DRINKING WATER INDUSTRY INTRODUCTION

High quality water is more than the dream of the conservationists, more than a political slogan; high quality water, in the right quantity at the right place at the right time, is essential to health, recreation, and economic growth.
Edmund S. Muskie, U.S. Senator; speech, March 1, 1966

Drinking water can be produced from any natural sources like groundwater, lakes and rivers (surface waters) or seawater. Drinking water standards are set by the World Health organisation or by the European Union. Drinking water must be free of suspended solids, microorganisms and toxic chemicals. Mineral concentration recommendation vary from country to country but most of the minerals have a maximum concentration recommended to ensure safe, equilibrated and pleasant water to drink. For municipal drinking water, a special focus is carried on the corrosivity and scaling potential of the water to maintain distribution piping in good shape. Typical pH 8, TAC 8 and TH 8 are applied, when possible. For bottled water, taste can vary upon calcium, magnesium, sulfate and iron content. Drinking water, like every other substance, contains small amounts of bacteria. Most of these bacteria are common ones and they are generally not harmful. Chlorine is usually added to drinking water to prevent bacterial growth while the water streams through pipelines. This is why drinking water also contains minimal amounts of chlorine. Water mostly consists of minerals and other inorganic compounds, such as calcium. Drinking water can come from different resources. For one, it can be pumped from the ground through wells. This groundwater is than purified, so that it will contain no more contaminants and is suited to drink. Drinking water can also be prepared directly from surface water resources, such as rivers, lakes and streams. Usually surface water has to undergo many more purification steps than groundwater to become suited to drink. Preparing drinking water out of surface water is much more expensive due to this. Still 66% of all people are served by a water system that uses surface water. Part of our drinking water is pumped from the ground, usually under sand dunes. In sand dunes water can also be infiltrated. As it sinks into the ground through the dunes it is naturally purified. This costs much less money than the purification of surface water. Part of our drinking water originates from dune water.

Treating water to make it suitable to drink is much like wastewater treatment. In areas that depend on surface water it is usually stored in a reservoir for several days, in order to improve clarity and taste by allowing more oxygen from the air to dissolve in it and allowing suspended matter to settle out. The water is then pumped to a purification plant through pipelines, where it is treated, so that is will meet government treatment standards. Usually the water runs through sand filters first and sometimes through activated charcoal, before it is disinfected. Disinfection can be done by bacteria or by means of adding substances to remove contaminants from the water. The number of purification steps that are taken depend on the quality of the water that enters the purification plant. In areas with very pure sources of groundwater little treatment is needed. There are several problems that can endanger the quality of drinking water. Someone can detect coliform bacteria in drinking water. Coliform bacteria are a group of microrganisms that are normally found in the intestinal tract of humans and other warmblooded animals, and in surface water. When these organisms are detected in drinking water this suggests contamination from a subsurface source such as barnyard run-off. The presence of these bacteria indicates that disease-causing microrganisms, known as pathogens, may enter the drinking water supply in the same way if one does not take preventive action. Drinking water should be free from coliform. Yeasts and viruses can also endanger the quality of drinking water. They are microbial contaminants that are usually found in surface water. Examples are Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia is a single cell organism that causes gastrointestinal symptoms. Cryptosporidium is a parasite that is considered to be one of the most significant causes of diarrhoeal disease in humans. In individuals with a normal immune system the disease lasts for several days causing diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach cramps and fever. People with weakened immune systems can suffer from far worse symptoms, caused by cryptosporidium, such as cholera-like illnesses. Nitrate in drinking water can cause cyanosis, a reduction of the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. This is particularly dangerous to infants under six months of age. Lead can enter the water supply as it leaches from copper pipelines. As the water streams through the pipes, small amounts of lead will dissolve in the water, so that it becomes contaminated. Lead is a toxic substance that can be quickly absorbed in the human systems, particularly those of small children. It causes lead poisoning. Legionella is a bacterium that grows rapidly when water is maintained at a temperature between 30 and 40 degrees for a longer period of time. This bacterium can be inhaled when water evaporates as it enters the human body with aerosols. The bacteria can cause a sort of flue, known as Pontiac fever, but it can also cause the more serious deathly illness known as legionellosis. All countries have their own legal drinking water standards. These prescribe which substances can be in drinking water and what the maximum amounts of these

substances are. The standards are called maximum contaminant levels. They are formulated for any contaminant that may have adverse effects on human health and each company that prepares drinking water has to follow them up. If water will be purified to make it suitable to drink it will be tested for a number of dangerous pollutants, in order to establish the present concentrations. After that, one can determine how much of the contaminants have to be removed and if necessary purification steps can be progressed. Many people worry about getting sick from tap water, because of articles on the news and in the papers, for instance about Legionella outbreaks. They may either drink bottled water or install expensive water purification systems as a result of this. However, studies have indicated that many of these consumers are being ripped off due to the expenses of bottled water and in some cases they may end up drinking water that is dirtier then they can get from their taps. To be safe, consumers that buy bottled water should determine wheather the company that supplies them with water belongs to the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) and lives up to the testing requirements of drinking water. The IBWA sends inspectors to its companies annually, to ensure that a plant produces safe drinking water. People can also spare themselves the costs of bottled water and have their tap water tested by local health authorities or private labs. If any contaminants are discovered they can buy a unit that removes the contaminant in concern, but for most households this is not necessary because their tap water is safe enough.

ADVANTAGES OF DRINKING WATER

1. Lose weight: Drinking water helps you lose weight because it flushes down the by-

products of fat breakdown. Drinking water reduces hunger, its an effective appetite suppressant so youll eat less. Plus, water has zero calories.
2. Natural Remedy for Headache: Helps to relieve headache and back pains due to

dehydration. Although many reasons contribute to headache, dehydration is the common one.
3. Look Younger with Healthier Skin: Youll look younger when your skin is

properly hydrated. Water helps to replenish skin tissues, moisturizes skin and increases skin elasticity.
4. Better Productivity at Work: Your brain is mostly made up of water, thus drinking

water helps you think better, be more alert and more concentrated.
5. Better Exercise: Drinking water regulates your body temperature. That means youll

feel more energetic when doing exercises. Water also helps to fuel your muscle.

6. Helps in Digestion and Constipation: Drinking water raises your metabolism

because it helps in digestion. Fiber and water goes hand in hand so that you can have your daily bowel movement.
7. Less Cramps and Sprains: Proper hydration helps keep your joints and muscles

lubricated, so youll less likely get cramps and sprains.

8. Less Likely to Get Sick and Feel Healthy: Drinking plenty of water helps fight

against flu and other ailments like kidney stones and heart attack. Water adds with lemon is used for ailments like respiratory disease, intestinal problems, rheumatism and arthritis etc. In another words one of the benefits of drinking water is that it can improve your immune system.
9. Relieves Fatigue: Water is used by the body to help flush out toxins and waste

products from the body. If your body lacks water, your heart, for instance, needs to work harder to pump out the oxygenated blood to all cells, so are the rest of the vital organs, your organs will be exhausted and so will you.
10. Good Mood: Your body feels very good and thats why you feel happy. 11. Reduce the Risk of Cancer: Related to the digestive system, some studies show that

drinking a healthy amount of water may reduce the risks of bladder cancer and colon cancer. Water dilutes the concentration of cancer-causing agents in the urine and shortens the time in which they are in contact with bladder lining.

MATERIALS DISSOLVED IN WATER Inorganic Compounds - Compounds that typically do not contain the element Carbon. They can become dissolved in water from natural sources or as the result of human activity. 1 Dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, radon, methane, hydrogen sulfide, . etc.) - no appreciable health effects, except for hydrogen sulfide and dissolved radioactive gases like radon. Both methane and hydrogen sulfide can be inflammable. Carbon dioxide dissolved in water creates carbonic acid - a weak acid that gives carbonated water its "bite" and plays an important role in the weathering of limestone and other carbonate rocks. Caverns are a product of eons of erosion by carbonic acid laced water. 2 Metal and metalloid positive ions - (aluminum, arsenic {MCL=0.05}, lead

. {MCL=0.015}, mercury {MCL=0.002}, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, zinc, copper {MCL=1.3}, etc.) Some of these ions (lead, mercury, and arsenic) are dangerous at extremely low concentrations and can be introduced into drinking water either though natural processes or as a result of human activity. Other ions in this group (for example, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium) are essential to human health - in the correct amounts. Calcium and magnesium are interesting ions. Although their presence in drinking water is actually a health benefit, they are the prime culprits in most hard water, and are considered undesirable contaminants by those who must live with scaly deposits of calcium carbonate on their faucets (and in their pipes and water heaters) or who can not get their soap to lather. 3 Negative ions - (fluoride {MCL=4.0}, chloride, nitrate {MCL=10.0}, nitrite . {MCL=1.0}, phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, cyanide {MCL=0.2}) As with the positive ions, some of these negative ions are necessary to life in proper concentrations (chloride and carbonate), others can be dangerous to health at moderate concentrations (nitrates and nitrites - look at the ingredients in the next slice of ham, bacon, or hot dog you eat), and others are dangerous at even small concentrations (cyanide). Some, like fluoride, have raised quite a controversy over its safety as an additive (in many areas) to drinking water in an effort to lessen tooth decay, particularly in children. 4 Radon - Radon is a radioactive gas which comes from the natural breakdown . (radioactive decay) of radium, which is itself a decay product of uranium. The primary source of radon in homes is from the underlying soil and bedrock. However, an additional source could be the water supply, particularly if the house is served by a private well or a small community water system. Organic Compounds - These compounds all contain the element Carbon. Although there are many exceptions, naturally occurring organic compounds (sugars, proteins, alcohol's, etc.) are synthesized in the cells of living organisms, or like raw petroleum and coal, formed by natural processes acting on the organic chemicals of once living organisms. 1. Synthetic Organic Chemicals - Organic chemicals can also be synthesized in laboratories and by chemical companies. A growing number of these synthetic organic compounds are being produced. They can include pesticides used in agriculture, plastics, synthetic fabrics, dyes, gasoline additives like MTBE, solvents like carbon tetrachloride {MCL=0.005}, and many other chemicals. Many synthetic organic chemicals, like benzene {MCL=0.005} carbon tetrachloride, and vinyl chloride {MCL=0.002}, vaporize easily in air and are grouped under the category of volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is a common synthetic organic chemical used for a number of years as a gasoline additive. In January 2000 it received national notariety on

CBS' 60 Minutes because of its ability to contaminate water supplies after leaking from storage tanks. The potential for water contamination by synthetic organic chemicals can be understood by the fact that Denver Water (the company that supplies municipal water to much of the metro Denver area) tests for 54 VOCs (21 with MCLs established by the EPA), 73 different pesticides (23 with MCLs), 25 different chemicals classified as synthetic organic compounds (5 with MCLs), and 7 as non-specific organics. Nearly all of these chemicals tested below the levels of detectability. It somewhat disconcerting to realize that Denver water tests for only 150 or so of the thousands of the synthetic organic chemicals manufactured, and the EPA has established MCLs for even fewer. These are not nice chemicals to have in your water, many of them are presumed to increase the risk of various cancers in humans, often after many years of low-level exposure, others may affect the nervous system. Some researchers are reporting that yet other synthetic chemicals can cause hormonal disruptions. Most laboratory tests of the effects of these chemicals are done using a single chemical, but there may be several organic contaminants together in a water source. 2 Trihalomethanes {MCL=0.1} There is a class of organic compounds that is important . because their formation and presence in drinking water is a direct result of the most common and economical process used to kill harmful pathogens, chlorination. This chemical group is the trihalomethanes (THMs). THMs are formed when the chlorine that is added to the water interacts with organic material also in the water, like leaf fragments, etc. The level of THMs in water is usually greater in water systems where surface water is the source, and levels typically vary seasonally with the organic content of the source water supply. Chloroform is usually the most common THM, and in Denver for instance, it varies from about 10 micrograms per liter in the winter to about 50 micrograms per liter in the summer with an average around 20-25 micrograms per liter. These levels are well below the EPA's Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 100 micrograms per liter, even drinking water with THM levels below 100 microgram per liter over a 40-50 year period might increase the risk of certain cancers. Evidence has also been reported that disinfection byproducts can cause adverse reproductive outcomes.

The graph above was created using published data from the The Santa Clara Valley Water District's Water Quality Laboratory reports for an eight month period in 1997. THMs were reported and graphed here as milligrams per liter. The red line on the graph is the EPA MCL level of 0.10 milligram or 100 micrograms per liter. The intent here is not to imply that the water from this particular water treatment facility is bad, unsafe, or any worse than water from other facilities that chloronate surface water, in fact, like Denver Water, they produce a quatity product. Though, that it is important to understand that a fairly large percentage of people in the United States and in other countries that chlorinate their water are drinking small quantities of chloroform and related substances on an ongoing basis. DRINKING WATER STANDARDS EU's ( The European Union ) drinking water standards Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intented for human consumption. Adopted by the Council, on 3 November 1998: Chemical parameters Parameter Acrylamide Antimony Symbol/formula C3H5NO Sb Parametric value (mg/l) 0.0001 0.005

Arsenic Benzene Benzo(a)pyrene Boron Bromate Cadmium Chromium Copper Cyanide 1,2-dichloroethane Epichlorohydrin Fluoride Lead Mercury Nickel Nitrate Nitrite Pesticides Pesticides - Total PAHs Selenium

As C6H6 C20H12 B Br Cd Cr Cu CN = Cl CH2 CH2 Cl C3H5OCl F Pb Hg Ni NO3 NO2

0.01 0.001 0.00001 1.00 0.01 0.005 0.05 2.0 0.05 0.003 0.0001 1.5 0.01 0.001 0.02 50 0.50 0.0001 0.0005

C2 H3 N1 O5 P1 3 Se

0.0001 0.01 0.01 0.1

Tetrachloroethene and C2Cl4/C2HCl3 trichloroethene Trihalomethanes Total

Vinyl chloride

C2H3Cl

0.0005

Indicator parameters Parameter Aluminium Ammonium Chloride Clostridium perfringens (including spores) Colour Conductivity Hydrogen ion concentration Iron Manganese Odour Oxidisability Sulfate Sodium Taste Colony count 22o Coliform bacteria Total organic carbon (TOC) SO4 Na [H+] Fe Mn Symbol/ formula Al NH4 Cl Parametric value 0.2 mg/l 0.50 mg/l 250 mg/l 0/100 ml Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change 2500 S/cm @ 20oC 6.5 and 9.5 0.2 mg/l 0.05 mg/l Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change 5.0 mg/l O2 250 mg/l 200 mg/l Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change No abnormal change 0/100 ml No abnormal change

Turbidity Tritium Total indicative dose H3

Acceptable to consumers and no abnormal change 100 Bq/l 0.10 mSv/year

Microbiological parameters Parameter Escherichia coli (E. coli) Enterococci Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colony count 22oC Colony count 37oC Parametric value 0 in 250 ml 0 in 250 ml 0 in 250 ml 100/ml 20/ml

DRINKING WATER TREATMENT METHODS 1. REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) Osmosis is based upon the fundamental pursuit for balance. Two fluids containing different concentrations of dissolved solids that come in contact with each other will mix until the concentration is uniform. When these two fluids are separated by a semi permeable membrane (which lets the fluid flow through, while dissolved solids stay behind), the fluid containing the lower concentration will move through the membrane into the fluid containing the higher concentration of dissolved solids. After a while the water level will be higher on one side of the membrane. The difference in height is called the osmotic pressure. By applying a pressure that exceeds the osmotic pressure, the reverse effect occurs. Fluids are pressed back through the membrane, while dissolved solids stay behind. To purify water by Reverse Osmosis membrane, the natural osmosis effect must

be reversed. In order to force the water of the brine stream (high salt concentration) to flow towards the fresh stream (low salt concentration), the water must be pressurized at an operating pressure greater than the osmotic pressure. As a result, the brine side will get more concentrated. The operating pressure of seawater is around 60 bar.

1. Water flows from a column with a low dissolved solids content to a column with a high dissolved solids content 2. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that is used to stop the water from flowing through the membrane, in order to create balance 3. By pursuing pressure that exceeds the osmotic pressure, the water flow will be reversed; water flows from the column with a high dissolved solids content to the column with a low dissolved solids content

The advantages of Reverse Osmosis include: Reverse osmosis significantly reduces salt, most other inorganic material present

in the water, and some organic compounds. With a quality carbon filter to remove any organic materials that get through the filter, the purity of the treated water approaches that produced by distillation. Microscopic parasites (including viruses) are usually removed by properly functioning RO units, but any defect in the membrane would allow these organisms to flow undetected into the "filtered" water - they are not recommended for use on biologically unsafe water. Though slower than a carbon or sediment water filter, RO systems can typically purify more water per day than distillers and are less expensive to operate and maintain. Reverse Osmosis systems also do not use electricity, although because they require relatively high water pressure to operate, they may not work well in some emergency situations. The disadvantages of Reverse Osmosis include: Point of Use RO units make only a few gallons of treated water a day for drinking or cooking. RO systems waste water. Two to four gallons of "waste" water are flushed down the drain for each gallon of filtered water produced. Some pesticides, solvents and other volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) are not completely removed by RO. A good activated carbon post filter is recommended to reduce these contaminants. Many conditions affect the RO membrane's efficiency in reducing the amount of contaminant in the water. These include the contaminant concentration, chemical properties of the contaminants, the membrane type and condition, and operating conditions (like pH, water temperature, and water pressure). Although RO filters do not use electricity, they depend on a relatively high water pressure to force the water molecules through the membrane. In an emergency situation where water pressure has been lost, these systems will not function. * However, if a high quality activated carbon filter is used for the post filter, it could probably be disconnected and used to siphon water through in an emergency to reduce many contaminants. RO systems require maintenance. The pre and post filters and the reverse osmosis membranes must be changed according to the manufacturer's recommendation, and the storage tank must be cleaned periodically. Damaged membranes are not easily detected, so it is hard to tell if the system is functioning normally and safely.

2. FILTRATION A. Sand Filtration Sand filtration is a frequently used very robust method to remove suspended solids from water. The filtration medium consists of a multiple layer of sand with a variety in size and specific gravity. A sand filter has a dirt holding capacity of 3 to 6 kg TSS / m2 of sand surface.

When the filters are loaded with particles, the flow direction is reversed and the flow is to ean the increased t clean the filter again. This step is called a backwash. Applications for sand filtration:
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.

Preparation of cooling water Treatment of waste water Production of drinking water Filtration in swimming pools Pre filtration for membrane systems Filtration of grey or surface water Removal of iron

Diagram for Sand Filtration

B. Absorption / Activated Carbon Adsorption is a process where a solid is used for removing a soluble substance from the water. In this process active carbon is the solid. Activated carbon is produced specifically so as to achieve a very big internal surface (between 500 - 1500 m2/g). This big internal surface makes active carbon ideal for adsorption. Active carbon comes in two variations: Powder Activated Carbon (PAC) and Granular Activated Carbon (GAC). The GAC version is mostly used in water treatment, it can adsorb the following soluble substances: Datasheet Active Carbon

Adsorption of organic, non-polar substances such as: o Mineral oil o BTEX o Poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PACs) o (Chloride) phenol Adsorption of halogenated substance: I, Br, Cl, H en F Odor Taste Yeasts Various fermentation products Non-polar substances (Substances which are non soluble in water)

Examples from active carbon in different processes:

Ground water purification The de-chlorination of process water Water purification for swimming pools The polishing of treated effluent

Water is pumped in a column which contains active carbon, this water leaves the column through a draining system. The activity of an active carbon column depends on the temperature and the nature of the substances. Water goes through the column constantly, which gives an accumulation of substances in the filter. For that reason the filter needs to be replace periodically. A used filter can be regenerated in different ways, granular carbon can be regenerated easily by oxidizing the organic matter. The efficiency of the active carbon decreases by 5 - 10% 1). A small part of the active carbon is destroyed during the regeneration process and must be replaced. If you work with different columns

in series, you can assure that you will not have a total exhaustion of your purification system. Molecules from gas or liquid phase will be attached in a physical way to a surface, in this case the surface is from the active carbon. The adsorption process takes place in three steps:

Macro transport: The movement of organic material through the macro-pore system of the active carbon (macro-pore >50nm) Micro transport: The movement of organic material through the meso-pore and micro-pore system of the active carbon (micro-pore <2nm; meso-pore 2-50nm) Sorption: The physical attachment of organic material on the surface of active carbon in the meso-pores and micro-pores of the active carbon

The activity level of adsorption is based on the concentration of substance in the water, the temperature and the polarity of the substance. A polar substance (= a substance which is good soluble in water) cannot or is badly removed by active carbon, a non-polar substance can be removed totally by active carbon. Every kind of carbon has its own adsorption isotherm (see figure 1) and in the water treatment business this isotherm is definite by the function of Freundlich.

The function of Freundlich: x/m = adsorbed substance per gram active carbon Ce = concentration difference (between before and after) Kf, n = specific constants The second curve from active carbon (see figure 2) shows the exhausting of a filter. Normally we place a UV-disinfections unit after the active carbon column. When a substance is attached to a surface is is called adsorption, is this case the substance is attached to the internal surface of active carbon. When a substance is absorbed in a different medium it is called absorption. When a gas is taken in a solution it is called absorption. AC is made of tiny clusters of carbon atoms stacked upon one another. The carbon source is a variety of materials, such as peanut shells, coconut husks, or coal. The raw carbon source is slowly heated in the absence of air to produce a high carbon material. The carbon is activated by passing oxidizing gases through the material at extremely high temperatures. The activation process produces the pores that result in such high adsorptive properties.

Figure 1 gives a specific adsorption isotherm for active carbon. On the horizontal axis you can find the concentration and on the vertical axis you can find the necessary quantity of carbon. You can use this kind of figures to optimize you column.

Figure 2 tells about the exhaustion during usage of you column. Point C3 the column starts to break trough and near C4 your column is not purifying anymore. Between point C3 and C4 you need to regenerate you column.

Factors that influence the performance of active carbon in water:

The type of compound to be removed. Compounds with high molecular weight and low solubility are better absorbed. The concentration of the compound to be removed. The higher the concentration, the higher the carbon consumption. Presence of other organic compounds which will compete for the available adsorption sites. The pH of the waste stream. For example, acidic compounds are better removed at lower pH.

According to this we can classify some chemicals by their probability of being efficiently adsorbed by active carbon in water: 1. Chemicals with very high probability of being adsorbed by active carbon: 2,4-D Alachlor Aldrin Deisopropyltatrazine Desethylatrazine Demeton-O Linuron Malathion MCPA

C. IRON AND MANGANESE REMOVAL Iron and manganese are unaesthetic parameters present mostly in groundwater, causing unwanted precipitation and color. Iron removal Iron removal is based on the precipitation of dissolved iron (Fe2+) into its oxidized form (Fe3+), as Fe(OH)3 or Fe2O3. Iron removal by physical-chemical way consists in iron oxidation by air followed by sand filtration, but other techniques exist as well: Oxidation + sand filtration (physical chemical way) Oxidation + sand filtration + MnO2 filter Oxidation + green sand For water with pH > 7, low redox potential, low iron content (< 3mg/L) For higher iron content and/or manganese More efficient than sand filtration but required KMnO4 regeneration For acidic water with low redox potential, the limestone contactor increases aggressive water pH by binding CO2 Recommended for continuous process with low iron content. Not pH dependent

Oxidation + Limestone contactor

Ion exchange

Oxidation can be carried out by various chemicals like chlorine, ozone but is mostly done by compressed air. Complex bound iron and manganese, e.g. complex bound with humic acids, can be very difficult to remove. In this case oxidation with ozone can be a solution. Manganese removal For manganese removal only, Manganese dioxide (MnO2) is used as an adsorbent according to the following reaction: Mn + MnO2 (s) --> 2 MnO (s) Manganese oxides are then adsorbed on MnO2 grains. When all MnO2 has been consumed, it can be regenerated by sodium hypochlorite. Manganese removal by physical-chemical way (aeration and sand filtration) can also be

used but manganese oxidation kinetics are too slow at pH< 9.

Iron removal plant flow diagram D. SEDIMENT FITERS Solid Particles are Strained Out of the Water. i. Fiber Filters: These filters contain cellulose, rayon or some other material spun into a mesh with small pores. Suspended sediment (or turbidity) is removed as water pressure forces water through tightly wrapped fibers. Some small organic particles that cause disagreeable odors and taste may also be removed. These filters come in a variety of sizes and meshes from fine to coarse, with the lower micron rating being the finer. The finer the filter, the more particles are trapped and the more often the filter must be changed. Fiber filters are often used as pre-filters to reduce the suspended contaminants that could clog carbon or RO filters. Fiber filters will not remove contaminants that are dissolved in the water, like chlorine, lead, mercury, trihalomethanes or other organic compounds. ii. Ceramic Filters: Ceramic filters are much like fiber filters and use a process where water is forced through the pores of a ceramic filtration media. This provides mechanical filtration only. This type of filter can reduce asbestos fibers,cysts (if the pores are one micron or smaller), some bacteria (with pore sizes in the 0.2 - 0.8 micron range**) and other particulate matter. Ceramic filters will not remove contaminants that are dissolved in the water, like chlorine, lead, mercury, trihalomethanes or other organic compounds, nor will they

remove viruses. These filters may be used as a back-end to an activated carbon filter to provide a more thorough removal of contaminants.

E. ACTIVATED ALUMINA Activated Alumina is a granulated form of aluminum oxide. In this process, water containing the contaminant is passed through a cartridge or canister of activated alumina which adsorbs the contaminant. The cartridge of activated alumina must be replaced periodically. Activated alumina devices can accumulate bacteria, so treated water may have higher bacteria counts than raw water. The advantages of Activated Alumina filters include: An effective way to reduce levels of fluoride, arsenic, and selenium The disadvantages of Activated Alumina filters include: The use of other treatment methods would be necessary to reduce levels of other contaminants of health concern

3. BOILING In an emergency, boiling is the best way to disinfect water that is unsafe because of the presence of protozoan parasites or bacteria. If the water is cloudy, it should be filtered before boiling. Filters designed for use when camping, coffee filters, towels (paper or cotton), cheesecloth, or a cotton plug in a funnel are effective ways to filter cloudy water. Place the water in a clean container and bring it to a full boil and continue boiling for at least 3 minutes (covering the container will help reduce evaporation). If you are more than 5,000 feet above sea level, you must increase the boiling time to at least 5 minutes (plus about a minute for every additional 1,000 feet). Boiled water should be kept covered while cooling. The advantages of Boiling Water include: Pathogens that might be lurking in your water will be killed if the water is boiled long enough. Boiling will also drive out some of the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) that might also be in the water. This method works well to make water that is contaminated with living organisms safe to drink, but because of the inconvenience, boiling is not routinely used to treat drinking water except in emergencies.

The disadvantages of Boiling Water include: Boiling should not be used when toxic metals, chemicals (lead, mercury, asbestos, pesticides, solvents, etc.), or nitrates have contaminated the water. Boiling may concentrate any harmful contaminants that do not vaporize as the relatively pure water vapor boils off. Energy is needed to boil the water

4. DISTILLATION In many ways, distillation is the reverse of boiling. To remove impurities from water by distillation, the water is usually boiled in a chamber causing water to vaporize, and the pure (or mostly pure) steam leaves the non volatile contaminants behind. The steam moves to a different part of the unit and is cooled until it condenses back into liquid water. The resulting distillate drips into a storage container. Salts, sediment, metals - anything that won't boil or evaporate - remain in the distiller and must be removed. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a good example of a contaminant that will evaporate and condense with the water vapor. A vapor trap, carbon filter, or other device must be used along with a distiller to ensure the more complete removal of contaminants. The advantages of Distillation include: A good distillation unit produces very pure water. This is one of the few practical ways to remove heavy metals, nitrates, chloride, and other salts that carbon filtration can not remove. Distillation also removes pathogens in the water, mostly by killing and leaving them behind when the water vapor evaporates. If the water is boiled, or heated just short of boiling, pathogens would also be killed. As long as the distiller is kept clean and is working properly the high quality of treated water will be very consistent regardless of the incoming water - no drop in quality over time. No filter cartridges to replace, unless a carbon filter is used to remove volatile organic compounds.

The disadvantages of Distillation include: Distillation takes time to purify the water, It can take two to five hours to make a gallon of distilled water. Distillers uses electricity all the time the unit is operating Distillers requires periodic cleaning of the boiler, condensation compartment, and storage tank. Countertop Distillation is one of the more expensive home water treatment methods, using $0.25 to $0.35 of electrical energy per gallon of distilled water produced - depending on local electricity costs. Most home distillation units require electricity, and will not function in an emergency situation when electrical power is not available. 5. DISINFECTION A. OZONATION The formation of oxygen into ozone occurs with the use of energy. This process is carried out by an electric discharge field as in the CD-type ozone generators (corona discharge simulation of the lightning), or by ultraviolet radiation as in UV-type ozone generators (simulation of the ultra-violet rays from the sun). In addition to these commercial methods, ozone may also be made through electrolytic and chemical reactions. Ozone is a naturally occurring component of fresh air. It can be produced by the ultraviolet rays of the sun reacting with the Earth's upper atmosphere (which creates a protective ozone layer), by lightning, or it can be created artificially with an ozone generator. The ozone molecule contains three oxygen atoms whereas the normal oxygen molecule contains only two. Ozone is a very reactive and unstable gas with a short half-life before it reverts back to oxygen. Ozone is the most powerful and rapid acting oxidizer man can produce, and will oxidize all bacteria, mold and yeast spores, organic material and viruses given sufficient exposure. The advantages of using Ozone include: Ozone is primarily a disinfectant that effectively kills biological contaminants. Ozone also oxidizes and precipitates iron, sulfur, and manganese so they can be filtered out of solution. Ozone will oxidize and break down many organic chemicals including many that cause odor and taste problems. Ozonation produces no taste or odor in the water. Since ozone is made of oxygen and reverts to pure oxygen, it vanishes without trace once it has been used. In the home, this does not matter much, but when

water companies use ozone to disinfect the water there is no residual disinfectant, so chlorine or another disinfectant must be added to minimize microbial growth during storage and distribution. The disadvantages of using Ozone include: Ozone treatment can create undesirable byproducts that can be harmful to health if they are not controlled (e.g., formaldehyde and bromate). The process of creating ozone in the home requires electricity. In an emergency with loss of power, this treatment will not work. Ozone is not effective at removing dissolved minerals and salts. Caution - The effectiveness of the process is dependent, on good mixing of ozone with the water, and ozone does not dissolve particularly well, so a well designed system that exposes all the water to the ozone is important. In the home, ozone is often combined with activated carbon filtration to achieve a more complete water treatment. B. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT (UV) Water passes through a clear chamber where it is exposed to Ultra Violet (UV) Light. UV light effectively destroys bacteria and viruses. However, how well the UV system works depends on the energy dose that the organism absorbs. If the energy dose is not high enough, the organisms genetic material may only be damaged rather than disrupted. The advantages of using UV include: No known toxic or significant nontoxic byproducts introduced Removes some organic contaminants Leaves no smell or taste in the treated water Requires very little contact time (seconds versus minutes for chemical disinfection) Improves the taste of water because some organic contaminants and nuisance microorganisms are destroyed Many pathogenic microorganisms are killed or rendered inactive. Does not affect minerals in water The disadvantages of using UV include: UV radiation is not suitable for water with high levels of suspended solids, turbidity, color, or soluble organic matter. These materials can react with UV radiation, and reduce disinfection performance. Turbidity makes it difficult for radiation to penetrate water and pathogens can be 'shadowed', protecting them from the light. UV light is not effective against any non-living contaminant, lead, asbestos, many organic chemicals, chlorine, etc.

Tough cryptosporidia cysts are fairly resistant to UV light. Requires electricity to operate. In an emergency situation when the power is out, the purification will not work. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc" which attract the dirt particles. The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the bottom during sedimentation. Sedimentation.The heavy particles (floc) settle to the bottom and the clear water moves to filtration. Filtration. The water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand, gravel, and charcoal that help remove even smaller particles. Disinfection . A small amount of chlorine is added or some other disinfection method is used to kill any bacteria or microorganisims that may be in the water.

Storage. Water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir in order for disinfection to take place. The water then flows through pipes to homes and businesses in the community DRINKING WATER PURIFICATION PROCESS a: Prefiltration 1) The uptake of water from surface waters or groundwater and storage in reservoirs. Aeration of groundwater and natural treatment of surface water usually take place in the reservoirs. Often softening and pH-adjustments already happen during these natural processes. 2) Rapid sand filtration or in some cases microfiltration in drum filters. b: Addition of chemicals 3) pH adjustment through addition of calcium oxide and sodium hydroxide. 4) FeCl3 addition to induce flocculation for the removal of humic acids and suspended particulate matter, if necessary with the addition of an extra flocculation aid. Flocs are than settled and removed through lamellae separators. After that the flocs are concentrated in sludge and pumped to the exterior for safe removal of the particulates and sludge dewatering. 5) Softening in a reservoir, through natural aeration or with sodium hydroxide, on to 8,5 o D. This is not always necessary. For instance, in case natural filtration will be applied, softening takes place naturally. c: Natural filtration 6) Drinking water preparation step that is specific for the Netherlands: Infiltration of the water in sand dunes for natural purification. This is not applied on all locations The water will enter the saturated zone where the groundwater is located and it will undergo further biological purification. As soon as it is needed for drinking water preparation, it will be extracted through drains. d: Disinfection 7) Disinfection with sodium hypochlorite or ozone. Usually ozonation would be preferred, because ozone not only kills bacteria and viruses; it also improves taste and odour properties and breaks down micro pollutants. Ozone diffuses through the water as small bubbles and enters microrganisms cells by diffusion through cell walls. It destroys

microrganisms either by disturbance of growth or by disturbance of respiratory functions and energy transfers of their cells. During these processes ozone is lost according to the reaction O3 -> O2 +(O). e: Fine filtration 8) Slow sand (media) filtration for the removal of the residual turbidity and harmful bacteria. Sand filters are backwashed with water and air every day. 9) Active carbon filtration for further removal of matter affecting taste and odour and remaining micro pollutants. This takes place when water streams through a granular activated carbon layer in a filter. Backwash is required regularly due to silting up and reactivation of an active carbon filter should be done once a year. f: Preservation and storage 10) Addition of 0.3 mg/L sodium hypochlorite to guarantee the preservation of the obtained quality. Not all companies chlorinate drinking water. The water will eventually be distributed to users through pipelines and distribution pumps. 11) Aeration for recovery oxygen supply of the water prior to storage. This is not always applied. 12) Remaining water can be stored in drinking water reservoirs. In the following schematic representation of the drinking water preparation process dotted arrows represent the incoming chemicals and red arrows represent the outgoing flows.

Water that is distributed in cities or communities is treated extensively. Specific water purification steps are taken, in order to make the water meet current water standards. Purification methods can be divided up into settling of suspended matter, physical/ chemical treatment of colloids and biological treatment. All these treatment methods have several different applications. 1. Physical water purification Physical water purification is primarily concerned with filtration techniques. Filtration is

a purification instrument to remove solids from liquids. There are several different filtration techniques. A typical filter consists of a tank, the filter media and a controller to enable backflow. Screens Filtration through screens is usually done at the beginning of the water purification process. The shape of the screens depends on the particles that have to be removed. Sand filtration Sand filtration is a frequently used, very robust method to remove suspended solids from water. The filter medium consists of a multiple layer of sand with a variety in size and specific gravity. When water flows through the filter, the suspended solids precipitate in the sand layers as residue and the water, which is reduced in suspended solids, flows out of the filter. When the filters are loaded with particles the flow-direction is reversed, in order to regenerate it. Smaller suspended solids have the ability to pass through a sand filter, so that secondary filtration is often required. Cross flow filtration Cross flow membrane filtration removes both salts and dissolved organic matter, using a permeable membrane that only permeates the contaminants. The remaining concentrate flows along across the membrane and out of the system and the permeate is removed as it flows along the other side of the membrane. There are several different membrane filtration techniques, these are: micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano filtration and Reversed Osmosis (RO). Which one of these techniques is implemented depends upon the kind of compounds that needs to be removed and their particle size. Below, the techniques of membrane filtration are clarified. 1) Microfiltration Microfiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of 0.1 to 1.5 microns, are separated from a liquid. It is capable of removing suspended solids, bacteria or other impurities. Microfiltration membranes have a nominal pore size of 0.2 microns. 2) Ultrafiltration Ultrafiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of 0.005 to 0.1 microns, are separated from a liquid. It is capable of removing salts, proteins and other impurities within its range. Ultrafiltration membranes have a nominal pore size of 0.0025 to 0.1 microns.

3) Nanofiltration Nanofiltration is a membrane separation technique in which very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size in the range of approximately 0.0001 to 0.005 microns, are separated from a liquid. It is capable of removing viruses, pesticides and herbicides. 4) Reversed Osmosis (RO) Reversed Osmosis, or RO, is the finest available membrane separation technique. RO separates very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a particle size up to 0.001 microns, from a liquid. It is capable of removing metal ions and fully removing aqueous salts.

Cartridge filtration Cartridge filtration units consist of fibres. They generally operate most effectively and economically on applications having contamination levels of less than 100 ppm. For heavier contamination applications, cartridges are normally used as final polishing filters. 2. Chemical water purification Chemical water purification is concerned with a lot of different methods. Which methods are applied depends on the kind of contamination in the (waste)water. Below, many of these chemical purification techniques are summed up. Chemical addition There are various situations in which chemicals are added, for instance to prevent the formation of certain reaction products. Below, a few of these additions are summed up: - Chelating agents are often added to water, in order to prevent negative effects of hardness, caused by the deposition of calcium and magnesium. - Oxidizing agents are added to act as a biocide, or to neutralize reducing agents. - Reducing agents are added to neutralize oxidizing agents, such as ozone and chlorine. They also help prevent the degradation of purification membranes. Clarification

Clarification is a multi-step process to remove suspended solids. First, coagulants are added. Coagulants reduce the charges of ions, so that they will accumulate into larger particles called flocs. The flocs then settle by gravity in settling tanks or are removed as the water flows through a gravity filter. Particles larger than 25 microns are effectively removed by clarification. Water that is treated through clarification may still contain some suspended solids and therefore needs further treatment. Deionisation and softening Deionisation is commonly processed through ion exchange. Ion exchange systems consist of a tank with small beds of synthetic resin, which is treated to selectively absorb certain cations or anions and replace them by counter-ions. The process of ion exchange lasts, until all available spaces are filled up with ions. The ion-exchanging device than has to be regenerated by suitable chemicals. One of the most commonly used ion exchangers is a water softener. This device removes calcium and magnesium ions from hard water, by replacing them with other positively charged ions, such as sodium. Disinfection Disinfection is one of the most important steps in the purification of water from cities and communities. It serves the purpose of killing the present undesired microrganisms in the water; therefore disinfectants are often referred to as biocides. There are a variety of techniques available to disinfect fluids and surfaces, such as: ozone disinfection, chlorine disinfection and UV disinfection. Chlorine has a downside: it can react to chloramines and chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are dangerous carcinogens. To prevent this problem chlorine dioxide can be applied. Chlorine dioxide is an effective biocide at concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm and over a wide pH range. ClO2 penetrates the bacteria cell wall and reacts with vital amino acids in the cytoplasm of the cell to kill the organism. The by-product of this reaction is chlorite. Toxicological studies have shown that the chlorine dioxide disinfection by-product, chlorite, poses no significant adverse risk to human health. Ozone has been used for disinfection of drinking water in the municipal water industry in Europe for over a hundred years and is used by a large number of water companies, where ozone generator capacities up to the range of a hundred kilograms per hour are common. When ozone faces odours, bacteria or viruses, the extra atom of oxygen destroys them completely by oxidation. During this process the extra atom of oxygen is destroyed and there are no odours, bacteria or extra atoms left. Ozone is not only an effective disinfectant, it is also particularly safe to use.

UV-radiation is also used for disinfection nowadays. When exposed to sunlight, germs are killed and bacteria and fungi are prevented from spreading. This natural disinfection process can be utilised most effectively by applying UV radiation in a controlled way. Distillation Distillation is the collection of water vapour, after boiling the wastewater. With a properly designed system removal of organic and inorganic contaminants and biological impurities can be obtained, because most contaminants do not vaporize. Water will than pass to the condensate and the contaminants will remain in the evaporation unit. Electro dialysis Electro dialysis is a technique that employs an electrical current and special membranes, which are semi permeable to ions, based on their charge. Membranes that permeate cations and membranes that permeate anions are placed alternately, with flow channels between them, and electrodes are placed on each side of the membranes. The electrodes draw their counter ions through the membranes, so that these are removed from the water. pH-adjustment Municipal water is often pH-adjusted, in order to prevent corrosion from pipes and to prevent dissolution of lead into water supplies. The pH is brought up or down through addition of hydrogen chloride, in case of a basic liquid, or natrium hydroxide, in case of an acidic liquid. The pH will be converted to approximately 7 to 7.5, after addition of certain concentrations of these substances. Scavenging Most naturally occurring organics have a slightly negative charge. Organic scavenging is done by addition of strong-base anion resin. The organics will fill up the resin and when it is loaded it is regenerated with high concentrations of sodium chloride. 3. Biological water purification Biological water purification is performed to lower the organic load of dissolved organic compounds. Microrganisms, mainly bacteria, do the decomposition of these compounds. There are two main categories of biological treatment: aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment. The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) defines the organic load. In aerobic systems the water is aerated with compressed air (in some cases merely oxygen), whereas anaerobic systems run under oxygen free conditions.

WATER PROBLEM TABLE

Color of Water
Water Problem Contaminant Source of Contaminant Health Effect(s) Treatment(s)

Blue to Bluegreen

Copper

Much of copper contamination comes from home plumbing and fixtures when the water is corrosive. If you have copper contamination due to corrosion, you may also have lead in your water since the conditions responsible for leaching copper out of a pipe or fixture are the same as those that will leach lead, if present. lead does NOT leave sensory clues at dangerous levels!

Essential mineral Mostly a nuisance, although In fairly high doses copper can cause gastrointestinal problems. More important as an indicator of possible lead contamination consider having your water tested for lead.

Acid neutralization of whole house water to minimize corrosion. If contamination is from natural sources, use ion exchange for whole house (& possibly POU). Reverse osmosis and distillation are effective POU treatment methods

Cloudy, or Milky

Small air bubbles

Air dissolved in the water before or during pumping Harmless or treatment, may naturally be in well water.

Bubbles will eventually rise to the surface and disappear

Methane bubbles

Methane is odorless, so unless the water also contains odor-causing chemicals like hydrogen sulfide, methane will be difficult to identify.

Methane is extremely flammable or explosive if confined!

Bubbles will eventually rise to the surface and disappear For methane, aerate the water prior to use. The aerator must be vented to the open air to permit the gas to escape into the atmosphere. Cloudiness from these contaminants will not clear

Very fine dirt or clay particles, or organic

Naturally, from soil, rocks, and living things.

Normally just a nuisance. However,

matter

Abnormal cloudiness can be an indication that filtration of more harmful invisible contaminants (like bacteria and cysts) has failed - test the water - locate & correct cause of the problem. Naturally, from soil & rocks, sometimes from galvanized pipes if water is corrosive. Naturally, from soil & rocks

on standing like bubbles will. Treat with sediment filtration unless there are pathogens in the water then disinfect and filter.

Reddish orange

Iron

Nuisance

Iron removal

Dark brown to Manganese Black

Nuisance

Manganese removal

Yellow

Tannins (humic acid)

Naturally, from organic soil and vegetation

Nuisance - water may also have a bitter taste

Activated Carbon Filtration Up to 3.0 ppm: Absorption with an ion exchange resin greater than 3.0 ppm: Chlorination followed by filtering

Deposits, Spots, & Sediment

Water Problem Contaminant Source Health Effect(s) Treatment(s)

Soap scum and Bathtub Calcium and rings. Also, magnesium carbonate failure of (Hard water) soap to lather well Scaly, whitish Calcium and deposit on magnesium carbonate fixtures, (Hard water) plumbing lined with

Naturally, from soil & rocks

Essential mineral Nuisance in water over about 5 grains of hardness

Standard water softener ion exchange.

Naturally, from soil & rocks

Essential mineral Nuisance in water over about 5 grains of hardness

Standard water softener ion exchange. Clean deposits on the fixtures with a rag soaked in vinegar

scale. Calcium and magnesium carbonate (Hard water)

Essential mineral Nuisance in water over about 5 grains of hardness Essential mineral Nuisance in water over about 5 grains of hardness Usually a nuisance. May be harmful, depending on the contaminant(s) present. Use common sense and your home's location (for instance, do you live in an agricultural or industrial area, or next to a waste dump) to decide if testing is warranted. At about 1 mg/l Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay. Above about 3 - 4 mg/l Fluoride can cause staining of the tooth enamel and other problems.

Spots on clothing

Naturally, from soil & rocks

Standard water softener ion exchange.

Calcium and magnesium carbonate (Hard water)

Naturally, from soil & rocks

Standard water softener ion exchange.

Spots on dishes, glassware, and flatware

High levels of Total natural sources Dissolved Solids (TDS)

(also hard water)

or from human contamination

TDS can be a mix of many chemicals. Use whole house ion exchange and activated carbon to remove many contaminants. Reverse osmosis and distillation are effective POU treatment methods A solid block, activated carbon filter will reliably remove most of the organic TDS

Spotting, mottling, or pitting of teeth

Naturally from soil & rocks

Fluoride
Fluoride can also be added by water treatment companies.

Activated alumina filtration Reverse osmosis and distillation are effective POU treatment methods

Red - brown or black brown slime in plumbing system Reddish brown sediment. Typically clears after

Iron or Manganese Bacteria

The bacteria feed on iron Nuisance - can clog or manganese dissolved plumbing and filters in the water

Chlorine or permanganate treatment of well

Iron

Dissolved iron precipitates when oxygen reaches it. Sometimes the iron sediment in the distribution system or

Nuisance

If the problem is caused by dissolved iron in water, using iron removal method If the problem is caused by disturbed sediment from

running the water for a few minutes

home pipes is disturbed when this happens, the water can get really "thick" with sediment for a while. Sand or very fine sediments that gets through the filtering screens in wells or resists the coagulation stage during water treatment.

pipes, run the water for a while, and it should clear. The sediment can be filtered as well.

Grittiness, abrasiveness of water, and sediments at the bottom of tubs and sinks

Fine sand, grit

Nuisance

Sedimentation or Sediment Filter

Staining
Water Problem Contaminant Source Health Effect(s) Treatment(s)

Blue-green stains on sink Copper or brass and porcelain fixtures

Much of copper contamination comes from home plumbing and fixtures when the water is corrosive. If you have copper contamination due to corrosion, you probably also have lead contamination

Essential mineral Mostly a nuisance, although In fairly high doses copper can cause gastrointestinal problems. More important as an indicator of possible lead contamination

Acid neutralization of whole house water to minimize corrosion. If contamination is from natural sources, use ion exchange for whole house (& possibly POU). Reverse osmosis and distillation are effective POU treatment methods

Brown-red stains, and discolored clothing Black stains on fixtures and laundry Blackening and pitting of metal sinks

Iron

Naturally, from soil & rocks, sometimes from galvanized pipes if water is corrosive.

Mostly a Nuisance Neurological effects at very high levels

Iron removal

Manganese

Naturally, from soil & rocks.

Mostly a Nuisance Neurological effects at very high levels

Manganese removal

Hydrogen sulfide (gas)

Naturally occurring, more common in wells than surface water. Usually present in

Promotes corrosion Low to moderate due to its activity as a concentrations - use weak acid. Also, its oxidizing filter followed by presence in the air carbon filter

and fixtures

water with high levels of iron and a low pH.

causes silver to tarnish in a matter of seconds High hydrogen sulphide concentrations are both inflammable and poisonous. While such concentrations are rare, their presence in drinking water has been known to cause nausea, illness and in extreme cases, death.

Aeration followed by filtration medium to high concentrations - use chlorination followed by activated carbon

Gray stains

Aluminum

The primary source of aluminum in drinking water is from the use of aluminum sulfate (alum) as a coagulant in water treatment plants.

Probably just a nusianc. Although there was some concern several years ago that Reverse osmosis or aluminum contributed Distillation to Alzheimer's disease, research does not seem to have supported that idea. Activated Carbon Filtration Up to 3.0 ppm: Absorption with an ion exchange resin greater than 3.0 ppm: Chlorination followed by filtering

Yellow stains on fabrics, china dishes and sinks, fixtures, etc.

Tannins (humic acid)

Naturally, from organic Nuisance - water materials in soil and from may also have a vegetation bitter taste

Taste
Water Problem Contaminant Source Health Effect(s) Treatment(s)

Alkaline taste Hydroxides, (bitter, "soda" Carbonates and taste) Bicarbonates

Bicarbonates are the Nuisance most common sources of alkalinity.

pH correction using either a neutralizing filter or chemical feed pump to

High pH water Recommended pH levels 6.5 to 8.5

Iron, manganese, copper, lead, or other metals

Almost all natural supplies have a measurable amount of this ion. Nervous system disorders from lead, mercury, arsenic. Possible cancer risk from nickel, arsenic, chromium.

lower the pH

Metallic taste

wide range of possible sources, depending on metal

Cation exchange for whole house treatment. Reverse osmosis, distillation, or specialized ion exchange resin for POU treatment

Salty, brackish taste Sodium, chloride, and pitting of sulfate, inorganic salts fixtures.

Sodium can cause Sodium salts are present problems for people to a greater or lesser with hypertension. degree in all natural Sulfate can cause waters. gastrointestinal problems.

Reverse osmosis, distillation, or specialized ion exchange resin for POU treatment

Sharp chemical taste or odor, or "oily" consistency

Pesticides or semivolatile compounds

If these contaminants are present in levels that can be easily tasted or smelled, immediately STOP using the water for drinking and All are synthetic cooking and drink bottled organic compounds. water - probably shouldn't Contamination of water Risk of cancer. Could bathe in it either - until the supply from storage tank affect any bodily contaminant level goes leaks, agricultural organ system down significantly. applications, dumping, A high quality, solid block, improper disposal, etc. activated carbon filter will remove undetectable, but dangerous, concentration of these chemicals that might be present even after public water treatment.

Odor
Water Problem Chlorine smell (like bleach or Contaminant Source Health Effect(s) Treatment(s)

Chlorine, Chloramines Disinfection chemicals.

Chlorine does not Some "residual appear to cause disinfectant" must remain health problems at in the water during

Activated Carbon Filtration for whole house reduction of chlorine

swimming pool)

distribution to prevent reinfection of the water.

levels normally used for disinfection. The possible health problems result from the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) discussed elsewhere.

A POU, high quality, solid block, activated carbon filter will remove chlorine and, more importantly, disinfection byproducts from drinking and cooking water. Distillation and RO will also remove these contaminants.

Detergent smell (foamy water)

Foaming agents, dilute sewage

Discharges from the septic system into sources of underground water supply; Accidental presence of Risk of disease if detergent in the water bacteria are present. supply or wells Could harm infants. If this occurs with municipal water, it could mean problems with the treatment system. All are synthetic organic compounds. Contamination of water supply is from storage tank leaks, dumping, improper disposal, etc. Risk of cancer. If these contaminants Could affect kidney, are present in levels that liver, or central can be easily tasted or nervous system. smelled, STOP using the water for drinking and cooking immediately and drink bottled water until the level is reduced. Barium is a naturally occurring metal found primarily in the Midwest. Cadmium makes its way into the water supplies as a result of deterioration of galvanized plumbing, industrial waste or fertilizer contamination

For wells, locate and eliminate source followed by strong dose of chlorine An activated charcoal filter absorbs small amounts of detergent

Volatile (or semiSweet, volatile) organic perfume odor compounds like MTBE

Find and remove source of contamination if it is from a single source, or find a new source of water. A high quality, solid block, activated carbon filter will remove undetectable, but dangerous, concentration of these chemicals that might be present even after public water treatment.

Smells like fish

Barium, Cadmium

Barium is highly toxic Standard water softener when its soluble salts ion exchange. are ingested Reverse Osmosis Distillation

Organic matter

Naturally occurring Traces of chlorine and ammonia compounds used for desinfection of wastewater.

Nuisance

Activated Carbon Filtration

Chloramine

Nuisance

Activated Carbon Filtration

Smells like rotten eggs

Hydrogen sulfide (gas)

Naturally occurring, more common in wells than surface water. Usually present in water with high levels of iron and a low pH.

Promotes corrosion due to its activity as a weak acid. Also, its presence in the air causes silver to tarnish in a matter of seconds High hydrogen sulphide concentrations are both inflammable and poisonous. While such concentrations are rare, their presence in drinking water has been known to cause nausea, illness and in extreme cases, death.

Low to moderate concentrations - use oxidizing filter followed by carbon filter Aeration followed by filtration medium to high concentrations - use chlorination followed by activated carbon

Methane

Wells that contain methane are generally located in areas where gas and oil wells are common sights

Danger of fire or explosion

Aerate water prior to use. The aerator must be vented to the open air to permit the gas to escape into the atmosphere.

Oil or gas smell Gasoline or semivolatile organic compounds

All are distilled or synthetic organic compounds. Contamination of water supply is from storage tank leaks, dumping, Risk of cancer. improper disposal, etc. Could affect kidney, If these contaminants liver, or central are present in levels that nervous system. can be easily tasted or smelled, immediately STOP using the water for drinking and cooking and drink bottled water until the level is reduced. The concentration found Essential mineral

Find and remove source of contamination if it is from a single source, or find a new source of water. A high quality, solid block, activated carbon filter will remove undetectable, but dangerous, concentration of these chemicals that might be present even after public water treatment.

Smells like

Selenium

Ion exchange

in drinking water is usually low, and comes from natural sources.

A nuisance if it effects water odor. Can be toxic at high levels of exposure

Reverse Osmosis Distillation

sewage Sewage
Leakage from a septic system, waste treatment plant, feed lot, farmyard, etc.

If raw sewage is present in levels that can be easily High probability of smelled, immediately contamination with E. STOP using the water for coli and other drinking and cooking and pathogens as well as drink bottled water until the nitrates. problem has been identified and fixed. Activated carbon filtration for whole house treatment. Combine with sediment filter if particulates are present. RO, distillation, or Activated carbon filtration for POU treatment

Musty, earthy Decaying Organic smell matter (leaves, algae)

Naturally occurring, usually in surface or shallow wells

Nuisance, usually

CONCLUSION

Water on Earth moves continually through the hydrological cycle of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%. Water plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by humans goes to agriculture.

REFERENCES 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry
2. www2.emersonprocess.com/.../Liq_Brochure_91-6030.pdf

3. http://www.cyber-nook.com/water/concerns.html#concern 4. http://water.epa.gov/drink/index.cfm 5. http://www.cyber-nook.com/water/tbl_gene.html 6. http://water.epa.gov/learn/kids/drinkingwater/watertreatmentplant_index.cfm 7. http://www.lenntech.com/applications/drinking/standards/who-s-drinking-waterstandards.htm 8. http://www.mangosteen-natural-remedies.com/benefits-of-drinking-water.html 9. http://www.lenntech.com/applications/drinking/drinkingwater.htm#ixzz1e9ey9SD3 10. http://www.activated-carbon.com 11. http://www.aapspharmscitech.org/scientificjournals/pharmscitech/volume2issue1/ 056/manuscript.htm

12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water