ( + )2 = 2 = 2 ( + ) = =

So, if CX=n, then the nth order primary maxima is obtained and then,

Where n can take any integral value like1,2,.. If n=0, the central maxima is formed.

Thus, the wavelength of light can be determined by measuring the angle of diffraction for a particular wavelength and knowing the grating element with the above equation.