MateriaLs and Struetures/Matc;riaux et Cr

1991, 24, 425-450

Compressive behaviour of concrete at high strain rates

P. H . B I S C H O F F lnstitul fiir 3lassirl~au und Baustql:J?echnologie. Karlsruhe University, D-7500 Karlsruhe, German),

S. H. P E R R Y
Deparn,cnt ~?/ Ciril Enghwering, Trinity College, University of" Dublin. Dublin 2. Ireland Experimental techniques commonly usedJbr high strain-rate testing of concrete in compression, together with the methods used for measurement and recording of stress and strain, are eriticalO' assessed in the first part of this paper. The physical capability of each loading method is discussed and some consideration is given to the definitions used for specifvhlg the loading rate. The second part reviews the dynamic compressive strength (mostO' uniaxial rather than bi- or triaxial) of plain concrete, while in the third part a review on deJbrmation behariour indicates that uncertainty and disagreement exist concerning changes h7 axial strain at high strah7 rates.

1. EXPERIMENTAL T E C H N I Q U E S AND INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS Most structural materials used by the civil engineer are sensitive to the rate of loading. Hence a thorough knowledge of material constitutive relationships and failure criteria is required, often over a wide range of strain rates (Fig. 1), to properly design a structure for all types of loading likely to be encountered during the design lifetime. Properties of the materials used in reinforced concrete structures are almost all strain-rate dependent [I-6]. Strength, stiffness and ductility (or brittleness) can be affected by the loading rate but, in most cases, the difference only becomes significant when the rate changes by more than one order of magnitude. In the past, concrete research has been concerned mainly with long-term behaviour (in particular creep effects), and the physical reasons needed to account for these changes. Although concrete is generally acknowledged to have a higher dynamic than static strength, there is a lack of data at these higher rates of loading [3], and of those tests available the majority are for uniaxial tests at room temperature, with virtually no information available for multiaxial loading. Present knowledge of dynamic testing may be considered akin to the state of the art for static testing of concrete during the late 1960s and early 1970s, when there was much uncertainty about the effect of various testing techniques, and results between different investigators could differ significantly when boundary conditions were
CREEP
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dissimilar [e.g., 7]. This uncertainty is exacerbated in the case of strain-rate effects because some quantities, such as stress, cannot always be measured directly. Indeed, measurements may not all be taken at the same location, strain typically being measured on the specimen surface and stress usually inferred from strain measurements on a load cell or bar placed in series with the specimen. It is important to question whether test results of past work at high loading rates truly reflect a material strain-rate dependence, or whether they are strongly affected by dynamic effects in either the test set-up and method of measurement or by the failure characteristics of the specimen being tested. Dynamic load tests are much more complicated than static tests, and all parameters which could possibly affect the experimental results, and their subsequent interpretation, should be given careful consideration. This includes inertia effects, specimen geometry, uniformity of stress and strain along the specimen length, stress-wave propagation effects, and the limitations of the onedimensional wave theory generally used for analysis at high strain rates. The specimen length and diameter, in addition to the aspect ratio LID, become particularly important at very high rates of loading. Section 1 of this paper deals with experimental techniques used for high strain-rate loading of plain concrete in compression. Creep behaviour is not considered.

1.1 Loading methods

The wide range of strain rates typically expected in practice for the various loading conditions shown in Fig. 1 is achieved experimentally by using different methods of testing (see also Reinhardt [-8]). Loading rates can range from the static case of 10- 5 s- z, through an intermediate range ( - 10- t to 10 s- t) requiring consideration &inertia forces, to yet much higher levels ( > ~ - 1 0 s - t ) that

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Fig. I Magnitude of strain rates expected for different loading cases. 0025 5432,'91c. RILEM

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430 encompass either impact or explosive loading. Effects of stress-wave propagation and, possibly, plane strain effects should be considered during these very high strain rates to ensure a proper interpretation of the test results. In this paper all available literature concerning the uniaxial compressive response of plain concrete at high strain rates has been reviewed extensively and subjected to a critical assessment for rates greater than the static loading case of 10 .5 s-L Table 1 gives details of these previous tests, while Fig. 2 provides a summary of the range of loading rates achieved by many of the investigations to indicate the strain rates that can be expected for each different type of test method. Normally, hydraulic testing machines are used to statically load plain concrete specimens in compression at a strain rate near 10-Ss -x, or about a 200-s loading duration to failure. With the aid of fast pumps and valves to increase the oil flow rate they can be used to load at strain rates as high as 10 -1 s -1, equivalent to a 20-ms loading duration to failure (see e.g. [9]). For loading of this type in a very stiff testing machine, use of servocontrolled valves and suitable electronic apparatus allows a fairly constant rate of either strain [10] or stress to be achieved, displacement control being preferred to achieve a stable failure. For still higher loading rates, a gas reservoir can be used to pressurize the oil reservoir

Bischoff a n d Perry (pneumatic-hydraulic system) in order to gain an extra order of magnitude in strain rate and reach a value of 1 s - 1, thus reducing typical loading durations to 2 ms (see e.g. [11-13]). However, a constant strain rate (controlled loading) using direct feedback control is more difficult to achieve in such a short time-span, and the strain rate becomes more dependent on the relationship between the machine stiffness and specimen stiffness. True impact loading is necessary if yet higher loading rates are to be achieved, and it is the Charpy or notched bar test which has been used traditionally to measure the impact resistance of many different materials. This is mainly a qualitative test which provides little basic information on either the stress-strain response or the fundamental causes of failure of the material, although more recent advances have been made with instrumented Charpy impact testing [14]. For concrete, drop weights have been commonly used to achieve impact strain rates in the order of 10s -t, equivalent to a 250-#s loading duration. If necessary, a rubber buffer can be placed on top of the specimen to prolong the duration o f loading, reducing strain rates to between 1 and 10s -1 (see e.g. [15,16]). This method is passive, all test parameters being set in advance, since the applied load can no longer be controlled for such large strain rates. In general, the masses used in these experiments have varied between 50

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STRAIN RATE (strain/second) Fig. 2 Range of experimental loading rates.

Materials and Structures and 100kg, and have been dropped from heights of 2 to 6 m to obtain impact velocities from about 6 to I0 m s-~, respectively (see Table 1 for details). A gas gun can be used to accelerate the mass to much higher velocities for further increases in the strain rate, and rates between 50 and 100s -1, with typically a 50-#s loading duration, have been obtained [17,18]. These high strain rates can be achieved by directly impacting the concrete specimen, or by using a split-Hopkinson pressure bar whereby the specimen is sandwiched between two long pressure bars and the load is transmitted through one of the bars to the specimen. Finally, explosive charges can be placed against the specimen or at the end of a pressure bar to generate even higher strain rates. Plate impact experiments also have been carried out to obtain the plain (uniaxial) strain response of concrete at very high strain rates. This is achieved by using a suitable flyer plate to impact a thin circular plate of concrete [19].

431 they are sometimes difficult to analyse objcvtix ely because details from many of these investigations have been vague. Additionally, high strain-rate results are invariably compared with static results obtained from a different type of loading device. A distinct increase in the compressive strength is usually observed at higher strain rates, but strain measurements are sometimes quite erratic and both increases and decreases in the critical strain value at maximum stress have been reported [21]. To determine the relevance of past test results, each of the methods and conditions of testing, the measuring procedures and the type of analysis must be considered, as these could all directly affect the results. 1.3.1 Testing machine characteristics For hydraulic loading systems, inertia effects have generally been neglected for strain rates up to 0.1 s -1. However, the rigidity of the test rig can affect the true strain rate of the specimen and should be considered when the rate of piston travel is used to measure strain rate. Piston displacement results not only from del\wmation of the specimen but also from extension of the test rig, and hence cannot necessarily be used to directly determine the specimen strain. The magnitude of this effect depends on the relative stiffness between the specimen and testing machine, and can be corrected by using the following equation proposed by Goldsmith [22]:
= ~

1.2 Definition o f loading rate

Results from the compression tests listed in Table 1 have not always been presented in the same manner, and the loading rate has been indicated variously by the time taken to failure (that is loading duration), instantaneous stress rate (that is slope of the stress-time response) or strain rate, average stress or strain rate, or sometimes the rate of piston travel. Also, because of the nature of loading required for rapid straining (especially for impact), the rate of loading or straining has not always been constant. In the presentation and assessment of results, no distinction is made between the different methods used for measuring the loading rate. Reported results have been converted to give an average rate of straining for comparison purposes, and the material properties have been non-dimensionalized. For example, dynamic strength has been normalized with respect to the static compressive strength. The concept of a constant strain rate, which has been assumed here for the duration of loading, is considered to be acceptable since any observable differences in material properties only become significant when the loading (strain) rate is increased by one order of magnitude or greater. Obviously the response can be affected by significant variations in the strain rate during the loading history [20], and should always be considered for unusual loading histories exhibiting either large variations in the strain rate or stress reversals.

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1.3 Stress m e a s u r e m e n t l i m i t a t i o n s at high strain rates

The wide discrepancy and variation of test results that has arisen in the past (see sections 2 and 3 for more details) leads one to question the validity of the various experimental techniques used at high strain rates. Reported results have been obtained using many different methods which may not all be directly comparable, and

where Vp= velocity of piston travel, Lo = gauge length of specimen, A 0 = cross-sectional area of specimen. ~?~/&,= specimen tangent modulus at a specified stress level and K m = longitudinal stiffness of test machine. Equation 1 illustrates the importance of using a very stiff testing machine having a capacity much greater than the specimen strength. Hjorth [23] used the rate of piston travel, Vp/Lo, to measure the strain rate for 65-mm cubes and the results appear to exceed, by an order of magnitude, the strain rate typically expected for a hydraulic loading system. Using Equation 1, with an assumed machine stiffness of 90 kN m m - t and specimen elastic modulus of 30GPa, reduces Hiorth's maximum strain rate of 5 s - ' to about 0 . 2 s - 1 which is a more reasonable rate for this method of loading. Other earlie'r investigations using hydraulic testing machines all appear to fall within the expected range of loading rates (Fig. 2). Hydraulic systems which use the rate of piston (or platen) displacement to control the loading rate will be affected by changes in the specimen stiffness as the specimen is loaded to failure, resulting in a non-uniform strain rate during the test, although the variation is normally insignificant. Other characteristics such as stability, alignment and spherical seating, which are known to affect behaviour during static testing (see e.g. [24]), should also be considered during dynamic loading.

432 1.3.2 Inertia Specimen inertia effects should be assessed when the strain rate begins to approach the maximum limit achieved by hydraulic machines. An evaluation of axial inertia effects for rapid loading is given in Fig. 3 by using an effective inertial load, P~, to represent the inertial resistance along the length of the specimen. This effective force is assumed to act at the top of the specimen, where the compressive load is applied, and is evaluated by giving the top end a virtual displacement, 6u v. Uniform strain conditions are assumed to occur along the specimen length (that is quasi-static conditions), the stress or strain being dependent only on time (that is e(t)). Hence, when the inertial force, ma, acting on an element, A dx, is
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Hence inertial effects that have the effect of increasing the measured load at the top of the specimen are eliminated for a controlled rate of deformation (g=0) but could become significant for a pneumatic-hydraulic system, for which there is more difficulty controlling the strain rate. This effect can be minimized by placing the load cell at the bottom unloaded end, as demonstrated in Fig. 4. Chung's
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Inertial forces appear to become important at strain rates above 10-1 s-l, while stress-wave propagation is likely to affect results above 10s -1 [,27-1. Thus it can be assumed that this method of synchronizing the output will give reasonable results for a hydraulic testing machine and, probably, for modified pneumatic machines. It is uncertain whether the experimental results of drophammer tests, which can reach strain rates as high as 10 to 50s-1, should make allowances for stress-wave propagation effects. None of the drop-hammer experiments reviewed in this paper considered the effects of wave propagation (other than accounting for the time-lag effect) except for those of Hughes and Gregory [-28] and Hughes and Watson F29], who concluded that neglecting this effect can lead to an overestimation of the failure strength due to stress-wave reflection within the load cell (see section 2 for a review o f these strength results). Stress-wave propagation is unavoidable during true impact loading and its effects should be considered when interpreting the test results. Transmission and reflection of stress waves occur at any interface where there is an impedance mismatch, making it very difficult to define the state of stress in the test specimen which may be different from the value recorded by the load cell. Corrections can be made for any test set-up by properly defining the impedance values at all interfaces and, thus, determining the correct values for the reflected and transmitted stress

Materials and Structures waves, a process which is difficult to achieve with any degree of confidence, especially since the impedance value for concrete decreases during the loading process. A split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) test arrangement, with the specimen placed between two long elastic pressure bars, uses the elementary theory for rod impact to calculate the relative stress and displacement at both ends of the specimen. The stress wave is measured with strain gauges attached at the mid-point of these pressure bars, and the bars must be long enough to eliminate interference from any reflected stress waves arising from the incident pressure pulse (see, for instance, the work by Davies [30] for a more complete treatment on the subject). This method provides reasonable results if the limitations of the one-dimensional (l-D) theory are not exceeded. Poisson's effect causes lateral expansion which, for a bar radius greater than about one-tenth of the dominant pulse wavelengths, can distort results obtained with this simplified 1-D theory. The propagation velocity depends on the wave frequency and hence the propagation of a group of waves will be dispersive, with the stress waves of shorter wavelength travelling slower than longer wavelengths. The SHPB method originated from metal testing, where (i) the specimen was short enough so that the stress waves would reflect between the specimen ends enough times in order to achieve, relatively quickly, a uniform state of stress (and strain) along the specimen length, L; and (ii) the specimen diameter, D, was small enough (relative to the length of the applied pressure pulse and usually less than 25 ram) to avoid Pochhammer-Chree radial oscillations, and thus allow use of the simpIe 1-D elastic stress-wave analysis. Inertia effects in both the axial and lateral directions are assumed to be negligible under this 'quasi-static' condition of uniform stress along the specimen length, provided that the specimen is properly dimensioned with an optimum aspect ratio, L/D, of approximately 0.43 [31,32]. Clearly, end-friction effects can be substantial when very short specimens are used and may lead to an apparent strength increase [33]. This technique has been used extensively for both rock and other fine-grained materials having specimen diameters of 25 mm or less [e.g., 34] but not, until recently, for concrete. Concrete requires a relatively large specimen diameter of at least 75 mm, or four to five times the maximum aggregate size, to obtain an adequate representation of material behaviour. The SHPB method, nevertheless, appears to have been used successfully to measure the dynamic strength of large-diameter concrete specimens at strain rates between 50 and 100 s- i [35-37]. End effects for a material like concrete are minimized by choosing a proper height to width ratio having an optimal value of about 2.5, as discussed in section 1.4 below. Satisfying end-frictional constraints presents a dilemma since, normally, the length of the specimen must be minimized to obtain a reasonably uniform stress condition along its length, but this is not practicable for concrete. Five to ten internal specimen reflections would normally be required to approach stress uniformity [32].

433 Hence interpretation of results becomes complicated when using 'normal sized' specimens tested in very short time durations, because the stress and strain will initially vary along the length of the specimen. Strain localization at failure in the central region of the specimen can also lead to a non-uniform strain distribution. Radial oscillations distort the measured strain signals (and hence calculations) for these large specimen diameters (see e.g. [38]). However, it is possible to remove these dispersive effects from the original oscillating signal by making an appropriate 'wave velocity' correction to the frequency components present in the strain signal [39,40]. Dispersion can then be added to the incident pulse, or removed from the reflected and transmitted pulses, to obtain the correct strain record at the specimen interfaces. Once the corrections are made, a uniform state of stress can still be confidently reached before failure if the aspect ratio does not exceed unity. Consequently, at these high strain rates some uncertainty still exists with the initial portion of the stress-strain curve for conventionally sized concrete specimens [37]. Large bar radii can also lead to a non-uniform distribution of axial stress and strain across the cross-section, complicating matters further when surface strains are measured on the SHPB.

1.4 End boundary constraints

Test results will be affected by end confinement. End conditions are known to greatly affect the results of static compressive tests [41] and will certainly affect the results in dynamic testing. Whereas the central region of the specimen is in uniaxial compression, depending on the aspect ratio, the end zones are in a complex state of multiaxial compression caused by frictional restraint of the end loading plates. An axial splitting failure was observed in specimens where frictional end-restraint was minimized [29], while the presence of end-restraint altered the crack pattern and caused an apparent shear failure, with the formation of cones at the ends of the specimen [15,28,42]. Hakalehto [34] observed that, during dynamic testing, rock specimens were able to transmit more energy as the specimen length became shorter and the influence of the confining effect became greater. Also, the height to width ratio of the specimen, as well as its overall size, could affect the crack pattern by influencing end effects, and thus affect maximum strength and deformability. Plate impact experiments used to obtain dynamic multiaxial loading conditions for concrete limit the specimen aspect ratio to about 0.15 [19] to ensure that the central region remains in a state of uniaxial strain (due to inertial confinement) for the duration of impact. However, specimens of this type are affected significantly by end boundary conditions and behave less like conventional concrete as the specimen thickness decreases.

1.5 Measurement and recording response

The frequency response of the measuring system should be given consideration during dynamic testing. Measured

434 results can become distorted if the frequency response of the conditioning amplifier is too low, and usually results in an underestimation of the measured value [43]. A frequency response of about 10kHz is considered adequate to allow satisfactory measurement of the dynamic response, although an upper limit of at least 20 kHz is preferred. However, the square waves of an elastic stress pulse measured by the SHPB method normally have a higher frequency content requiring a much higher frequency response [44]. The type and location of strain measurement devices should also be considered (see Table 1), and it is desirable to use a load measuring system having a resonance frequency that will not be exceeded during testing if dynamic 'ringing' is to be avoided. Analogue to digital (A-D) conversion requires a sampling rate with a frequency at least twice that of the maximum response frequency. Otherwise higher analogue frequencies would be incorrectly identified as lower 'aliased' frequencies during the digitization process and hence distort the results. This effect can be minimized by filtering these higher frequencies out of the original signal during the measurement process prior to digitization. 1.6 Conclusion Comprehensive experimental information is not readily available about the behaviour of concrete when loaded in compression at high strain rates. Results of previous tests must be interpreted critically to avoid incorrect conclusions and, even then, used with caution since they are dependent on both the test technique and the method of analysis employed. Experimental errors will be minimized by giving careful attention to the limitations that apply during dynamic testing, including consideration of testing machine characteristics, inertial effects, stress-wave propagation effects, uniformity of stress and strain along the specimen length, specimen geometry and end-friction, strain-rate variation and the frequency response of the measurement system, requirements which become increasingly difficult to satisfy as the strain rate increases. In fact, these conditions can never all be fully satisfied, but ignoring the effects may lead to an observed strain-rate dependence that is not a true material property. The validity of the stress-strain relationship should be given special consideration during high strain-rate testing. Indeed, can constitutive properties realistically be obtained at high strain rates when dynamic effects, intrinsic to the loading method and response of the material, cannot be eliminated but only minimized? 2. STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS Numerous tests have been carried out to investigate the material response of plain concrete to rapid loading. Early work on the impact behaviour of concrete was mainly qualitative in nature, and usually involved the dropping of weights on to concrete cubes and prisms

Bischoff and Perry [76 83], or the impact of cubes with a ballistic pendulum i-84-86]. Strength was usually measured either by determining the height from which a certain weight of hammer caused failure of a specimen by a single blow or by the number of blows required for failure from a drophammer with a fixed height and mass. In addition to this simple approach, instrumented tests on plain concrete in uniaxial tension [87,88], flexure [26,89] and uniaxial compression [15,18,42] have all been performed for strain rates up to about 100 s -1. Results from direct tensile tests have confirmed, generally, that during rapid loading the maximum tensile strength and the corresponding failure strain at maximum strength both increase with respect to their behaviour at a static loading rate of t0-Ss -1 [88,90]. The modulus of rupture, measured during flexural testing, also has been observed to increase during dynamic loading. However, this enhancement is less pronounced than that observed for direct tension. For this type of test the inertial effects of the specimen must be taken into account if the true material property is to be obtained [26,89]. This section of the paper concentrates on past investigations into the dynamic compressive strength of plain concrete for all strain rates greater than the static loading case of 10-Ss -1. Increases in strength are observed to depend primarily on the loading rate, following either a linear-logarithmic or log-log relationship. At very high strain rates, such as those associated with explosive loading, the strength enhancement may be caused partly by a transition from a state of uniaxial stress to uniaxial strain, commonly called lateral inertia confinement, in addition to those changes expected for a strain rate dependent material.

2.1 Uniaxial compressive strength of plain concrete: strain-rate influence

An increase of about 25 to 30% may be expected in the design compressive strength, f~, during dynamic loading of concrete structures [91,92]. That there is a definite increase in the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete has generally been accepted. This is demonstrated by Fig. 5, which represents a compilation of work from many research programmes. During impact loading (at about 10s -~) the compressive strength of concrete has been found to be as much as 85 to 100% greater than the static strength, but there is a wide variation in the test results, which becomes greater as the strain rate increases. Also not all researchers agree at which strain rate the increase in strength becomes significant [e.g., 29,47]. Results by Mihashi and Wittmann [93] showed that the coefficient of variation (for strength) was not influenced by the rate of loading (up to 10 -3 s-~), suggesting that the variation observed between different tests may be due to testing technique (and not the material itself). Conclusions in this paper are based, necessarily, on the results of many test programmes that used various techniques to load the specimens, and different methods to analyse and interpret the results. Care must be taken

Materials and Structures

435

2.5
o9 oo q) k_ 03 > ~ 03 6O
L_ Q_

2.0

O O

E
1.5

AAbrams (1917) Jones & Richart (1936) 0 Evans (1942) )~ Katsuta (1943,1944) X Thaulow (1953) ~1W~tstein (195,3,1955) '~ Hatano & Tsutsurni (1960) 'I' Ban & Mugururna (1960) Takeda (1959) Takeda & Tachikawa (1962a,b) * Lundeen (1963) ~( Horibe & Kobayashi (1965) +Cowell (1966) . . IAtchley & Furr (196.7) [] Hughe9 & Gregory (1972) Millstein & Sobnis (1982)
I

9 Mahin & Bertero (1972) ~Wesche & Kreue (1972) w Sporks & Menzie9 (1973) X Bresler & Bertero (1975) 9 Hjorth (197.6) . (D Kvirikodze (1977) rq Popp (1977) [] Hughes & Watson (1978) I'II Fagerlund & Lorsson (1979) I, Poulmann & Steinert (1982) : Rostosy (198.4,198.5) Dilger et ol. (1984) Q Malvern & Ross (1984,1985)

ql

rye.,,
" "" 6-J

L [[~IL

)
Y

i~

9
~

--

.I,

(1) o3 {D (.9
c-

1.0

> ~ (3 q) Or" range of s t a t i c ~"

-6 -7 -6 -5

0.5
I0 I0

logding -I
-4 -3 -2 -I 0 I 2

I0

I0

I0

I0

I0

I0

IO

I0

I0

i0

Strain Rate (strain/second)

Fig. 5 Strain-rate influence on compressive strength. when comparing the results from different researchers, and comparison of material properties may sometimes only be possible within a particular test programme. Furthermore, there are differences in mix design, type of measurement, and in the size, shape (cube, cylinder or prism) and aspect ratio of the specimens, details of which can be found in section 1. For example, the results of Abrams [45] seem to be too high, while those of Evans [47] and Hughes and Watson [29] did not exhibit any significant strength enhancement until the high strain rates o f 4 x 10 -2 and 8s -1, respectively, were reached. The strength enhancement observed by Watstein [15] increases more sharply as the strain rate increases, while Atchley and Furr's results [-42], using a similar type of test set-up, show a larger strength increase at lower strain rates which begins to taper off to a nearly constant value as the loading rate is increased. The results of Abrams [45] may be misleading since he used a lever-type testing machine to load his specimens, with possible errors in the measurement of load because of difficulty in balancing the weigh-beam and errors introduced by inertia of the levers. Indeed, in all early tests the methods of testing and instrumentation being used were probably pushed to, if not beyond, their limit. Evans [47] used aluminious cement which, because of its unpredictable behaviour (see e.g. [85]), may explain the aberration of his results. Hughes and Watson [29] took account of stress-wave propagation, suggesting that other test results at these higher strain rates (e.g. [15,17]) may have overestimated the failure stress by neglecting the effects of stress-wave propagation. However, this does not explain the strength increases observed at much lower loading rates in hydraulic testing machines, where stress-wave propagation did not occur. More recent unconfined compression tests [72] (not given in Fig. 5) did not exhibit any increase in strength for strain rates up to at least 0.5 s -I. The results of Malvern and Ross [18] were compared to a static strain rate of 10 -a s -1, and would be greater if compared to the static compressive strength at a rate of about 1 x 10- s s- 1, while some others were compared to a value at a rate of 10-6S -1 (see e.g. [15]) which, if compared to a rate of 10-5 s-1, would give slightly lower strength increases. Also, care must be taken when comparing the dynamic strength with a statically loaded specimen of different size and apect ratio [e.g., 36]. It is well known that both the strength and variation decrease as the specimen size is increased, in compliance with the weakest link theory for Griffith-type flaws. For specimens with a constant aspect ratio of 2.0, the strength will increase significantly for specimen diameters less than

436
about 75ram [94]. Ahmad and Shah [68] recognized these effects of size and shape in their predictions of both the strength increase and change in axial strain during high strain-rate testing.

Bischoff and Perry

Higher-strength concrete, when loaded statically in compression, sometimes fails with a greater number of aggregate particle failures than lower-strength concrete [29]. Thus the proportionate increase in strength should perhaps be greater for the weaker concrete when, at higher strain rates, the strength increase is gained partly by the propagation of cracks through the stronger aggregate particles [21]. Cowell [56] observed a larger absolute, but lower percentage, increase in strength for high-strength concrete, suggesting that the improvement noted for weak concretes may be influenced more by their lower static strength when expressed as a proportion of this smaller value.

2.1.1 Concrete qualio'

Many researchers have observed that at higher rates of loading stronger concretes (that is those with a higher uniaxial static compressive strength) exhibit a smaller percentage gain, %y~/r in compressive strength than weaker concretes [17,29,47,52,53,56]. There are a few, however, who have observed the opposite [45,46,69] (only structural concrete considered for [69]). For others there did not seem to be any significant difference for the different qualities (that is strengths) of concrete [15,42, 48,49]. Results from Fig. 5 are regrouped in Fig. 6 to show the effect of static compressive strength on the influence of high strain-rate loading, indicating that no definite conclusions can be drawn about the effect of concrete quality when comparing the results of different investigators. Nevertheless, it has been concluded that poorer concrete exhibits a larger relative increase in compressive strength under high strain-rate loading, and appropriate recommendations have been made by the CEB Committee on Impact and Impulsive Loading of Concrete Structures [95] (see also the Appendix).

2.1.2 Aggregate
The type of aggregate used for concrete is known to affect the influence of strain rate on the dynamic compressive strength (see e.g. [36]). Aggregate that exhibits a good bond, and which minimizes the difference in stiffness with the surrounding mortar matrix, will have a good impact resistance. Tests by Sparks and Menzies [59], although not at very high loading rates, showed that concrete with stiffer aggregates was less rate-sensitive, but they did not consider the effect of surface texture (roughness) between the different aggregates. A smaller maximum size of

2,5
60 0g q)
-I--'

U3 (D >

o--

2.0

Stotic Compressive Strength + varies a < 2 0 MPa [] 20<a<30 MPo A 30<a<40 MPa v 40<a<50 MPa 5 0 < a < 6 0 MPa @ 60<o<70 MPa - ~ a>70 MPo

~.~

O3 6q ~)
l..

Cu

E
O (3
c~

1,5

'

'~m~

--

(n (3 (D
k..

(.J c-

(9

~~ i P _ ' ~

1.0
+

, L

.~JFEI~

~ ' ~ "

~ ~

> + (3 oO 0s

0.5
-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-I

i0

I0

I0

I0

I0

tO

i0

10

I0

I0

I0

tO

Strain Rate (strain/second)

Fig. 6 Effect of concrete quality on the strain-rate influence.

Materials and Structures aggregate should also improve the compressive strength during impact loading [96]. 2.1.3 Curing and moisture conditions Curing conditions are sometimes thought to have an effect on compressive strength during high strain-rate loading. Katsuta [48] observed that the method of curing had a definite effect on strength, with a wet-cured concrete showing larger increases than an air-dried concrete. Cowell [56] also found larger relative increases for wet concrete. Others [97-100] have noted that the strain-rate effect, for the lower range of loading rates, diminishes as the moisture content decreases as a result of longer periods of air-drying. It can sometimes be difficult to estimate the effect of curing conditions on the dynamic strength of concrete since the static compressive strength value, which is related to curing, also affects the relative strength increase at higher loading rates. Both the degree of care taken during the curing process and the age at which the specimens are exposed to air influence the static strength [101] and, presumably, the dynamic strength. More importantly, account should be taken of the moisture condition during testing since a wet-cured specimen that is allowed to dry before testing will have a higher static compressive strength than the same specimen tested statically in its 'wet' condition [101].

437 function of the loading [either stress or strain) rate. These equations are usually of the form given by Equation 7 below, where the term #d/#~ could be replaced by the dynamic stress rate, #d, the dynamic strain rate, gd, the relative increase in strain rate, gd/gs, or just simply the duration of loading until failure, At:
+ + +

where cr = dynamic compressive strength at a stress rate d d~ and a~ = static compressive strength at a static stress rate of d~ (usually about 0.25 MPa s-l). Mihashi and Wittmann [93] used a stochastic theory of fracture in conjunction with thermodynamics to develop a power function that was used to predict the rate sensitivity of concrete, as shown by Equation 8 below. This was verified experimentally for loading rates between 10 -6 and IO-3s -l, and gave larger relative increases in strength for weaker concrete as the loading rate was increased:
6,

\~,/

(8)

2.1.4 Age
The effect of age on the relative strength increase caused by strain-rate effects has been studied, but results are often obscured by the interdependence of curing conditions on strength and hence are difficult to evaluate. Tests which have shown an enhanced strain-rate sensitivity for stronger concretes are likely to exhibit a larger strain-rate effect as the age increases, since the static compressive strength becomes greater with age [e.g., 97]. Cowell [56], observing smaller percentage increases in strength for a stronger concrete, accordingly obtained a decrease in strain-rate sensitivity as the concrete age increased; however, results were affected to a certain degree by the moisture content of the specimens since the older concrete was subjected to much longer periods of air-drying prior to testing (see Table 1 for details). A comparative study [100] has concluded that strain-rate effects are independent of age when moisture conditions are similar. The effects of age may differ between a young concrete and a more mature concrete [23,28,46]. However, the variability of results from the various tests investigating the effect of age on the compressive strength of concrete, as the strain rate increases, suggests that this influence is small. 2.1.5 Empirical relationships Many empirical relationships, usually logarithmic, have been derived to express the strength enhancement as a

where o~,= reference compressive strength at a reference loading rate d~ and/~ = material parameter. A sharp increase in the compressive strength appears to occur beyond a certain level of loading rate, indicating a possible change in the physical behaviour. The location of this sharp increase, which has also been observed for rock [102], is not definite and various values have been reported ranging from 0.2 to 30s -1 [17,95,103]. Tentative recommendations given by CEB [95] are seen on a loglog plot in Fig. 7 and suggest that a value of 30 s - ' for this change in behaviour may not be unreasonable, if indeed the change actually exists. The formulae given by the CEB use the power function developed by Mihashi and Wittmann [93] to predict increases in strength for loading rates less than 30s -~ (or 106 M P a s - ' ) , while for higher loading rates a cube-root law based on the tensile work of Kipp et al. [104] is proposed. More details on the CEB formulae are found in the Appendix.

2.1.6 Concluding remarks

Although there are many factors which may affect the increase in compressive strength of concrete as the loading rate is increased, only the concrete quality (or static compressive strength) appears to have a significant effect, while the influence of mix proportions, water/ cement ratio, aggregate type (stiffness, surface texture, size, shape and strength) and content, grading, cement content, age and curing conditions can be considered either of relatively minor or uncertain importance.

2.2 Multiaxiai loading: strain-rate influence

Dynamic triaxial tests on cylindrical specimens were carried out by Takeda et al. [105] at three different axial

438 range of static loading

Bischoff a n d Perry

~=

"-I

2~

f,~

2.0

AAbrams (1917) Mahin & Bertero (1972) I~Wesche & Krause (.1972) Jones & Richort (1936) r Evans (1942) v Sparks & Menzies (1975) )~ Katsuta (1943.1944) X 8resler & 8ertero (t975) Z Thaulow (1953) Hjorth (1976) if) Kvirikodze (1977) 91Watstein (1953,1955) 3.0Hatano & Tsutsumi (1960) []Popp (1977) I~ Hughes & Watson (1978) 4" Ban & Muguruma (1960) Takeda (1959) BIFagerlund & Larsson (1979) Takeda & Tachikawa (1962a,b) )' Paulmann & Steinert (1982,) I Lundeen (1963) :Rostasy (1984 198.5) Dilger et al. (1'984) X Horibe & Kobayashi (1965) +Cowell (1966) O Malvern & Ross (1984,1985) I Atchley & Furr (1967) . Hughes & Gregory (1972) CEB R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s - - - + Millstein & Sabnis (1982)

mm

I-U r

1.50 1.25
A
+ v~v~,

I'1
9

Pr"

[o

0 -8 -7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-I

10

lO

tO

10

10

10

10

10

10

I0

10

I0

Strain Rate (strain/second)

Fig. 7 Logarithmic strain-rate influence on the relative compressive strength increase. strain rates that were in the range of (0.2-2)x l0 -s, (0.2-2) 10 -z and (0.2-2)s -1. An initial and approximately constant confining pressure (up to 30 MPa) was first applied statically to the concrete specimens before they were loaded in the principal axial direction in either compression or tension at the different strain rates. Both the maximum axial compressive stress and critical compressive strain at maximum stress were affected by the confining pressure and the axial strain rate. Fig. 8a shows that the failure criteria (or envelopes) were considerably increased in magnitude, especially in compression, for the higher strain rates tested. However, no significant differences were seen between the three strain rates (Fig. 8b) when the octahedral shear (deviatoric) stress, ~o~, and the normal (hydrostatic) stress, r were normalized with the uniaxial compressive strength, ao, associated with each strain rate. This suggests that the failure criteria would remain in the same proportion for different rates of straining. Similar triaxial compression work [71] on concrete loaded up to higher confining pressures of 9 0 M P a reached the same conclusions. The failure envelope moved upwards at higher loading rates but merged into one unique envelope when the octahedral shear and normal stresses were normalized with the uniaxial compressive strength corresponding to the loading rate involved. Other dynamic triaxial tests [72] performed at confinement stress levels up to 100 MPa exhibited a 30 to 40% increase in the failure envelope for a nominal strain rate of about 2 s- 1 Plate impact experiments [19] have used a thin 152-mm diameter plate of concrete, with an aspect ratio of about 0.15 and made with a maximum aggregate size of 9.5 mm, that was impacted by a flyer plate. A large diameter to thickness ratio was used for the plates so that the central region would be in a state of uniaxial strain (due to inertial confinement), which was assumed to be maintained for the duration of impact lasting a few microseconds. The plate actually consisted of a series of thinner plates stacked together and with gauges sandwiched at the plate interfaces. Measurements were made on a small cofltinuum element at the centre; results calculated from velocity gauges showed that the dynamic stress-strain curves- that is axial stress plotted against uniaxial strain were similar in shape to the static curve (also for uniaxial strain) but stiffer and able to withstand a higher level of stress for any given value o f strain. Similarly shaped curves have been obtained for rapid hydrostatic loading of concrete cylinders [7 I]. Plate impact experiments have also been carried out by Gregson [106], and used by Read and Maiden [107] to help compare different constitutive relationships.

Materials and Structures

439 Alternatively, it has been suggested that the sharp increase in the compressive strength of brittle materials may not be 'real' but a result of the transition from a state of uniaxial stress to a state ofuniaxial strain, at high strain rates [108]. A brittle material like concrete, when loaded to failure, becomes a discontinuous structure with severe internal cracking that results in dilation. The static strength may be exceeded so quickly that the brittle specimen does not have time to 'unload' in the lateral direction (assuming dilation to be synonymous with unloading), thus producing an effective confining stress on the central core of the specimen [109]. Not only can this lateral inertia confinement lead to a significant increase in the dynamic strength but it may also lead to an increase in the critical compressive strain [21] and even to an increase in the amount of cracking at failure. Hydrostatic confinement during static compressive testing causes an increase in the compressive strength and deformation, and also a greater extent of cracking before failure [110]. The presence of confinement prevents excessive growth of the larger cracks and stimulates the nucleation of those cracks that would normally not form due to stress relaxation, thus leading to an increased amount of cracking. It is interesting to note that the sharp increase in strength observed for some rocks (such as Solenhofen limestone and porphyritic tonalite) does not appear until a strain rate of 103s -1 is reached [102]. Opinions are divided about whether the strain-rate effect on the strength increase in rock is 'real' or due to lateral inertia confinement. An elastic material loaded in compression will expand in the transverse direction as a result of Poisson's ratio effect. However, a cylinder loaded rapidly in the axial direction will not be able to expand instantaneously in the lateral direction because of inertial restraint, causing it to be initially in a state of uniaxial strain with corresponding lateral stresses that will act as a form of confinement. Expansion, or unloading, begins almost immediately from the free surface of the cylinder and propagates towards the centre as the material is accelerated in the outward radial direction. This reaction to inertia, commonly called lateral inertia confinement, produces a lateral confining stress on that part of the material which has not yet expanded, or unloaded, radially. The effect of these lateral confining stresses, which act for a finite time after the compressive wave has passed, should not significantly affect the elastic response unless a specimen with a particularly small aspect ratio is loaded at a very high strain rate (for example as described earlier for plate impact experiments). A compressive stress wave large enough to generate failure in a brittle material will cause volumetric expansion, or dilation, in the lateral direction because of void formation. A brittle material will have a substantially reduced unloading modulus in the lateral direction; thus the failure surface will propagate inwardly from the free surface with a significantly lower unloading velocity, Cr=(Ef/p) that can be less than the axial compressive wave velocity, c, by as much as one order of

l~176

/'~
/ ' /

"~S

/'/~j~'~S=.2_
50

2x10-51s

ff[=,2_2x t0_2/s I=.2--2/s

m 0

(a)

~oct,'Oo 325 1.0 025 O.S 0 2`=

~'oct/Co
-025 \

-0.1 -0.2
i

i__ -0.3

(b) Fig. 8 (a) Variation of failure criteria for triaxially loaded concrete at three different axial strain rates. (b) Relationship between normalized octahedral shear stress, zoo, and normalized normal stress, Go,, (with respect to the uniaxial compressive strength at the particular strain rate), for the three different axial strain rates. Both taken from [96] after [105].

2.3 Lateral inertia confinement

The substantial rise in the rate of increase in the dynamic compressive strength that has been proposed for concrete loaded at strain rates of the order of 30s -L and greater suggests that there may be a transition state in the m e c h a n i s m of failure governing the strength and deformational response. This change could be due to the strain-rate dependence of tensile microfracture. Concrete is a heterogeneous material with inherent microcracks, discontinuities and voids that are initially present in the material. Behaviour during static uniaxial loading is affected by the propagation of internal rnicrocracks, which are tensile in nature and primarily orientated in the axial direction. During rapid loading the time available for microcrack development or propagation is reduced. tlence the strain-rate dependent behaviour of microcracking can influence the response when concrete is subjected to the very high rates of loading that occur during impact.

l/z,

440 FAILURE CAUSED BY UNLOAOINGfcOMPRESSIVE

":~

Bischoff a n d Perry would be expected from the CEB [95] recommendations shown in Fig. 7. It appears, therefore, that the sharp increase in strength proposed for concrete when loaded at rates greater than 30 s-X may not reflect a true material property but rather a change in the response from uniaxial stress to uniaxial strain.

~i: ~:I ........... ~f ~Cf_..... ~r.V,o

~WAVE FRONT

UNLOADING FAILURE'~
WAVE FRONT

P
"C

I
I

r 2.4 Conclusion
The work reviewed in this part of the paper indicates that plain concrete exhibits a definite logarithmic increase in compressive strength when loaded more rapidly than the static loading case of 10-Ss -1. An average strength enhancement between 50 and 85% is expected for impact strain rates of about 10s -1. The ultimate strength is affected most significantly by the loading rate. Difficulties are encountered when attempting to compare the work of different researchers, and the only other factor, besides strain rate, which appears to significantly influence this strength enhancement is the concrete quality, or static uniaxial compressive strength. However, even this effect may be deceiving since the larger proportionate increase of a weaker concrete could arise from being compared with a smaller static value, especially when the stronger concrete exhibits similar absolute increases. Although strength enhancement is expected to be less for a better-quality concrete with a higher static compressive strength, evidence of this was only found in certain earlier work. No general trend was obvious when all results were considered together. Other factors such as age, curing conditions, mix proportions, water/cement ratio and aggregate type are shown to be of limited importance. However, there are instances when some of these other factors have influenced the behaviour during rapid loading, but no universal trends can as yet be established. The strain-rate dependent failure mechanism of tensile microcracking may not be entirely responsible for strength increases observed during very high strain-rate loading, and test results in this range could be affected in part by a transition from a state ofuniaxial stress to one of uniaxial strain. Brittle materials, which dilate before failure, are especially sensitive to this phenomenon. Knowledge of the uniaxial response, which has been primarily investigated in the past, is one prerequisite needed to understand the dynamic multiaxial response of concrete in structures. Very little work has been undertaken on the behaviour of concrete at high strain rates under multiaxial loading conditions because of the experimental difficulties involved. This suggests a greater need for work in this area, especially if more realistic constitutive relationships are to be st/ccessfully implemented into finite-element codes.

Fig. 9 Lateral unloading process for a cylindrical specimen

which fails by brittle fracture in compression. magnitude i-109] (Fig. 9). Young and Powell [111] observed that during failure of cylindrical rock specimens the radial stress increased towards the centre of the cylinder, and they concluded that failure propagates inwardly in a progressive manner. Clearly, there must be a critical strain rate below which the unloading failure velocity, c~, does not have any significant effect on the failure strength of a material which fails by brittle fracture. Concrete is sensitive to lateral confinement and even a small (lateral) confining pressure, equivalent to 10% of the uniaxial compressive strength, can increase the failure strength by as much as 50% [112]. Since the lateral unloading velocity of brittle failure is considerably less than the axial elastic wave velocity, unloading could be sufficiently delayed for the increased compressive strength of the confined central core, which would not have had time to unload, to lead to a cylindrical specimen having a greater load-carrying capacity and thus having an 'apparent' strain-rate effect. Recent compression tests on concrete, using a splitHopkinson pressure bar, have concluded that the inertial confinement is negligible for strain rates up to 100s -1 [37]. A rapid rise in the lateral surface acceleration was observed at, or just after, the maximum strength was reached, and although inertia effects may not have been responsible for a strength increase in this case it could still have affected the post-peak response. Further testing [38] has revealed some instances where, in addition to the strain-rate dependent mechanism of tensile microcracking, the lateral inertia confinement may have been partly responsible for an increased failure strength. The tests on rock demonstrating a significant confining effect caused by inertial restraint in the lateral direction were conducted at very high strain rates, probably between 103 and 10Ss -t, and the lateral inertia effect recently investigated for concrete [37,38] should not be as prominent since the strain rate was limited to 100s-L Plate impact experiments measure the dynamic uniaxial strain response because the relief waves beginning from the free edge do not reach the central region of the specimen until after the test is completed. Comparing dynamic results from this type of test with the static uniaxial strain response, Gupta and Seaman [19] observed an increase in strength of about 110% at a strain rate of approximately 104 s-~, an increase much less than

3.

D E F O R M A T I O N B E H A V I O U R AND E N E R G Y A B S O R P T I O N CAPACITY

Previously, most investigators studying high strain-rate effects of concrete have been concerned mainly with

Materials and Structures determining the strength increase, and hence information on deformation is limited. Despite this, trends can still be inferred from the information available and will be discussed in this part of the paper. It is concluded that the critical axial strain at maximum stress should increase at higher loading rates but with an enhancement less than that expected for strength. Furthermore, although increases in the secant modulus are known to exist, there is no common consensus about changes in the initial tangent modulus. Changes in Poisson's ratio confirm that tensile microcracking is reduced at higher strain rates; this is supported by observations of a more linear dynamic stress-strain curve. Since both stress and strain affect the ability of concrete to absorb energy, this property also is enhanced during rapid loading.
3.1 Strain-rate influence on elastic modulus

441 O (N/mrn z)
2 ~

30

(%ols)
,

20

'

I: 130

2:16
3:

G .I0-. 4 : 7 " 1 0 "J_ s: 5. o

2 ~- (%~

Fig. 11 Stress strain response for concrete in compression at different strain rates (taken from [88] after [23]).

It is generally accepted that the elastic modulus should increase with an increase in strain rate. The secant modulus, which in practice is measured up to a value anywhere between one-third and the full failure load, or at a particular value of axial strain (usually 1000 microstrains), is almost always observed to increase. Some empirical relationships [12,13,52,53], normally logarithmic and similar to those used to predict the strength increases discussed in section 2, have been derived to predict this increase with strain rate. These increases are usually observed to be less pronounced than those for compressive strength and, in the past, have been related to either the viscosity or to the inertial resistance to internal cracking. There have also been a few investigators who assumed that the increases in strength and modulus are comparable [75,103]. CEB recommendations [95] concerning changes in the elastic modulus are given in the Appendix. Confusion arises about whether the initial tangent modulus should change with strain rate. A number of researchers have obtained increases in the tangent modulus as the strain rate increased [9,15,46,48,52-54, 56,57], while for others the initial tangent modulus was not affected by strain rate [51,65,66,68] (and by inspection

80 70
60

n ,50 ~Z mt.O
(n

/~-~'"

~ 3o
20 1[? 0
i

/f-';.I/s
i

10 Sis

-~

-2 -3 Strain (~

-t.

Fig. 12 Stress-strain response for concrete in compression at two different strain rates (after [-66]). [15]), as illustrated in Figs 10-12. During rapid loading the slope has been observed to remain linear up to higher stress levels (see e.g. [15,56]), indicating a delay in the internal cracking process. A linearly elastic material like steel shows little rate sensitivity for stiffness, while a non-linear elastic material like concrete shows an enhanced stiffness (at least for the secant modulus) at high loading rates. This enhancement in the secant stiffness can be explained by a decrease in internal microcracking (for a given level of stress) with increased strain rate, resulting in a stress-strain curve that remains linear up to higher values of stress. However, it seems reasonable to assume that the initial tangent modulus should not be affected by strain rate since there is no significant microcracking during this initial stage of loading, but further experimental work is required to confirm this conclusion.
3.2 Strain-rate influence on critical compressive strain

75| [
~o

/ t "7/2'86 s-1
// /

L
/,,~/I-

/."-'---7 6X1~
/~/ _-7~x10"Bs'1
~.. __~.. ~ -_~ "~ ~..104.S. 1

j/~.~,~-/~

- - -~ . . . ~ ---

3*6x10-3s -I 1X10-5S-1
I I

08

o!i

o!2

o!3

04

05

Strain x 100

Fig. 10 Stress-strain response for two concretes in compression at different strain rates (taken from [3] after [15]).

The time-dependent response of concrete is not only characterized by changes in the compressive strength but also by changes in the critical compressive strain, eo, at m a x i m u m stress and the ultimate strain, eu, at failure. There seems to be no consensus as to whether an increase or decrease occurs in the strain value, eo, as the

442
(-

Bischoff a n d Perry
,,,I,,,,I ,,,I,,,,I .,,t.,,I .,,h,,,I ,,,i,,,,I ,,,i.,,,I ,.,~,,,,1 ,,,~,,.,I ,,,h,,,I ,,.i..,,I , , , ~ ....

9 ~
k_

2.0

U;
(D >
o ~

o3 03
k..

Q_

9 Kotsuta (19#3.1944) t" X Watste{n (1953,195,5) Hatano & Tsutsumi (tg50) Ban & Muguruma (1960) A Takeda & Tachikowa (1972) Cowell (1966) ~ tchley & Fun" (1967) Mahin & Bertero (1972) + Bresler & 8ertero (1975)

@ Hjorth (1976) rrl Hughes & W~tson (1978) Pauimann & Steinert (1982) 9 Rostasy (1984.198,5) 9 Dilger et al. (1984) Takeda & Tachikawa (1962a,b) extreme formulae Takeda & Tachikawa (1962a,b) average -----_-~. formulae

values (from values (from

of empirical test results) of empirical test results)

0 0
m

E i.s
m

~ ~

o (.9

x X 4. + _s~

k-"

(D r
~

i
1.0

9 o3 (3 9
k_

(J c-

[]

> O -~ fy"

range

of s t a t i c

loading

0.5 -8

' "l'"'l -3

' '"'"'1 -6

' "J'"'l -5

' "l'"'l -4

'

I"' 1 -3

' "l'"' I -2

' "1'"'I -t

' "1'"' I ' "t'"'l 0

,i,,,, I 2

i ] iiii

I0

I0

i0

I0

i0

I0

i0

I0

I0

10

10

10

Strain Rate (strain/second)

Fig. 13 Strain-rate influence on critical compressive strain, e.o. strain rate is increased, if indeed there is any significant change at all [21]. Results from earlier published work present conflicting evidence and, although few reports have actually discussed this matter, the conclusions of those making recommendations 1-88,100,114] were dependent on which test results of past experimental work were reviewed. Results of previous research relating the influence of strain rate to the critical compressive strain are shown in Fig. 13, with details of these tests given in section 1. The change in critical strain ranges from a decrease of 30% to an increase of 40% for strain rates up to 10s -1 when compared to the static loading case of 10-5 s-t. Since control o f the rate of deformation is very difficult at higher loading rates, the strain rate is usually defined as an average value at maximum stress, which is equal to the critical strain, Co, divided by the duration of time required to reach this critical value. 3.2.1 Reduction in critical strain at higher strain rates A number of investigators have reported that a decrease should occur in the critical compressive strain, So, for higher strain rates [23,29,48,49,52,57,58,61,64,65]. Of this group, the test results of Katsuta [48] seem to indicate a trend for a general decrease in the strain at maximum stress, while for Ban and Muguruma [52] it is difficult to draw any definite conclusions about the change in axial deformation since the range of loading speeds was not large (about 1.5 orders of magnitude). It should be noted also that Ban and Muguruma [52] observed a decrease in the critical compressive strain as great as 44% for a weak concrete with a static compressive strength of t8 MPa, but that this decrease gradually reduced until there were no significant changes for concrete mixes stronger than 26MPa. Test results [23,57,61,65] have also indicated a decrease in the critical compressive strain value as the strain rate was increased. Hughes and Watson [29] observed a decrease in the ultimate strain value, as did Katsuta [48]. It has been postulated (see e.g. i-115]) that the creep phenomenon, which governs the long-term behaviour of concrete (that is decreasing maximum strength with increasing strain), is also the mechanism responsible for determining the compressive short-term behaviour of concrete at higher loading rates (see Fig. 14, curve ABC). For rates higher than the static loading case of 10- 5 s - 1, the deformation was thought to consist not only o f the timeindependent strain (that is the limiting value for abrupt loading) and the viscous deformation caused by conventional creep but also of a time-dependent portion which

M a t e r i a l s and Structures
2.0 i i I ! i i i i i

443 3 x 10-1 s- 1, his test results were quite erratic and hence no definite conclusions could be drawn. It is interesting to note that his average stress-strain curve results showed an initial decrease in the critical strain (as much as 10% less than the static value) before increasing to a value slightly larger than the static strain. Thus a much greater increase would have been observed if compared with the minimum strain value. The minimum value of the critical strain does not necessarily have to occur at the strain rate associated with static loading, and can occur at faster loading rates. 3.2.3 Increase in critical strain at higher strain rates

1.e

/
I

1.6

I I
i

/'/
I

r Failure Limit Envelope IT

b"'

C--J

l /
I

~"

1.2 1.0 ,,

,~'/

/"\,

t
\
'\

g!

[ I B'\, ~

Failure Limit Envelope I

,,~o ,,',, "\

II
o I Ill I

/11 /

I" i I

9 ~""

2.0

t..0

6.0

8.0

t0.0

Concrete s t r a i n , E c x 10 -3 ram/ram

Fig. 14 Influence of loading rate on the compressive stress-strain response (extension of Fig. 14 of [116]). could be considered as 'delayed elastic strain' [58]. Thus at higher rates of loading the critical compressive strains should decrease as the delayed elastic strain becomes smaller, approaching the limiting value of the instantaneous elastic modulus, E~, for extremely short periods of loading. It was proposed [58,115] that this instantaneous modulus could be determined either by measuring it from the immediate elastic recovery of sudden unloading or by extrapolation of the secant modulus values at different loading rates (that is, as the loading rate increases, the modulus approaches the instantaneous value). A further contribution to this theory was made by Hjorth [23], who assumed that for any given strain rate there was an interval, AT, during which the stress could relax, and that the amount of relaxation was dependent on this time interval. Thus as the strain rate is increased the relaxation will be smaller for the shorter time intervals, resulting in an increase in the failure load. Hence both the delayed elastic strain and the interval for relaxation become smaller, resulting in a reduction of axial strain and an increase in stress at failure. Although this theory was originally based on the extrapolation of results from long-term tests [116] it is supported by more recent test results which have measured a reduction in the critical strain for strain rates as high as 10 -~ s -a. 3.2.2 Constant critical strain at higher strain rates H a t a n o and Tsutsumi [53] and Cowell [56] observed that no significant changes occur in the critical strain value as the strain rate is increased. Clearly, it is difficult to identify significant changes in the critical strain values when the variation of results can be just as large as the average percentage change. Although Cowell observed a small increase in the critical strain for a maximum strain rate of

A number of other investigators [9,12,13,15,16,42,51, 66-68] observed an increase in the critical compressive strain as the strain rate was increased from the static loading case to higher values. The results of Bresler and Bertero [9] did not show a consistent increase over the entire range of strain rates considered, but a general increase was prevalent for the highest rates of loading used. Several different types of concrete were tested by Takeda and Tachikawa [12,13,51], and the response varied anywhere from a constant critical strain value to an increase as high as 40% for a strain rate of I s- 1. Watstein [15,16] observed an initial decrease in the critical strain value before it increased at higher loading rates, while the results of Atchley and Furr [42] were similar to Watstein's at the higher strain rates. Although the static strain values were not given by Popp [17], an analysis of his results gave an axial strain at maximum stress of 2700 microstrains for a strain rate of about 15 s- t, which when compared with other researchers' static data for a similar type of concrete indicates that an increase with strain rate seems most likely [117]. Rostasy et al. [66] observed an increase of 40% in the axial strain for a strain rate of 0.1 s -1, which seems to be too high for the strain rates tested; the 10% increase observed by Rostasy and Hartwich [67] a year later for similar strain rates is more reasonable. Ahmad and Shah's [68] observed increase of 22% in axial strain at 3 x 10-2s -1 was larger than the corresponding 16% increase in strength, which is contrary to most previous results, which have shown smaller proportional increases in the critical strain than in the compressive strength. Stress-strain curves obtained from an SHPB test arrangement [37] showed an axial strain at maximum compressive stress of about 5000 microstrains. When compared to the strain values expected during static loading for a similar high-strength concrete (about 3000 to 3500 microstrains [118]), this seems to suggest that the critical strain increased under impact loading. The critical strains were also observed to increase as-the strain rate was increased from 10 to 105 s - 1 (Fig. 10 of Malvern et al. [38]). 3.2.4 Concluding remarks The critical strain value in compression, %, can be affected by the static compressive strength, type of aggregate,

444 storage conditions and testing conditions. Despite this, the results shown in Fig. 13, for which the negative results have largely been discounted, indicate that % should increase at the higher strain rates. This increase can vary anywhere from little more than zero to as high as 40%. Certainly most results tend to fall in the range predicted by Takeda and Tachikawa [12,13]. The average increase can vary from 10 to 30% for strain rates as high as 10 s- ~, and is less than the average increase of 60 to 80% in the compressive strength (see section 2) and also significantly less than the 250% increase [114] expected for the critical tensile strain at comparable strain rates. A few empirical relationships have been proposed in the past to predict the change in axial strain with strain rate; these cater for both the increase and the decrease alternatives. The CEB recommendations [-95] are shown in Fig. 15 and do not seem unreasonable, although they may slightly overestimate the critical strain values in the lower range of strain rates. More details on these formulae are given in the Appendix. Given the restricted amount of information available, the change in compressive strain can be assumed to be dependent only on the strain rate, with the effect of all other factors (such as static compressive strength, curing conditions, etc.) considered to be minimal. Stronger concretes normally possess a greater critical strain at maximum static compressive stress than weaker con-

Bischoff a n d Perry cretes; hence they may also be less sensitive to changes in strain as the strain rate is increased, since the comparison is being made with a larger value of strain. The question that remains to be answered is why some researchers observed a distinct decrease in the critical compressive strain while others observed a definite increase. This could possibly be due to variations in test methods leading to different failure patterns (for example slant shear or cone-type failure for cylinders), or simply because of deficiencies in the measurement technique (see section 1). Stress-strain curves are not always complete (see e.g. [48]); this could lead to misleading conclusions. Also it is worth noting that both increases and decreases in strain have been observed for concrete specimens loaded hydraulically, while only an increase in strain was observed for those specimens which were subjected to a true impact. For results of tests obtained over a wide range of strain rates (and hence loaded both hydraulically and with an impact drop-hammer), those of Watstein [15] exhibited an initial decrease in strain when the specimens were tested hydraulically, while the specimens loaded by Watstein with a drop-hammer at much higher strain rates showed an increase in strain. The method and location of strain measurement could also affect the results near failure, once the maximum volumetric strain has been exceeded, if a discrete type of failure occurs in a localized region.

4.0
r
~

(J3

m
o ~

3.0

9 Katsuta (1943,1944) X Watstein (1953,1955) ,~ Hatano & Tsutsumi (1960) Ban & Muguruma (1960) Tokeda & Tachikawa (1972) Cowell (1966) -A Atchley & Furr (1967) Mahin & 8ertero (1972) + Bresler & Bertero (1975)

9 Hjorth (1976) [] Hughes & Watson (1978) Paulmann & Steinert (1982)

9 Rostosy (1984.1985) 9 Dilger et al. (1984) Takeda & Tachikawa (1982a,b) extreme formulae Takeda & Tachikawa (1962a,b) average ._ "~ formulae

values (from values (from

of empirical test results) of empirical test results)

I,,,.

E
O

2.01

.g
(/)
O
u 1.50

CEB Recommendation--~
O
\

\
J
/

1.25
""
O

f
range of s t a t i c loading

cr

10-8

, , ,i,,,, . I -7

., , ,. ~,..,f^.,-.-~-.ff .
-6 -5 -4 -3

-2

-1,

10

10

10

t0

10

10

I0

I0

I0

I0

i0

I0

Strain Rate (strain/second)

Fig. 15 Logarithmic strain-rate influence on the relative increase in critical compressive strain (discounting negative results).

Materials and Structures

10

445 up to the maximum stress level) have definitely shown an increased capacity with higher strain rates, although it has been suggested previously that the energy absorption capacity should remain constant during rapid loading [64,119]. Watstein [ 15,16] measured energy absorption increases of up to 120% for a strain rate of about 10 s-1 (which was larger than the corresponding 85% increase in compressive strength), while Takeda and Tachikawa [12,13] reported an increase between 20 and 80% for a strain rate of 1 s-1 (also greater than the corresponding increase in compressive strength). An increase between 37 and 42% was observed by Atchley and Furr [42] for several strengths of concrete at a loading rate of about 3 s -1. Since the range was quite small, they concluded that concrete was only capable of absorbing a certain maximum amount of energy which, if exceeded, would always lead to failure. Strength increases were observed to range from about 51 to 63% at the highest loading rate tested by Atchley and Furr, greater than the corresponding increase in energy absorbed, and appeared to approach a constant value as the rate of loading was increased, contrary to other previously cited work. This capacity of plain concrete to absorb an increased amount of energy is attributed both to the greater strength, for a given strain value, and to the enhanced strain capacity of concrete during rapid loading, although the relative contribution of these two factors depends to a great extent on the amount of increase obtained for stress and strain, as observed by Cowell E56]. 3.5 Conclusions Increases in the compressive strength and secant modulus of concrete at high rates of loading are well established. Deformation results from past work show inconsistencies and, at first glance, can sometimes appear inconclusive. However, the limited experimental evidence available suggests that the critical compressive strain, at maximum compressive stress, also increases as the strain rate is increased, but more tests are required to substantiate this. Changes in axial strain during rapid loading are generally less than those obtained for strength at similar strain rates, and the greater capacity to absorb energy during impact loading is dependent on the degree of enhancement obtained for both strength and strain. Concrete is a brittle material which fails in compression by internal microcracking that is tensile in nature. Straifirate dependent behaviour is caused by a transition from the creep phenomenon, which governs failure at rates less than the static loading rate, to the more strain-rate dependent mechanism of tensile microcracking that occurs during impact. Decreases in the level of microcracking, at any given stress level, will reduce the amount of longitudinal deformation. This change in behaviour is thought to be caused by the inertial resistance of the material through which the crack propagation path develops. A possible increase in the amount of cracking required for failure may also affect test results [21 ]. Hence

Compressive - - - Tensile t e s t
8

test

E
r r

5 1 1 \ k - ' ~ . _ . 1 o.8, -1
6

o 0.
O

4
I 0 - 0 3 ~-

2 "1

l 25

I 50

l 75

100

S t r e s s level, 0"{0"m (%)

(a)
i /
&

1 /

~0-2
"t- 0

___1--~'~_~ ~

"

// o 9

-g--

k ' ~
9 Compressive t e s t 9 Tensile t e s t

~ #~

"o

g~0.~
i.~r~

<

O-

10-7 10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2 10-1

10 ~

101

Strain rate, ~ ( s-1) (b)

Fig. 16 (a) Typical variation of Poisson's number with stress level for tests in both compression (at 0.5 to l s- z) and tension (at 0.01 to 0.05 s-l). After [51]. (b) Typical effect of average strain rate on Poisson's ratio at a stress level of 0.4 times the ultimate stress (in compression and tension). Taken from [4] after [51].
3.3 Strain-rate influence on Poisson's ratio

Very little information is available, but an increase in the Poisson number (inverse of Poisson's ratio) has been observed during rapid loading [12,13,51,55]. Figs 16a and b show that Poisson's ratio at any given stress level decreased (by as much as 40% 1-5I]) with loading rate. The opposite type of behaviour has been noticed for concrete specimens loaded in tension (that is an increase in Poisson's ratio) [12,13]. This reduction in Poisson's ratio for compression of concrete at high strain rates confirms the belief that there is a reduction of microcracking at a particular stress level during high strain-rate loading. On the other hand, Paulmann and Steinert [-61] did not observe any changes in Poisson's ratio for strain rates as high as 0.2 s-i and, because of the scarcity of results, the CEB recommendations [95] assume that Poisson's ratio is independent of loading rate.
3.4 Influence of strain rate on energy absorption capacity

Those tests which have measured the energy absorption capacity (defined as the area under the stress-strain curve

446 failure will occur at a much higher stress level than that for static loading because the cracks are forced to propagate through regions of greater resistance, and also because a greater amount of microcracking may be required before a continuous fracture surface can be formed. It is interesting to note that during static loading stronger concretes exhibit increased critical compressive strains and elastic moduli. Hence perhaps there is a simple explanation that could account for the observed deformational changes during rapid loading since, 'elastically', a stronger material should exhibit greater deformation. As with steel, the increased strain-rate sensitivity observed for the weaker material probably occurs as much as a result of it being compared with a smaller value, as for the other physical reasons already mentioned. Care is always necessary when conclusions are based on a limited number of experimental results, such as those used to predict the sharp increase in compressive strength for concrete loaded at strain rates above 30s -1 (see section 2). This problem is particularly acute for tensile behaviour, where the strength increase at rates greater than 10 s-~ has been inferred from a single set of results [87]. Recent work [-120] contradicts results from this earlier test and suggests a lower level of tensile strength enhancement for strain rates in this range. Advances in numerical computational analysis are such that this technique can now be applied with reasonable confidence in analysing an impact problem. However, further work is required to increase our understanding of concrete behaviour and the relevant failure mechanisms at high strain rates (see also sections 1 and 2), so that more accurate constitutive relationships can be implemented into finite-element codes, leading to more confident prediction of the behaviour of concrete under impact.

Bischoff a n d Perry modulus, these rate effects are given in relation to the strain rate:
O'd/a s = ( g d / i s ) 1'026~t id

_< 30 s- 1

(A3) (A4)

fro/O's = 7(gO) 1/3

'~d > 30 S- 1

where g~= 30 x 10 - 6 s - 1 and log7 = 6.156c~- 0.492. It should be noted that the sharp increase predicted at rates greater than 30 s-t (Equations A2 and A4) is only tentative, and other recent recommendations i-113] have also been made which disregard this effect for concrete strength in compression. Increases in the dynamic modulus, E d, are expressed in terms of either the stress rate by Equation A5 below or the strain rate by Equation A6: EJE, = (da/a~)~176 (AS)
or

E d / E ~ = (ga/Q) ~ 1 7 6

(A6)

with 6 , = 1 M P a s -~ and g ~ = 3 0 x 10-6s -1. The critical axial strain, to, occurring at the maximum value of axial stress, increases with the loading rate according to either Equation A7 or Equation A8:
/~0.d/g--0.s : (d/s) 0"020 or eO,d/eO, s = (gd/gs) 0"020

(A7) (A8)

with the static stress rate, 6,, and static strain rate, g~, as defined earlier.

REFERENCES 1. McHenry, D. and Shideler, J. J., 'Review of data on effect of speed in mechanical testing of concrete', in 'Symposium on Speed of Testing of Non-Metallic Materials', ASTM STP No. 185 (1956) pp. 72-82. 2. Abrahamsson, E., 'Influence of dynamic loads on mechanical properties of concrete' (summary in English), Nordisk Betong 6(4) (1962) 337-346. 3. Mainstone, R. J., 'Properties of materials at high rates of straining or loading', Matkr. Constr. 8(44) (1975) 102-116. 4. Suaris, W. and Shah, S. P., 'Mechanical properties of materials subjected to impact', in 'Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading', edited by G. Plauk, Introductory Report (BAM, Berlin, 1982) pp. 33-62. 5. Ammann, J. W., 'Stahlbeton und Spannbetontragwerke unter Stossartiger Belastung' (Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Structures under Shock Loading), Dissertation No. 7285, Eidgenossischen T.H., Zurich (1983). 6. Dargel, H. L., 'Zur Rechnerischen Analyse von Stahlbetontragwerken unter Stossartiger Beanspruchung: Berucksichtigung des Einfluss hoher Dehngeschwindigkeiten im Werkstoffgesetz' (Numerical Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures under Shock Loading: Consideration of the Effect of Higher Strain Rates on the Constitutive Relationships), Dissertation, T.H. Darmstadt (1984). 7. Gerstle, K. H., Linse, D. L., Bertacchi, P., Kotsovos, M. D., Ko, H. Y., Newman, J. B., Rossi, P., Schickert, G., Taylor, M. A., Traina, L. A., Zimmerman, R. M. and Bellotti, R.,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Initial research support was provided by the FCAR (Quebec) Fellowship, lODE and ORS (British) Awards Scheme, and is gratefully appreciated.

APPENDIX: CEB recommendations for strain-rate influence on compressive behaviour

CEB recommendations [95] given for the loading rate influence on the uniaxial compressive strength are expressed in terms of the stress rate:
aa/a~ = (6a/a~) ~'
O'd/O"s ~--- fl(Otd) 1/3

6a < 106 MPa s-1

Otd > 106 MPa s- i

(A1) (A2)

where 6S= 1 MPa s- 1, ~ = (5 + 3fcu/4)-- 1, f~.= static cube compressive strength (MPa) and l o g ~ = 6 e - 2 . By considering the strain-rate dependence of the elastic

Materials and Structures

"Strength of concrete under multiaxial stress states', in Proceedings of Douglas McHenry International Symposium on Concrete and Concrete Structures, ACI Publication SP-55 (1978) pp. 103-131. 8. Reinhardt. H. W., "Testing and monitoring techniques for impact and impulse loading of concrete structures', in "Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading', edited by G. Plauk, Introductory Report (BAM, Berlin, 1982) pp. 65-87. 9. Bresler, B. and Bertero, V. V., 'Influence of high strain rate and cyclic loading of unconfined and confined concrete in compression', in Proceedings of 2nd Canadian Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Hamilton, Ontario, 1975, pp. 1-13. 10. Kotsovos, M. D., 'Effect of testing technique on the postultimate behaviour of concrete in compression', Mater. Struct. 16(91) (1983) 3-12. 11. Takeda, J., 'A loading apparatus for high speed testing of building materials and structures', in Proceedings of 2nd Japan Congress on Testing Materials, Kyoto (Japan Society for Testing Materials, 1959) pp. 236-238. 12. Takeda, J. and Tachikawa, H., 'The mechanical properties of several kinds of concrete at compressive, tensile, and flexural tests in high rates of loading' (in Japanese), Trans. Architect. Inst. Jpn No. 77 (1962) I-6. 13. Idem, 'The mechanical properties and their fundamental equations of concrete subjected to compression in high rates of loading' (in Japanese), ibid. No. 78 (1962) 1-6. 14. Gopalaramam, V. S. and Shah, S. P., qnstrumented impact testing of brittle materials', in 'Engineering Mechanics in Civil Engineering', edited by A. P. Boresi and K. P. Chong, Vol. 1 (ASCE, New York, 1984) pp. 635-639. 15. Watstein, D., "Effect of straining rate on the compressive strength and elastic properties of concrete', ACI J. 49 (1953) 729-744. 16. Idem, 'Properties of concrete at high rates of loading', in 'Symposium on Impact Testing', ASTM STP 176 (1955) pp. 156-169. 17. Popp, C., 'Unterschungen fiber das Verhalten von Beton bei schlagartiger Beanspruchung' (A study of the behaviour of concrete under impact loading), Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, No. 281 (1977). 18. Malvern, L. E. and Ross, C. A., 'Dynamic response of concrete and concrete structures', Second Annual Technical Report, AFOSR Contract No. F49620-83K007 (1985). 19. Gupta, Y. M. and Seaman, L., 'Local response of reinforced concrete to missile impact', Final Report, EPRI NP-1217, Project 393-1 (Palo Alto, 1979). 20. Eibl, J., 'Soft and hard impact', in 'Concrete for Hazard Protection' (Concrete Society, Edinburgh, 1987) pp. 175186. 21. Bischoff, R H. and Perry, S. H., 'Compressive strain rate effects of concrete', in 'Cement-Based Composites: Strain Rate Effects on Fracture', edited by S. Mindess and S. R Shah, Vol. 64 (Materials Research Society, Pittsburg, 1986) pp. t51-165. 22. Goldsmith, W., 'Impact: The Theory and Physical Behaviour of Colliding Solids' (Arnold, London, 1960). 23. Hjorth, O., 'Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Festigkeiten und des Verbundverhaltens yon Stahl und Beton bei hohen Beanspruchungsgeschwindigkeiten' (A Contribution to the Problem of Strength and Bond Relationships for Steel and Concrete at High Loading Rates), Dissertation,

447
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58. Wesche, K. and Krause, K., 'Der Einfluss der Belastungsgeschwindigkeit auf Druckfestigkeit und Elastizitatsmodul von Beton' (The effect of loading rate on compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete), Materialprufung 14(7) (1972) 212-218. 59. Sparks, P. R. and Menzies, J. B., 'The effect of rate of loading upon the static and fatigue strengths of plain concrete in compression', Mag. Concr. Res. 25(83) (1973) 73-80. 60. Bhargava, J. and Rhenstrom, A., 'Dynamic strength of polymer modified and fiber-reinforced concretes', Cement Concr. Res. 7 (1977) 199-208. 61. Paulmann, K. and Steinert, J., 'Beton bei sehr kurzer Belastungsgeschichte' (Concrete under very short-term loading), Beton 32(6)(1982) 225-228. 62. Ferritto, J., 'Dynamic tests of model concrete', in 'Dynamic Modeling of Concrete Structures', SP-73, edited by H. G. Harris (American Concrete Institute, 1982) pp. 23-33. 63. Krawinkler, H. and Moncarz, R D., 'Similitude requirements for dynamic models', ibid. pp. 1-22. 64. Millstein, L. and Sabnis, G. M., 'Concrete strength under impact loading', in 'Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading', edited by G. Plauk (BAM, Berlin, t982) pp. 101-111. 65. Dilger, W. H., Koch, R. and Kowalczyk, R., 'Ductility of plain and confined concrete under different strain rates', ACI J. 81(l) (1984) 73-81. 66. Rostasy, F. S., Scheuermann, J. and Sprenger, K. H., 'Mechanical behaviour of some construction materials subjected to rapid loading and low temperature', Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik 50(6) (1984) 393-401. 67. Rostasy, E S. and Hartwich, K.,'Compressive strength and deformation of steel fibre reinforced concrete under high rate of strain', hTt. J. Cement Compos. LL~htwt Coner. 7(I) (1985) 21-28. 68. Abroad, S. H. and Shah, S. E, 'Behavior of hoop confined concrete under high strain rates', ACIJ. 82(5) (1985) 634647. 69. Oh, B. H. and Shin, S. B., 'Dynamic behaviour of concrete in compression', in 'Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology', Vol. H (Concrete and Concrete Structures), edited by E H. Wittman (Balkema, Rotterdam, 1987) pp. 293-298. 70. Jawed, I., Childs, G., Ritter, A., Winzer, S., Johnson, T. and Barker, D., "High-strain rate behaviour of hydrated cement pastes', Cement Coner. Res. 17(3) (1987) 433440. 71. Yamaguchi, H., Fujimoto, K. and Nomura, S., 'Strain rate effect on stress-strain relationships of concrete', in Proceedings of 4th Symposium on the Interaction of Non-Nuclear Munitions with Structures, Florida, 1989, pp. 290-295. 72. Gran, J. K., Florence, A. L. and Colton, J. D., 'Dynamic triaxial tests of high-strength concrete', A S C E J. Engng Mech. 115(5)(1989) 891-904. 73. Ross, C. A., Kuennen, S. T. and Strickland, W. S., 'High strain rate effects on tensile strength of concrete', in Proceedings of 4th Symposium on the Interaction of Non-Nuclear Munitions with Structures, Florida, 1989, pp. 302-308. 74. Ross, A. C., Thompson, E Y. and Tedesco, J. W., 'SplitHopkinson pressure bar tests on concrete and mortar in tension and compression', A CI Mater. J. 86(5) (1989) 475481.

Materials and Structures 75. Kvirikadze, O. P., 'Determination of the ultimate strength and modulus of deformation of concrete at different rates of loading', in "Testing in Situ of Concrete Structures' (RILEM, Budapest, 1977) pp. 109-117. 76. Passow, H., 'Druckfestigkeit, Zugfestigkeit, und Zerschmetterungsfestigkeit' (Compressive strength, tensile strength, and impact strength) (Zementverlag, Charlottenburg, 1918). 77. Framm, F., 'Zerschmetterungsfestigkeit und Druckfestigkeit' (Impact strength and compressive strength), Zement 9(48-51) (1920) 601-603, 613-615, 625-628, 639-641. 78. Wenzel, F., 'Beitrag zur Stossfestigkeit von Beton" (Contribution to Impact Strength of Concrete), Dissertation, T.H. Aachen (1934). 79. Guttmann, A. and Seidel, K., '{)ber die Druckfestigkeit, Stossfestigkeit und Abnutzbarkeit von Beton' (About the compressive strength, impact strength and abrasion resistance of concrete), Zement 28(14) (1936) 233-240. 80. Glanville, W. H., Grime, G., Fox, E. N. and Davies, W. W., 'An investigation of the stresses in reinforced concrete piles during driving', Building Research Technical Paper No. 20, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (HMSO, London, 1938). 81. Dahms, J., '{)ber die Schlagfestigkeit des Betons fiir Rammpfahle' (Impact strength of concrete piles), Beton 18(4) {1968} 131-136 and 18(5) (1968) 177-182. 82. Bonzel, J. and Dahms, J., "Schlagfestigkeit von faserbewehrtem Beton" (Impact resistance of fibre-reinforced concrete), Beton 31(3) (1981) 97-101 and 31(4) (1981) 136-142. 83. Jamrozy, Z. and Swamy, R. N., 'Use of steel fibre reinforcement for impact resistance and machinery foundations', Int. J. Cement Compos. 1(2)(1979) 65-75. 84. Green, H., 'The impact testing of concrete', in 'Mechanical Properties of Non-Metallic Brittle Materials', edited by W. H. Walton (Butterworths, London, 1958) pp. 300-313. 85. Idem, 'Impact strength of concrete', Proc. Inst. Civil Engrs 28 (1964) 383-396. 86. Hughes, B. R and Gregory, R., "The impact strength of concrete using Green's ballistic pendulum', ibid. 41 (1968) 731-750. 87. Birkimer, D. L. and Lindemann, R., 'Dynamic tensile strength of concrete materials', J. Amer. Contr. Inst. 68 (1971) 47-49. 88. Kormeling, H. A., Zielinski, A. J. and Reinhardt, H. W., 'Experiments on concrete under single and repeated uniaxial impact tensile loading', Stevin Report 5-80-3 (Delft University of Technology, 1980). 89. Suaris, W. and Shah, S. R, "Inertial effects in the instrumented impact testing ofcementitious composites', Cement Concr. Aggreg. 3(2) (1981) 77-83. 90. Zielinski, A. J. and Reinhardt, H. W., 'Impact stress-strain behaviour of concrete in tension', in 'Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading', edited by G. Plauk (BAM, Berlin, 1982) pp. 112-124. 91. Curione, C., 'Der Einfluss dynamischer Belastung auf Baukonstruktionen (Influence of dynamic loading on structural design), Ziviler Luftschutz 22(2/3) (1958) 58-66. 92. ASCE, 'Design of Structures to Resist Nuclear Weapons Effects', Manual No. 42 (ASCE, New York, 1985 Revised Edition). 93. Mihashi, H. and Wittmann, E H., 'Stochastic approach to

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113. Reinhardt, H. W., "Simple relations for the strain rate influence on concrete', in 'Darmstadt Concrete', edited by G. Konig, H.W. Reinhardt and J.C. Walraven, Vol. 2 (Institut ffir Massivbau, T.H. Darmstadt, 1987) pp. 203211. 114. Kormeling, H., 'A model for concrete under impact tensile loading', in 'Concrete Structures under Impact and Impulsive Loading', edited by G. Plauk (BAM, Berlin, 1982) pp. 125-133. 115. Evans, R. H., 'Effect of rate of loading on some mechanical properties of concrete', in 'Mechanical Properties of Non-Metallic Brittle Materials' (Butterworths, London, 1958) pp. 175-190.

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116. Ri.isch, H., 'Researches towards a general flexural theory for structural concrete', ACI J. 57(1)(1960) 1-28. 117. Reinhardt, H. W., Personal Communication (1985). 118. Carrasquillo, R. L., Nilson, A. H. and Slate, F. O., 'Properties of high strength concrete subject to shortterm loads', ACI J. 78(3)(1981) 171-178. 119. Mander, J. B., Priestly, M. J. N. and Park, R., 'Theoretical stress-strain model for confined concrete', ASCE J. Struct. Engng 114(8)(1988) 1804-1826. 120. Ross, C. A. and Thompson, P. Y., 'High strain rate tensile tests of concrete and mortar', in Proceedings, 'Fracture and Damage of Concrete and Rock', Vienna, July 1988, Paper IX-2.

RESUME
Comportement du b6ton en compression ~i hautes vitesses de d~formation
Dans let premikre partie de ce rapport, on se livre h une kvaluation critique des techniques expkrimentales gOnkralement emph)ykes pour l'essai du b~ton en compression haute vitesse de d~Jbrmation, ainsi que des m~thodes utilisbes pour mesurer et enregistrer la contrainte et let

dkformation. On discute le potentiel physique de chaque mkthode de chargement, et on s'intbresse aux dkfinitions utiliskes pour la spkcification de la vitesse de chargement. On examhw, dans la deuxikme partie, let rbsistance h la compression d3,namique (principalement uniaxiale) du bOton ordinaire, tandis que, dans let troisiOme partie, une Otude tht comportement en dkformation indique qu'il existe des impr~;cisions et contradictions ?~ propos des modifications de la d~/ormation axiate gt haute vitesse de &!/brmation.