Muku

4.
Instrumentation for pressure measurements

4.1. Units of pressure, types of pressure
Among many process variables pressure is that parameter which is critical for safe and optimum
operation in hydraulic equipment, separating processes (such as filtration, distillation, etc.),
vacuum processing, etc. Using pressure measurements we are able to measure level of liquids in
tanks, or flowrate of liquids or gases in the pipes. In order to keep pressure within desired range
we need to be able to accurately measure this process variable, and then control it. It is not easy
to use instrumentation for pressure measurements without knowledge of a fundamental concept
of pressure.
Pressure is equal to the force divided by the area over which it is applied. In the International
System (SI) the unit for pressure is called Pascal (Pa) and is equal to the force of one
N , 1

divided by an area of one
2
, 1 m :
2
, 1 , 1
m
N
Pa
. There are other units, which are not within
SI, namely: 1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1 MPa;
1 atm = 101325 Pa - (standard or physical atmosphere);
1 kgf/cm
2
= 98066.5 Pa = 0.0980665 MPa - (technical atmosphere);
1 lbf/in
2
= 1 psi = 6894.76 Pa = 0.00689476 MPa;
1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa - (760 mm Hg = 101324.7 Pa 101325 Pa).
The advantage of the Pascal is that it does not depend on the gravitational acceleration. It means
that this unit is the same in places with various values of gravitational acceleration. Even on
other planets it does not change.
There are various types of pressures. Figure 4.1 gives illustration of terms used in pressure
measurements (From book Van Wylen G.J., Sonntag R.E. "Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics", Sec. Ed.). Absolute pressure in a system is equal to the total pressure of a
liquid or a gas which acts on the walls of this system. The difference between absolute and
atmospheric pressure is called gage or manometric pressure and is read by ordinary pressure
gauge:
atm abs g
P P P
. (4.1)
If
atm abs
P P <
, then the difference between atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure is called
vacuumetric pressure and is read by ordinary vacuum gauge:
abs atm vac
P P P
. (4.2)
University of South Australia Page 1
School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences
Process Instrumentation, IL3
Lecturer: Dr. Alexander Badalyan
Pressure above
atmospheric pressure
Ordinary pressure gage
reads difference between
absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure,
P
g
Pressure less than
Atmospheric pressure
Ordinary vacuum gage
reads difference between
and absolute pressure,
P
vac
Absolute pressure that is
less than atmospheric
pressure, P
abs
Absolute pressure
that is greater than
atmospheric
pressure, P
abs
Barometer reads
atmospheric pressure,
P
atm
Zero pressure
Figure 4.1. Illustration of terms used in pressure measurements.
Instrumentation for pressure measurements may be classified regarding to the operational
principle used or type of pressure to be measured. If we consider operational principles
employed, then process instrumentation for pressure measurements may be categorised as
follows:
liquid filled pressure instrumentation: U-tube manometers, well manometers, bell-
type manometers, liquid barometer, absolute pressure manometer;
elastic-element mechanical pressure gages: Bourdon tube pressure gages, bellows-type
pressure gages, diaphragm-type pressure gages;
dead-weight pressure gages;
electrical-type pressure gages: piezoelectric pressure gages, capacitance pressure gages,
strain-type pressure gages.
Here is the classification of instrumentation for pressure measurements with respect to the type
of the measured pressure:
pressure gages, for measurements of pressures above atmospheric pressure;
vacuum pressure gages, for measurements of pressures below atmospheric pressure;
vacuum manometers, for measurements of both pressures above and below atmospheric
pressure;
barometers, for measurement of atmospheric pressure;
differential pressure and vacuum gages, for measurements of difference of pressures.
4.2. U-tube liquid filled manometers
These manometers are used for measurement of gauge pressures (up to 0.1 MPa), vacuumetric
pressures (down to 0.1 MPa below atmospheric pressure) and for differential pressures of liquids
and gases. The principle is based on the static balance between the measured pressure and the
head of the liquid column. Fig. 4.2 shows the schematic of this manometer. A glass tube 1,
bended to the U-shape, is filled by one half of its volume with liquid 2 (water, mercury). This
tube is placed vertically, and a scale 3 (usually in mm) is attached along its height. Pressures
1
P

and
2
P
are supplied to legs of the tube, and levels of liquid in the legs change their position.
When static balance between a measuring pressure and the head of the liquid column is reached,
this pressure can be evaluated according to the equation:
) (
2 1 2 1
h h g H g P P P
loc loc
+
, (4.3)
where,
1
P and
2
P - pressures supplied to the legs of the manometer, Pa ;
1
h and
2
h - deviations of liquid levels from the zero point of the scale in two legs of the
manometer, m;
2 1
h h H + - total length of the liquid column corresponded to the measuring differential
pressure, m;
- density of liquid filled the U-tube,

3
m
kg
;
loc
g
- local gravitational acceleration,
2
s
m
.
0
P
1
P
2
h
2
h
1
H
1
2
3
Figure 4.2. Liquid filled U-tube manometer.
We need always make two readings of the liquid level, namely, in each leg of the tube, because
in reality due to non-uniformity of the tube diameter along its length, values of
1
h
and
2
h
are
not equal. As the result of such reading the error introduced during pressure measurement will be
reduced. When this type of manometer is used for pressure measurements three cases may take
place:
1).
1
P
is above atmospheric pressure,
atm
P P
2
. In this case the manometer measures the
difference between absolute and atmospheric pressures:
) (
2 1 1
h h g P P
loc g
+
.
2).
2
P
is below atmospheric pressure,
atm
P P
1
. In this case manometer measures the
difference between atmospheric and absolute pressures:
) (
2 1 2
h h g P P
loc vac
+
.
3). In this case the equation (4.3) refers to measurements of differential pressures.
Since the gravitational acceleration is used for the evaluation of pressure, then, when using U-
tube manometers, it is necessary to introduce correction which takes into account the difference
between gravitational acceleration in the place where this manometer was calibrated from that
where it is used.
Another source of the error is the deviation of liquid temperature in the tube from that
temperature when this manometer was calibrated. Due to thermal expansion of the liquid in the
tube the volume of liquid will change and this inevitably introduces an error.
But the most common mistake is made by not correct reading the scale in respect to the meniscus
of liquid in legs of the tube. Fig. 4.3 gives examples how operator should make readings when
using U-tube manometer with various liquids. We should always read a surface of the
meniscus in its centre. In the case with water - in the bottom, and in the case with mercury - in
the top of the meniscus. But in everyday industrial measurements the first two corrections
(gravitational and thermal) are not always used, whereas the last one (the meniscus correction)
must always be taken into account.
Water wets glass Mercury does not
wet glass
Figure 4.3. Correct reading of the U-tube manometer.
When one measures low pressures several modifications of U-tube manometer are used,
namely, well or reservoir manometer, inclined manometer, absolute pressure gauge.
Lets develop a differential equation for this manometer.
f g P
F F F ma
; (4-4)
AL m
; (4-5)
2
2
dt
h d
a ; (4-6) PA F
P
; (4-7)
ghA A P F
g g
2
. (4-8)
Hagen-Poiseuille equation applies for a laminar flow of liquid in the tube according
QL
R P P
8
) (
4
2 1

(4-9)
t
h
D
AL
t
h A
D
L
t
V
D
L
t
V
D
D L
D
A QL
R
QL
A P P A F
f

*
32
*
32
*
32
*
4
128 128 8
) (
2 2 2
4
2
4 4
2 1

(4-10)
Let t0, then:
dt
dh
D
AL
F
f
*
32
2

, (4-11)
Substitute (4-5)-(4-8) and (4-11) into (4-4):
dt
dh
D
AL
ghA PA
dt
h d
AL
2 2
2
32
2

. (4-12)
Divide all terms of (4-12) by
( ) gA 2
and get a second-order differential equation:
g
P h
dt
dh
gD
L
dt
h d
g
L

2
1 16
2
2 2
2
+ +
,
_
. (4-13)
In this equation:
a - acceleration of liquid in the tube,
2
s
m
;
A - cross-sectional area of the tube,
2
m
;
D - internal diameter of the tube, m;
P
F - displacement pressure force, N ;
f
F
- frictional force for the laminar flow, N ;
g
F
- gravitational restoring force, N ;
g
- gravitational acceleration,
2
s
m
;
h - variation of the height of the liquid column in one leg of the manometer,
m;
L - total length of the liquid column in the tube, m;
m - mass of liquid in the tube,
kg
;
P - difference of pressures supplied to both legs of the manometer, Pa ;
g
P
- pressure developed by the gravitational force acting on the liquid column
in the tube, in other words this is liquid pressure head, Pa ;
2 1
, P P - pressures supplied to both legs of the manometer, Pa ;
Q
- variation of the volumetric flowrate of the liquid in the tube during
displacement of liquid,
s
m
3
;
V - variation of the liquid volume displaced,
3
m
;
t - time during which V occurred, s ;
- density of the liquid in the tube (density of gas above liquid is negligible),
3
m
kg
;
- dynamic viscosity of the liquid in the tube s Pa * .

Let:
,
2
2
g
L

(4-14)
,
16
2
2
gD
L
(4-15)
.
2
1
g
K
p
(4-16)
where,
- characteristic time of the system, s ;
- damping factor, dimensionless value;

p
K
- steady state, or static, or simply gain of the system,
kg
s m
2 2
*
.
Substitute (4-14)-(4-16) into (4-13) and use variables in deviation form:
'. '
'
2
'
2
2
2
P K h
dt
dh
dt
h d
p
+ + (4-17)
Apply Laplace transform to (4-17):
{ } ' '
'
2
'
2
2
2
P K L h
dt
dh
dt
h d
L
p

'
+ +
(4-18)
s
P
K s h s h s s h s
p
'
) ( ' ) ( ' 2 ) ( '
2 2

+ + (4-19)
s
P
K s h s s
p
'
) ( ' ] 1 2 [
2 2

+ + (4-20)
) 1 2 (
'
) ( '
2 2
+ +
s s s
P K
s h
p

(4-21)
1. At = 1 we have a critically damped response .
) 1 2 (
'
) ( '
2 2
+ +
s s s
P K
s h
p

, (4-22) .
) 1 (
'
) ( '
2
+
s s
P K
s h
p
(4-23)
Use inverse Laplace transform:
] 1 [ ' ) ( '
/
t
p
e
t
K P t h

+
, (4-24) ] 1 [ ' ) ( '
/
t
p
e
t
K P t h

+
(4-25)
Let,
Pa P , 20000 '
- value of step change in measuring pressure of the manometer;
m L , 1
- length of mercury in the tube of the manometer;
3
, 61 . 13533
m
kg
- density of the liquid (mercury) in the manometer;
2
, 80665 . 9
s
m
g - standard gravitational acceleration.
Then,
s , 2258 . 0
, and
kg
s m
K
p
2 2
6
*
, 10 * 767 . 3

Finally, weve got an expression for a critically damped response:
1
1
]
1
2258 . 0
2258 . 0
2258 . 0
1 * 0753 . 0 ) ( '
t
e
t
t h
. (4-26)
Critically Damped Response of 'U'-tube Manometer
0.000
0.015
0.030
0.045
0.060
0.075
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Time, s
M
e
r
c
u
r
y

l
e
v
e
l

(
i
n

d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
m
)
,

m
damp. = 1
Figure 4.4. Critically damped response for a U-tube manometer.
2. At < 1 we have an underdamped response .
1
1
]
1
) sin(
1
1
1 ' ) ( '
2

t e K P t h
t
p
, (4-27)
radian frequency of oscillations:
s
rad
,
1
2

, (4-28)
1
1
]
1
2
1
1
tan
; (4-29)
period of oscillation:
s
f
T ,
1
2 2 1
2

. (4-30)
Underdamped Response of "U"-tube Manometer
0.000
0.025
0.050
0.075
0.100
0.125
0.150
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Time, s
M
e
r
c
u
r
y

l
e
v
e
l

(
i
n

d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
m
)
,

m
damp. = 0.10
damp. = 0.26
Figure 4.5. Underdamped response of a U-tube manometer
For
0
a second-order system is free of any damping, and it will oscillate continuously with a
constant amplitude and a natural frequency,
natural frequency of oscillations:
s
rad
L
g
n
,
2 1

; (4-31)
natural period of oscillations:
s
g
L
T
n
,
2
2 2
(4-32)
3. At > 1 we have an overdamped response .
1
1
]
1
,
_
t t
e K P t h
t
p
1 sinh *
1
1 cosh 1 ' ) ( '
2
2
2
, (4-33)
2
) sinh(

e e
, (4-34), and
2
) cosh(

e e
(4-35)
Overdamped Response of "U"-tube Manometer
0.000
0.015
0.030
0.045
0.060
0.075
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, s
M
e
r
c
u
r
y

l
e
v
e
l

(
i
n

d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
m
)
,

m
damp. = 4
damp. = 6
Figure 4.6. Overdamped response of a U-tube manometer.
4.3. Bourdon and diaphragm gages
4.3.1. Bourdon gauge
The most widely used in industry for pressure and vacuum measurements (from 20 kPa to 1000
MPa) is a pressure gauge with sensitive element made of a metallic (various stainless-steel alloys,
phosphor bronze, brass, beryllium copper, Monel, etc.) Bourdon tube 1 (see Figure 4.7). The
tube was named after its inventor, E. Bourdon, who patented his invention in 1852. This tube has
an elliptical or oval cross-section A A and has the shape of a bended tube. When the pressure
inside the tube 1 increases, its cross-section dimension
1
b also increases by the value of
1
b ,
whereas the cross-section dimension a
1
reduces its length by the value of
1
a . Therefore, the
tube tends to straighten (if pressure has increased) or twist (if pressure has decreased, for
example, during vacuum measurements), and the tip 2 of the tube moves linearly with applied
pressure. The movement of the tip is transmitted to the pointer 3 through a mechanism 4. The
tube tends to return to its original shape (the pointer returns to the starting position) after pressure
is removed. A relationship between the value of the tip movement x and the measured pressure
is linear, so the scale of this pressure gauge is uniform.
P
2
1
3
4
a
1
a
1
- a
1
b
1
A - A
A
A
b
1
+ b
1
Figure 4.7. Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Some degree of hysteresis still exists during operation of these pressure gages, because metals
cannot fully restore their initial elastic properties. If we have two Bourdon tubes made of the
same metal, the tube with a bigger radius and a smaller thickness of the wall will have higher
sensitivity. An accuracy of a typical Bourdon-tube pressure gauge is equal to t 1%, whereas a
specially designed gauge may have better accuracy which varies from t 0.25 to t 0.5%.
4.3.2. Diaphragm gauge
Another type of pressure gauge, which utilises elastic-element properties, is a diaphragm
pressure gauge. These gages are used when very small pressures (from 125 Pa to 25 kPa) are to
be sensed. Fig. 4.8 shows a sensitive element for this type of pressure gauge.
P
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 4.8. Sensitive element of a diaphragm pressure gauge.
A flexible disc 1 made of trumpet brass, or phosphor bronze, or beryllium copper, or titanium, or
tantalum, etc., is used to convert the measuring pressure to the deflection of the diaphragm.
Deflection vs pressure characteristic should be close to linear as much as possible. In reality for a
flat diaphragm this characteristic is non-linear. So, flat membranes are not used as sensitive
elements. To linearise this relationship special diaphragms with concentric corrugations 6 are
designed. Linearisation of a static characteristic of the membrane can be achieved by using a flat
spring 2, which is connected, to the diaphragm through the mechanism 3. The movement of the
mechanism 3 is transmitted by the link 4 to a pointer of the gauge. The measuring pressure is
supplied to the pressure chamber 5 and causes the diaphragm to move upwards until the force
developed by this pressure on the diaphragm is balanced by the force acted from the spring. To
increase the sensitivity of this type of pressure gauge, we may increase the diameter of the
diaphragm, to lengthen the spring, to change the material of the diaphragm and the spring to
more elastic, to increase the depth and the number of corrugations of the diaphragm.
When pressure is applied to both sides of the membrane, then the resultant reading is
proportional to the differential pressure. The space above the diaphragm is connected to
atmosphere, so the diaphragm separates a measured media from the environment. In other words,
it serves as a fluid or gas barrier or as a seal assembly, thus preventing contact of corrosive and
aggressive fluids with pressure elements.
Accuracy of diaphragm pressure gages varies from t 1.0 to t 1.5% of the span.
4.3.3. Bellows pressure gauge
These pressure sensitive elements are usually made of stainless steel; phosphor bronze, brass and
are used for pressure measurements for pressures up to 6 MPa. Bellows sensors have large
displacement sensitivity. Figure 4.9 shows this type of sensor.
2R
2
2R
1
P
a
r

Figure 4.9. Bellows pressure sensitive element.

The effective area of a bellows can be calculated using the following formula:
4
) (
2
2 1
R R
A
ef
+

, (4.36)
When pressure is applied to the internal surface of a bellows the force is developed according the
formula:
ef ef
PA F
. (4.37)
Lets now develop a differential equation for bellows pressure sensor.
At steady state condition when 0 t a displacement of the sealed end of the bellows is
equal to:
s
t
x x x
) 0 (
0
. (4.38)
0
0

t
dt
dx
, (4.39)
0
0
2
2
t
dt
x d
. (4.40)
These are initial conditions. The initial force is balanced by the spring force according to:
s ef s s ef
kx A P F
,
(4.41)
Let pressure has suddenly increased by the value of P.
Resultant force = mass * acceleration
dt
x d
m
dt
dx
kx F
ef
2

, (4.42)
or
ef
PA kx
dt
dx
dt
x d
m + +
2
. (4.43)
By subtracting (4.41) from (4.43) we get equation with variables in deviation form:
ef s ef s
A P PA kx kx
dt
dx
dt
x d
m + + ) (
2
, (4.44)
or
ef s s
s s
A P P x x k
dt
x x d
dt
x x d
m ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
+
, (4.45)
or
ef
A P kx
dt
dx
dt
x d
m ' '
' '
2
2
+ + . (4.46)
Finally, we get a second order linear differential equation with variables in deviation form:
ef
A P
k
x
dt
dx
k dt
x d
k
m
'
1
'
' '
2
2
+ +

. (4.47)
After introduction of the following parameters:
undamped natural frequency
s
rad
m
k
n
, , (4.48)
damping ratio
km 2

, (4.49)
and a steady-state gain
s
s
ef
P
x
k
A
K (4.50)
the equation (4.47) can be re-written as follows:
' '
' 2 ' 1
2
2
2
KP x
dt
dx
dt
x d
n n
+ +
. (4.51)
Now we apply the Laplace transform:
{ } ' '
' 2 ' 1
2
2
2
KP L x
dt
dx
dt
x d
L
n n

'
+ +
. (4.52)
Using initial conditions (4-38) and (4-39) we can get:
) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( '
2
) ( '
1
2
2
s P K s x s x s s x s
n
n
+ +
, (4.53)
or
) ( ' ) ( ' * 1
2 1
2
2
s P K s x s s
n
n

,
_
+ +
. (4.54)
Now we can get a transfer function for bellows:
1
2 1
) ( '
) ( '
) (
2
2
+ +

s s
K
s P
s x
s G
n
n

, (4.55)
where,
ef
A - effective area of bellows,
2
m
;
ef
F - effective force due to pressure,
N
;
k - bellows stiffness (or spring factor),
m
N
;
m
- mass of bellows,
kg
;
1
R - small characteristic radius of bellows, m;
2
R - big characteristic radius of bellows, m;
t - time, s ;
x - displacement of the sealed end of bellows, m;
- constant (friction coefficient) for bellows,
m
s N *
.
1. At = 1 we have a critically damped response .
( ) ) 1 ( 1 ' ) ( ' t e K P t x
n
t
n
+

. (4.56)
2. At < 1 we have underdamped response .
1
1
]
1
,
_
+

t t e K P t x
n n
t
n
) 1 ( sin *
) 1 (
) 1 ( cos 1 ' ) ( '
2
2
2

. (4.57)
3. At > 1 we have overdamped response .
1
1
]
1
,
_
+

t t e K P t x
n n
t
n
) 1 ( sinh *
) 1 (
) 1 ( cosh 1 ' ) ( '
2
2
2

. (4.58)
A numerical example will help us to better understand various types of responses.
Let:
.
*
, 10
; , 1 . 0 , 100
; , 1000
; , 6000 , 6 '
; , 001 . 0 , 10
2 2
m
s N
kg g m
m
N
k
Pa kPa P
m cm A
ef
Using the above data we can evaluate:

; , 10
1000
001 . 0
6
N
m
k
A
K
ef
; , 100
1 . 0
1000
s
rad
m
k
n

5 . 0
1 . 0 * 1000 2
10
2

km
;
mm m K P , 6 , 006 . 0 10 * 6000 '
6

.
Figure 4.10 shows various types of responses of bellows pressure sensor.
Dynamic Response of Bellows Pressure Sensor
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.010
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
X
D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
damp. = 1
damp. = 0.5
damp. = 1.5
damp. = 0.2
Figure 4.10. Dynamic responses of bellows pressure sensor.
4.4. Dead-weight pressure gages
These are the most accurate pressure gages, so they are used mostly for calibration of other
pressure gages or for measurements, when high accuracy is required (for scientific purposes).
The accuracy achieved may vary from t 0.01 to t 0.02% of the measuring pressure (these
instruments are used for calibration of dead-weight pressure gages), those with the accuracy of
t 0.05% are used for calibration of other types of pressure gages. The range of measured
pressures varies from 0.1 to 250 MPa. Figure 4.11 shows a schematic of a dead-weight pressure
gauge.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
9
Figure 4.11. Dead-weight pressure gauge.
A cylindrical piston 1 is placed inside a stainless-steel cylinder 2. The measuring pressure is
supplied through the vent 8 to the fluid 4 of this gauge. To avoid contact of a measured media
with the fluid in the gauge, U-shape separating tubes (made of stainless steel with a thick wall)
are used. These tubes are filled by one half of their volume with mercury. The measuring
pressure spreads throughout the fluid in the dead-weight gauge system. Transformer mineral oil
and castor oil are used for measurements of low (up to 6 MPa) and high (up to 250 MPa)
pressures, respectively. The measuring pressure by acting on the piston develops a force, which
tends to bring the piston upwards. The gravitational force developed by calibrated weights 3 can
balance this force and the piston itself. This force acts downwards. The balance should be
achieved for a certain position of the piston against a pointer 9 of the stainless-steel cylinder. A
manual piston pump 5 is used to achieve approximate force balance (to increase pressure in the
system), whereas a wheel-type piston pump 6 serves for accurate balancing. A Bourdon-type
pressure gauge 7 is used for visual reading of pressure, but not for pressure measurements in this
case.
Thus measuring pressure can be evaluated using the formula:
( )
p
loc w p
S
g m m
P
+
, (4.59)
where, P - measuring pressure, Pa ;
p
m
- mass of the piston,
kg
;
w
m - mass of calibrated weights,
kg
;
loc
g - local gravitational acceleration,
2
s
m
;
p
S
- cross-section area of the piston,
2
m
.
In reality, this formula is more comprehensive in order to achieve high accuracy. Therefore,
several corrections should be introduced, namely:
the correction for the variation of piston cross-section area with variation of its
temperature;
the correction which takes into account the difference between local
gravitational accelerations of the place where this dead-weight pressure gauge
was calibrated and where it is used for pressure measurements;
the buoyancy-type correction takes into account the weight of the air displaced
by the piston and calibrated weights;
we need to reduce friction of the piston inside the cylinder by spinning the
weight platform with the piston to keep the piston floating;
head of the oil should be constant in every measurement, this corresponds to a
certain position of the piston in the cylinder.
4.5. Piezoelectric pressure transducers
The principle of these pressure transducers is based on the well-known phenomenon, that when
an asymmetrical crystal is elastically deformed along its specific axes, an electrical charge is
developed on its sides. The value of this charge is proportional to the force applied to the crystal,
and, therefore, to the pressure under measurement.
Fig. 4.12 shows piezoelectric crystal circuit. An electrical charge developed on the sides of the
crystal is converted into a voltage-type signal using a capacitor. This voltage is proportional to
the electrical charge developed, and to the pressure to be measured. Piezoelectric sensors cannot
measure static pressures for more than a few seconds, but they have a very quick response when
measure dynamic pressures.
+
-
+
-
R
C
P
U
Q
Figure 4.12. Piezoelectric pressure sensor with electrical circuit.
Synthetically developed quartz crystals (barium titanate, lead zirconate) have similar properties
as natural single crystal (quartz). But natural quartz still is the perfect material for manufacturing
piezoelectric sensitive elements, because it has perfect elasticity and stability, it is insensitive to
temperature variations and it has high insulation resistance.
These pressure transducers are used for measurements of hydraulic and pneumatic pulsations,
flow instabilities, fuel injection, etc.
Lets develop a differential equation for this sensor.
k
PA
F
k
x
x
x

1
; (4-60) P K P
k
bA
bx q
x
x
piez
. (4-61)
The dynamic behaviour of a piezoelectric element is analysed from mechanical and electrical
points of view.
x
PA kx
dt
dx
dt
x d
m + +
2
2
, (4-62), or using
b
q
x
piez
(4-63)
we can get the following second order differential equation:
x piez
piez piez
PA q
b
k
dt
dq
b
dt
q d
b
m
+ +

2
2
, (4-64)
or
P K P
k
bA
q
dt
dq
k
dt
q d
k
m
x
x
piez
piez piez
+ +

2
2
. (4-65)
Finally, we can re-write (4-65) with variables in deviation form as follows:
'
'
'
2
' 2
P K q
dt
dq
k
dt
q d
k
m
x piez
piez piez
+ +

(4-66)
Equation (4-66) is a second order linear differential equation for a piezoelectric sensor with
variables in deviation form.
After applying the Laplace transform to (4-66) we get a transfer function for the piezoelectric
sensor:
1
2 1
) ( '
) (
) (
2
2
'
+ +

s s
K
s P
s q
s G
n
n
x
piez
P q
, (4-67)
x
A - cross-sectional area of the piezoelectric sensor in the direction
perpendicular to axis X,
2
m
;
b
- charge sensitivity of the crystal to its deformation in the direction
perpendicular to axis X,
m
C
;
x
F - effective force due to pressure in the direction of axis X,
N
;
k - stiffness of the crystal is large
m
N
, 10 * 2
9
;
x
K - steady state gain of the crystal, in other words it is the charge sensitivity
of the crystal to applied pressure ,
Pa
C
;
m - mass of the crystal, kg ;
piez
q - electrical charge developed by the crystal,
C
;
P - pressure acting on the surface perpendicular to axis X, Pa ;
t - time, s ;
x - deformation of the crystal in the direction of axis X, m;
- constant (friction coefficient) for the crystal,
m
s N *
.
Solution to equation (4-66) will give us the variation of the electrical charge
piez
q
, developed on
the surfaces of a piezoelement as a function of time for a step change in the input variable
measured pressure, P. Now we should measure this electrical charge. For this purpose two
metal electrodes are attached to the opposite sides of a piezoelectric crystal. Thus, a capacitor is
formed. The value of capacitance of this capacitor can be evaluated as follows:
d
A
C
x
piez

0
, (4-68)
where,
piez
C - electrical capacitance of the piezoelement, F (Farad);
m
pF
, 85 . 8
0
- the permittivity of vacuum, 1pF=10
-12
F;
- the relative permittivity of the material of the piezoelectric crystal,
this is the dimensionless parameter;
x
A - cross-sectional area of the piezoelectric sensor in the direction,
perpendicular to the axis X,
2
m
;
d
- the thickness of the piezoelectric crystal in the direction,
perpendicular to the axis X, m.
The relative permittivity, also called dielectric constant, for various piezoelectric materials is
given below (from Bentley J. P. Principles of Measurement Systems, Longman, 1995, p. 167):
for quartz (natural piezoelectric material) 5 . 4 ;
for tourmaline (natural piezoelectric material) 6 . 6 ;
for lead-zirconate-titanate (man-made piezoelectric ceramic material) 1500 ;
for lead metaniobate (man-made piezoelectric ceramic material) 250 .
It is also noted in the above mentioned reference, that natural piezoelectric materials have very
low charge to force sensitivity, and therefore man-made piezoelectric ceramic materials are used
as sensing elements (from Bentley J. P. Principles of Measurement Systems, Longman, 1995,
p. 167):
charge sensitivity to force for quartz
N
pC
, 3 . 2 ;
charge sensitivity to force for tourmaline
N
pC
, 9 . 1 or
N
pC
, 4 . 2 ;
charge sensitivity to force for lead-zirconate-titanate
N
pC
, 265 ;
charge sensitivity to force for lead metaniobate
N
pC
, 80 .
We need to develop an electrical circuit which will allow us to convert variations of the
capacitance of the piezoelectric sensor into the variation of an easy measurable electrical signal,
voltage, for example. Such equivalent electrical circuit was developed, and is named after Norton
(see Figure 4.13) (see Bentley J. P. Principles of Measurement Systems, Longman, 1995, p.
74):.
+
-
R
load
C
piez
P
C
cable
V
load
1 2 3
I
piez
Figure 4.13. Norton equivalent electrical circuit for piezoelectric pressure/force
measurements. 1- piezoelectric element, 2 connecting cable, 3 recorder.
The piezoelectric element can be represented as a current source (or a charge generator) which is
connected in parallel with a capacitance
piez
C
. Then, this element is connected to a voltage
recorder via connecting cables, which have the capacitance
cable
C . A recorder has a resistive
load,
load
R . The voltage measured across
load
R is equal:
Z I V
piez load
* , (4-69)
where,
load C C
R R R Z
cable piez
1 1 1 1
+ +
- the impedance of three resistances connected in
parallel, . Ohm
According to the definition, the capacitance is equal to the ratio of the charge to the voltage
across the capacitor plates, according to:
V
q
C , (4-70)
Lets consider capacitance
piez
C
:
load
piez
piez
V
q
C , (4-71)
After differentiating both sides of (4.71) we can get:
load
piez piez
V dt
dq
dt
dC
1
* , (4-72) or
load
piez
piez
V
I
dt
d
C , (4-73)
or, according to the Ohms Law,
piez
piez
R dt
d
C
1
. (4-74)
Similar we can get
cable
cable
R dt
d
C
1
. (4-75)
Substitution of (4-74) and (4-75) into (4-69) will give:
s C C R
R
I V
cable piez load
load
piez load
) ( * 1
*
+ +
, (4-76)
where,
dt
d
s - the Laplace operator.
Expressing variables
load
V and
piez
I
in deviation form and applying the Laplace transform to
(4.76) we can get:
s C C R
R
s I s V
cable piez load
load
piez load
) ( * 1
* ) ( ) (
' '
+ +
, (4-77)
The transfer function for the Norton equivalent electrical circuit for piezoelectric pressure/force
measurement system (see Figure 4.13) is as follows:
s C C R
R
s I
s V
s G
cable piez load
load
piez
load
I V
) ( * 1
) (
) (
) (
'
'
+ +

, (4-78)
According to the definition:
dt
dq
I
piez
piez

, (4-79). Expressing these variables in deviation form and applying the
Laplace transform to (4-79) we can get:
s s q s I
piez piez
* ) ( ) (
' '
. (4-80)
The transfer function relating current and charge of the piezoelectric sensor is as follows:
s
s q
s I
s G
piez
piez
q I

) (
) (
) (
'
'
. (4-81)
The transfer function relating the voltage
load
V and the measured pressure P can be determined
as follows:
) ( * ) ( * ) ( ) ( ) ( s G s G s G s G s G
I V q I P q P V overall
. (4-82)
After substitution of (4.67), (4.78) and (4.80) into (4.82) we can get an expression for an overall
transfer function of the piezoelectric pressure/force measurement system:
s C C R
R
s
s s
K
s I
s V
s q
s I
s P
s q
s G
cable piez load
load
n
n
x
piez
load
piez
piez piez
P V
* ) ( * 1
* *
1
2 1
) (
) (
*
) (
) (
*
) ( '
) (
) (
2
2
' '
' '
+ +
+ +
(4.83)
4.6. Capacitance pressure transducers
Fig. 4.14 presents a transducer for sensing and transmitting differential pressure. Pressures to be
measured act on isolating diaphragms 1 and 2 and are transmitted through a silicone oil 3, which
fills the system, to a sensing diaphragm 4. This sensing diaphragm is balanced by two forces
developed by measured pressures and presents the sensitive element. Capacitor plates 5 and 6
detect the position of the sensing diaphragm, which moves to the left or to the right, and, thus,
the differential pressure applied to the sensitive element. The change in electric capacitance is
electronically amplified and converted to the standard electrical analog or digital output signal,
which is directly proportional to the difference of pressures. In order the capacitance transducer
be able to measure comparatively low pressures, the device should produce about 25% change in
capacitance for a full-scale pressure change. These transducers have low mass and high
resolution. However, they are slightly dependent on temperature variation. Newly developed all-
silicon capacitive pressure sensors have better thermal stability.
1 2
4
5
6
3
P
2
P
1
Figure 4.14. Variable capacitance differential pressure transducer.
Variable separation capacitance sensors have non-linear relationship between electrical
capacitance and the movement of the separating membrane according to the formula:
a d
A
C
+

0
, (4-84)
where,
C - the electrical capacitance of the pressure sensor, F (Farad);
m
pF
, 85 . 8
0
- the permittivity of vacuum, 1pF=10
-12
F;
- the relative permittivity of the insulating material between plates of
the capacitor, this is the dimensionless parameter;
A - the cross-sectional area of the capacitor plate,
2
m
;
d
- the distance between the capacitor plates, m;
a - variation of the distance between the capacitor plates, m.
A three-plate differential version of the capacitive pressure sensor doesnt have such
disadvantage (see Figure 4.15).
Two fixed plates form two capacitances with the moving separating plate/membrane as follows:
a d
A
C
+

0
1
, (4-85) and
a d
A
C

0
2
. (4-86)
2d
a
d-a
d
d+a
Figure 4.15. Three-plate differential pressure/displacement sensor (from Bentley J. P.
Principles of Measurement Systems, Longman, 1995, p. 143):.
Figure 4.16 shows an a.c. deflection bridge for the detection of variations of capacitances.
V
cd
Z
2
Z
3
a b
d
c
V
ab
Z
4
Z
1
I
1
I
1
I
2
I
2
Figure 4.16. a.c. deflection bridge.
In this bridge:
1
1
1
C j
Z
, (4-87)
2
2
1
C j
Z
, (4-88)
R Z Z
4 3
,(4-89)
where,
1
Z and
2
Z - reactive impedances, Ohm ;
3
Z and
4
Z - resistive impedances, Ohm .
When
0
cd
I
, then
cd
V
is called an open-circuit voltage of the bridge. According to the
Kirchoffs laws we have:
3 1 4 1
Z I Z I V
ab
+
, (4-90)
2 2 1 2
Z I Z I V
ab
+
. (4-91)
Let potential at
0
b
V
, then:
( ) ( )
d
V
a
a d a d
a d
V
a d
A
a d
A
a d
A
V
C C
C
V
R R
R
C j C j
C j
V
Z Z
Z
Z Z
Z
V Z
Z Z
V
Z
Z Z
V
Z I Z I Z I V Z I V V V V
ab
ab ab
ab ab
ab
ab ab
ab ab d c cd
2
*
2
1
1 1
1
*
2
1
*
2
1
*
1 1
1
*
*
0 0
0
2 1
2
2 1
1
4 3
4
2 1
1
4
4 3
1
2 1
4 1 1 2 1 2 4 1
,
_
+
+
,
_
+
+
,
_
,
_
,
_
(4-92)
So, the relationship between
cd
V
and a is linear.

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4.

Instrumentation for pressure measurements

- density of liquid filled the U-tube,

- dynamic viscosity of the liquid in the tube s Pa * .

- damping factor, dimensionless value;

Figure 4.9. Bellows pressure sensitive element.

Using the above data we can evaluate:

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