ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, we would like to thank God Almighty for his guidance and help in giving me the strength to complete this report. In particularly, we would like to express our sincere and deep appreciation to our lecturer, Prof. Madya. Issham Ismail for his knowledge, wisdoms and encouragement. We will always value his guidance, advices and motivation throughout this work. Lastly, our sincere appreciation also extends to our entire course mates and the others who have contributed their views and useful tips. Deepest thanks to all of them who gave a helping hand in the process of doing this report. May God protect and guide all of you.

ABSTRACT

Coal is a unique rock type in the geological column; it has a wide range of chemical and physical properties and has been studied over a long period. The essential property that distinguishes coal from other rock types is that it is a combustible material. In chapter 1, we discussed the introduction of coal bed methane (CBM), coal as an alternative source, usage of coal and coal transportation. The environment of deposition CBM and its reserve worldwide was highlighted in Chapter 2. The process to develop or extract the hydrocarbon from CBM which is enhanced CBM recovery using Nitrogenase enzyme and microorganism will be discussed in Chapter 3 and CBM product water management and carbon dioxide (CO2) Sequestration with Enhanced CBM Recovery will be discussed in Chapter 4.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES

1 2 3 6

INTRODUCTION OF COAL BED METHANE 1.1 Preface

1.1.1

7 Fossil fuels past, present, future 7

3

1.1.2 1.1.3

Coal as an Alternative Energy Source Gas in Coal

8 9

1.2 Coal Use 1.2.1 Electricity generation 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 Iron and Steel Production Industrial Use Domestic Use

10 10 11 11 11 12

1.3 Coal Transportation

THE ENVIRONMENT OF DEPOSITION OF COAL BED METHANE AND ITS RESERVE WORLDWIDE 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 19 2.8.2 China 2.8.3 Eurpoe 2.8.4.Canada 2.8.5 Indonesia 20 21 21 21 Introduction Gas generation in coal Coal bed stratigraphy Adsorption and gas capacity Porosity and permeability Reservoir pressure Reservoir temperature Worldwide Coal bed Methane Reserve and Resources 2.8.1 Australia 12 13 14 16 17 18 18 19

PROCESS TO DEVELOP OR EXTRACT THE HYDROCARBON FROM COAL BED METHANE (CBM)

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery 3.2.1 3.2.2 4 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane recovery using Nitrogenase enzyme Enhanced Coal Bed Methane using Microorganism

22 23 26 26

THE CHALLENGES OF OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IS FACING IN SOURCING THE HYDROCARBON 4.1 Introduction 4.2 CBM product water management 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 34 4.2.5 Recovery Managing CBM product water 35 35 4.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration with Enhanced CBM CBM development reduce flow to streams, springs and wells The quantity of the CBM product water The quality of CBM product water and its effects on soil 32 33 33 32 32

4.2.4 The quality of CBM product water and its effect on plants

CONCLUSION 4.1 Conclusion 38

REFERENCES

39

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. 1.1 1.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3

TITLE The world energy mix, past, present and future

The stages from coal delivery to electricity generation in a modern power station

PAGE 8

10

Coal Bed Methane Reserves 2P in Australia by Basins Top 9 Coal Bed Methane Basins in China Coal bed methane Basins in Europe Schematic system in cleat system of coal Desorption of methane General trend of methane production for various ECBM techniques

19 20 21 23 24 24

3.4 28

Basic Setup on the ECBM using Nitrogenase Enzyme 3.5 28 Molecular Structure of Nitrogenase enzyme 3.6 29
23

27

Explanation of ammonia in coal seam 3.7 The Langmuir isotherm and break through curve for 4.1
Example of soils of eastern Montana

ammonia
4.2

CO2 sequestration with enhanced coal bed methane recovery at BPs Tiffany Field.

34

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO COAL BED METHANE

1.1

Preface Sedimentary sequences containing coal or peat beds are found throughout the world and

range in age from Upper Paleozoic to Recent. Coals are the result of the accumulation of vegetable debris in a specialized environment of deposition. Such accumulations have been affected by synsedimentary and pos-sedimentary influences to produce coals of differing degrees of structural complexity, the two being closely interlinked.
7

1.1.1

Fossil fuels past, present, future Coal was the fuel of choice in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, but was

gradually superseded by oil right after World War II. In the past three decades natural gas has slowly but progressively increased its share of the energy mix. These three fossil fuels account for more 85% of the worlds primary energy. And this has not changed over time as shown in Figure 1.1. Other energy sources (nuclear, hydro and renewables) play a far smaller role by comparison. Thirty years ago, when worldwide energy demand was 60% of current levels, fossil fuels were the source of nearly 90% of the worlds energy supply. Today, the Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy (Energy InformationAdministration, 2008) forecasts that this is not likely to change in the future, with 86.5% of the total energy mix coming from fossil fuels in 2030 despite-or perhaps because of an expected increase in total energy demand of 62% by then. However, many question whether such growth and energy mix is sustainable both in environmental terms and with the remaining fossil fuel reserves much beyond 2030 (Wood et al. 2007). In spite of programs going back more than 30 years that have subsidized alternative forms of energy at substantial costs to consumers (Koplow, 2006), fossil fuels will still represent more than 85% of the worlds primary energy mix.

Fig. 1.1: The world energy mix, past, present and future [1]

1.1.2

Coal as an Alternative Energy Source

The essential property that distinguishes coal from other rock types is that it is a combustible material. In the normal course events, coal is burnt to provide warmth as a domestic fuel, to generate electricity as a power station feed stock or as a part of the industrial process to create products such as steel and cement. Coal, however, is more versatile than this and has been, and still is, able to provide alternative forms of energy. This may be from its by-products such as gas, through chemical treatment to become liquid fuel and by in situ combustion to convert coal to liquid and gaseous products. The development of these energy alternatives is important, particularly in those areas where coals are too deep for exploitation or where underground mining has ceased for economic reasons. Those coalfield areas once thought to be exhausted can still provide large amounts of energy through the use modern technology. In addition, the understanding of the origins of oil and natural gas shows coal to be a contributory source rock. Although the bulk of coal utilization is and will continue to be, by direct handling and combustion, the alternatives uses of energy from coal are increasing in significance, and are being developed in all major coal producing countries. 1.1.3 Gas in Coal Bituminous coals contain a number of gases including methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and ethane. The amount of gas retained and held by coal depends on various factors such as pressure, temperature, pyrite content and the structure of the coal. Fresh coal contains more gas than coal which has been subject to oxidation. Large volumes of gas can be accommodated on the internal surfaces of the coal as a result of adsorption. It is released by the removal of pressure, usually by mining or drilling. The gas may migrate into associated strata such as porous sandstones which release the gas into openings such as boreholes and mine excavations.
9

The associations of gases with coal have been constant problem in mine workings since underground coal mining first began. In underground workings, methane is released from coal exposed at the coal face, plus the broken cola being transported through the mine. Methane is a flammable gas and is explosive between a lower limit of 5% and upper limit of 15% when mixed with fresh air. The highly combustible gas is known as firedamp. The faster the coal is mined, the larger the amount of methane released into the workings, so that it is essential that an adequate ventilation system is in operation. A danger is that of methane collecting in roof pockets and in the upper parts of manholes or cuts in the roadway sidewalls where the rock sequence may still be exposed. The methane content of the coal is usually referred to as coal-bed methane (CBM).

1.2

Coal Use [4] Coal is a versatile fuel and has long been used for heating, industrial processes and power

generation. Coal provides around 23% of global primary energy needs and generates about 38% of the worlds electricity, generating some 4800Twh. (WCI 2001). In addition, 17% (600Mt) of the worlds total black coal production is currently utilized by the steel industry, 70% of which is dependant on coal.
Coal mine

1.2.1

Electricity generation

Coal Preparation Plant

Electricity generation is singled out as one or the largest causes of pollution of the
Transport atmosphere. The rapid growth of the demand electricity has led to large increases in production

and large increases in emissions, which in turn has brought attendant environmental problems.
Handling to Figure 1.2 shows the stages from coal delivery & electricity generation in a modern power

station

Storage Miling

Combustion

Particulates Removal FGD Coal mine 10

Steam Turbine
Additional Unit Generation capacity

Electricity to Grid

Figure 1.2: The stages from coal delivery to electricity generation in a modern power station 1.2.2 Iron and Steel Production Coal is heated in an oxygen-free environment until the bulk of volatile constituents have been driven off. The solid residue is known as coke and its principal use is to provide heat energy and to act as a reducing agent iron for iron ore in the blast furnace. Coke has to be a strong material, able to withstand handling and be capable of supporting the overlying weight of coke as it moves the blast furnace. Coke can be produced from a single coal or a blend of selected coals. Only coals with specific range of rank and type are capable of forming coke, and particular the coke produced 1.2.3 Industrial Use Although the electricity generation and iron and steel production make up the bulk of the use of coal by the industrial sector, coal is used in number of industries for heating. The principal effect of coal on the environment is the venting of waste gases to the atmosphere. The share of coals contribution to this has been reduced due to the fact modern industry has made substantial reductions in the use of coal for conventional heating, having replaced it with gas or oil.
11

However, industries such as manufacture of cement still utilize significant quantities of coal. Cleaning of the flue gas and reducing the particulate emissions are both contributing to the improvement of air quality 1.2.4 Domestic Use Coal as a household fuel has almost disappeared in most well developed countries. Strict regulations on air quality in urban areas have led to the replacement of coal by gas an oil heating. The thick smogs of large cities are now a thing of the past, although photochemical smog produced by the internal combustion engine is still reality. In less developed countries, domestic heating using using coal is still prevalent. In the China and Europe coal is plentiful, oil and gas are expensive or not available, so atmospheric pollution can still reach high levels. Improvements in industrial use and the gradual replacement of coal for heating will reduce the problem, but this is likely to be a long term prospect. 1.3 Coal Transportation [4] Table 1.1 shows the transportation of coal by road, rail and conveyor on land, and by barge and oceangoing vessels on water. Type of transportation Road transport Descriptions Coal is moved from mine to the customer by lorry fleets. This means using public roads can cause problems such as wear and tear, traffic congestion and dust from coal loads, The overland transport of large shipment of coal by rail is established means throughout the world. Rail transport has Rail transport little effect environmentally other than dust and noise at the loading/ unloading areas. Where coal is loaded/ unloaded automatically, such effects are minimized.

12

Overland conveyors are used to transport coal from mine to the Conveyor stockyard. Conveyors are usually covered and have no adverse effect on the environment Coal transported by barge or ocean-going vessel has only a Water transport dust problem on loading/unloading, and some coals has propensity for spontaneous combustion Table 1.1: Types of Coal Transportation

CHAPTER 2

THE ENVIRONMENT OF DEPOSITION OF COAL BED METHANE AND ITS RESERVE WORLDWIDE

2.1

Introduction In recent decades, coal bed methane reservoirs are rapidly being commercialized around

the globe and have become one of the important sources of energy in United States, Canada, and other countries. Coal is defined as a rock composed of more than 50% organic matter by weight and is thus by definition the rock type that is richest and organic matter. For this reason, coal is
13

considered an important petroleum source rock and important reservoir for natural gas. Other than natural gas, coal also contains other significant gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and nitrogen. These common byproducts of oil and gas production are among the most pollutants to the atmosphere and lead to green house effects. A spectrum of geology factors including stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry and coal petrology will determines the properties of coal as a source and reservoir rocks. Generally, coal contains diverse form of organic matter spanning abroad range of chemical composition, and this compositional variability combined with geologic history determine what types of hydrocarbons can be generated. Research of investigating the mechanisms of hydrocarbon generation and geochemical relationship among organic matter, oil and natural gas has been extremely active and is driven by mankinds due to the increasing need for energy resources coupled with the necessity of developing these resources in an environmentally responsible manner.

2.2

Gas generation in coal Kerogen and coal undergo significant mechanical and chemical changes during burial,

and these changes are driven by compaction, biological activity and thermal kinetics. These three factors are complexly interrelated and can be effective throughout the full depositional and tectonic history of sedimentary basin. Metabolism of organic compounds by anaerobic bacteria can generate large quantities of methane and humid acid. However, it will highly dependent on temperature, nutrient flux and the flow of underground water. In general, most oil generation occurs at temperature between 50 to 150oC and large volume of carbon dioxide can be generated in this temperature range. Major thermogenic generation of gaseous hydrocarbon is thought to begin at temperature 100 to 225oC and significant volume of nitrogen can be generated between temperatures 100 to 150oC. Thermal cracking is important in this range, and as thermal maturity increases and an increasing proportion of hydrogen is given off from coal structure, long chain hydrocarbon can be transformed into short chain structure such as methane. In addition, bacterial methanogenesis is thought to be an important mechanism of gas generation in coal.

14

2.3

Coal bed stratigraphy Coal-bearing strata can be characterized using the petroleum systems concept, which

states that sedimentary basins contain integrated systems of source rocks, migration pathways, reservoirs and seals. The possibility of coal as an oil- and gas-prone source rock controls on the retention and expulsion of hydrocarbons generated from coal and the relationship of coal to a spectrum of petroleum reservoir and seals. However the effectiveness of coal as an oil-prone source rock is unclear, while the effectiveness of coal as a gas-prone source rock is practically doubtless. The primary line of evidence is sheer predominance of gas-prone vitrinite to type III kerogen. In addition, the large volume of natural gas that provides a mining hazard as well as an economic resource in coal has led to the widespread interpretation that coal is principally a selfresource natural gas reservoir. Pyrolysis experiment had been conducted on both opened- and closed-system at high temperature and low pressure to investigate the volume of natural gas that can be generated from coal. The results showed that in closed-system pyrolysis indicate that about 3 to 20 times more gas can be generated than can be retained. Therefore, it follows that an extremely large volume of thermally generated natural gas has been expelled from coal and that coal can be considered as a major source rock for natural gas in a range of reservoir types. Once generated, hydrocarbon can migrate within coalbed into other formations or escape to the surface. The major mechanisms of flow in coal include Darcian flow through interconnected pores, including fractures and diffusion through coal matrix. Darcian flow is influenced primarily by pressure gradients, density gradients and compaction, whereas diffusion occurs in response to concentration gradients. These mechanisms can happen in other type of rock such as carbonate, limestone or siliceous rocks depending on their permeability. However, diffusion appears to be an extremely important mechanism for the expulsion and migration of natural gas. Diffusion for oil appears to be of limited significance because of the diffusion coefficient tends to be one to three orders of magnitude lower for oil than for gas.

15

Hydrocarbon and other gases can also be transported by dissolution in formation water. The solubility of hydrocarbons in water decreases as the carbon number of the hydrocarbon increases. For most hydrocarbons, solubility increases with increasing reservoir temperature but decreases with increasing salinity. Other gases generated during coalification, including carbon dioxide and nitrogen are soluble in formation water and may play role in the expulsion and transport of hydrocarbons. Carbon dioxide is miscible in a broad range of hydrocarbon and increases the mobility of oil by reducing its viscosity. Other than above, sealing bed play a critical role in the migration and trapping of hydrocarbons in porous rock. Faults zones can be migration pathways or reservoir seals, and fault properties depend on a number of factors such as lithologic, juxtaposition, cataclasis, clay smearing and cementation. Trapping mechanism for natural gas in coal and shale reservoirs shows a big contrast with those in conventional hydrocarbon reservoirs. It is because a major fraction of the retained hydrocarbon is adsorbed on internal rock surface. Adsorbed hydrocarbon cling to the surface by van der Waals forces and storage capacity increase substantially with confining pressure. In hydrocarbon reservoirs dominated by adsorption, no seal is required for retention of large quantities of natural gas. However, some gas can be stored as a free phase in coal macro pores, including cleats, and can form a significant gas resource. Minor amounts of oil have been produced from coal. However, this production is typically no more than a few barrels per well and is regarded by producers as more of a nuisance than an economic resource. The dominance of adsorption as a gas storage mechanism in coal gives rise to extremely complex reservoir dynamics. 2.4 Adsorption and gas capacity Adsorption is a process in which gas or liquid molecules stick on to a surface, thereby forming a monolayer or multilayer film. For gases in coal, an adsorbate film can approach liquid density at a much lower pressure than it is predicted in ideal gas law. A monolayer is a film with the thickness of one molecule, whereas a multilayer is a film with a thickness of two or more molecules. Adsorption is thought to be a respond to a natural bonding deficiency that exists
16

along surfaces and development of a monolayer or multilayer effectively satisfies this deficiency. It takes place by the process of physisorption and chemisorptions. Physisorption is adsorption by van der Waals force, which is a weak intermolecular attraction that takes place below the critical temperature of the adsorbate and can result in the development of a monolayer or multilayer. Chemisorptions by contrast involve strong covalent bond between the surface and the adsorbate can take place at supercritical temperature and always in a monolayer. In general physisorption is considered to be dominant mode of adsorption for gases on coal, although some maybe considered a monolayer adsorption due to limited space in coal nanopores. Gas capacity is expressed in terms of the adsorption isotherm, which determines how gas capacity varies with pressure at a constant temperature. Adsorption curves in isotherm plots have distinctive shape in which the slope of the curve is steepest near the origin and decreases as pressure and gas capacity increase. Coal has nanoporous aromatic fabric with an extremely large internal surface area where gases can be absorbed. The adsorption capacity of coal varies greatly depending on the composition of the gas being adsorbed and the composition of the coal. Several factors explain why the adsorption performance of different gases can vary so greatly. Large molecules by definition form a thicker monolayer than small gas molecules and this account for most of the differences among gases. Other factor such as the polarity and fugacity of the sorbate molecule, as well as the ability of the molecule to satisfy sorbate surface bonding deficiency through van der Waals force or covalent bonding, influence the volume of gas that can adsorb onto a solid. The gas content in coal must be estimated to determine the quantity of gas in place and the level of gas saturation in coalbed methane reservoir. Direct volumetric and gravimetric methods are commonly used to estimate the gas content. Volumetric methods involve the determination of gas content by measuring changes or pressure caused by desorption in a canister. In coalbed industry, gas content is typically determined from cores and results of desorption studies indicate that gas content can be extremely variable but typically increases with the depth. Ultimately, the same factors that influence sorption capacity are those that influence
17

gas content, and differences in the burial, thermal, and hydrologic history of a sedimentary basin can result in highly variable levels of gas saturation. 2.5 Porosity and permeability Coal contains a complex network of nanopores (<2 nm), mesopores (250 nm), and macropores (>50 nm) in which fluids can be stored and can flow. The principal source of nanoporosity in coal is apparently associated with the aromatic molecular structure of the biopolymers that are preserved in coal, and, this is where the vast majority of adsorbed compounds, including gases are stored.

Cleat systems are closely spaced (cm- to mm-scale), orthogonal fracture systems in coal that are analogous to joint systems in other rock types. Face cleats are systematic fractures; that is, they tend to be planar, exhibit a high degree of parallelism, and strike parallel to the maximum horizontal stress direction during formation. Butt cleats, by contrast, are cross-fractures; they can curve or have irregular surfaces, tend to strike perpendicular to face cleats, and tend to terminate at intersections with face cleats. Cleat height within a coal bed can be highly variable. Primary cleats are strata-bound fractures that extend through a complete bench or bed of coal (height bed or bench thickness). Many coal beds contain closely spaced primary cleats, which can give coal a columnar, or matchstick, appearance. Secondary cleats are developed within a bed or bench (height < than bed or bench thickness). Tertiary cleats are those that are restricted to a single coal band, particularly vitrinite. Most coal bed methane reservoirs have permeability on the order of 10 to 100 mD, and in some areas coal as shallow as 700 m can have permeability lower than 1 mD. Permeability and production performance can be influenced by the abundance and openness of natural fractures, and characterizing the regional structural framework can be important for identifying productivity sweet spots.

18

2.6

Reservoir pressure Reservoir pressure which consist of lithostatic pressure and hydrostatic pressure play an

important role to control the gas capacity and reservoir behavior. Lithostatic pressure controls on permeability, while hydrostatic pressure determined how much gas can be adhere in coal. A wide range of hydrostatic pressure regimes have been identified in coalbed methane reservoirs. Abnormal reservoir pressure is also common in coalbed methane reservoirs and consists of underpressure where hydrostatic gradients are below the normal pressure. Extreme underpressures where hydrostatic pressure gradients have been lowered below 5kPa/m are known in areas of coalbed methane production that have been affected by dewatering associated with longwall coal mining. 2.7 Reservoir temperature Gas molecules become increasingly excited and less prone to remain in an absorbed state as temperature increase. This will influenced the adsorption capacity and gas content of coal. Reservoir temperature in coal bed methane reservoirs typically range from 21to 65oC, and over this range, the adsorption capacity of given coal sample can vary almost 30%. Some substances, like CH4 and N2, are gases that exhibit under all conceivable pressure-temperature conditions in coal. Other gases, such as CO2, SO2 and H2S can exhibit distinct phase changes or non-ideal pressure-volume-temperature behavior within the range of common reservoir conditions. 2.8 Worldwide Coal bed Methane Reserve and Resources

2.8.1

Australia Australia is the world's fourth largest coal producer and the world's largest coal exporter.

The Australian Gas Association (Gas Statistics Australia, 2002) estimates that total Australian resource coal bed methane is about 220 tcf. The majority of Australias Coal bed methane resources occur in the eastern coast of Australia, primarily in the Australian states of Queensland and New South Wales. Based on HIS data, proven reserves in Australia have been estimated at nearly 9 tcf. Most of CBM reserves (about 7 tcf) have been discovered in Bowen-Surat Basins
19

followed by Galilee-Eromanga, Sydney, Otway onshore and Gunnedah basin (500 bcf each) Fig 2.1 shows Coal bed methane reserves (proven + probable) in Australia.(3)

Fig 2.1: Coal bed methane Reserves 2P in Australia by Basins

2.8.2

China Coal bed methane resource in China is very abundant and the geological coal bed

methane resource volume is the third in the world next to Russia and Canada. From the newest statistics of resource assessment, the methane-bearing area is of 41.54 x104 km 2 under the buried depth less than 2000min 45 coal-accumulating basins and the geological reserves is 36.8 x 1012 m3(36.8 tcm). There were 9 major coal bed methane basins (Odors, Qinshui, Junggar, Diandongqianxi, Erlian, Tuha, Tarim, Tianshan and Hailaer) in China, each having geological reserves of more than 1 x 1012 m3(1 tcm), as showed Fig 2.2. Their total reserve is 30.9 x1012 m3(30.9 tcm), which is 84% of the total resources of China. The geological reserves under the buried depth less than 1000 m are 14.3 x 1012 m3(14.3 tcm) and the recoverable resources are 6.3 x1012m3(6.3 tcm). The geological reserves buried from the depth of 1,000 m to 1,500 m are 10.6 x 1012 m3(10.6 tcm) and the recoverable resources are 4.6 x1012 m 3(4.6 tcm). The geological reserves buried from the depth of 1500 to 2000 m are 11.9 x1012 m3 (11.9 tcm). Each

20

of the part domains one third of the coal bed methane reservoir reserves and the coal bed methane reservoir under the buried depth less than 1000 m is of the largest commercial value.(1)

Figure 2.2: Top 9 Coal Bed M Basins in China

2.8.3

Europe In the UK some of these exploration efforts resulted in the discovery of 15 fields with

total reserve size of 120 bcf, based on IHS data. Two of them are producing in the Midland Valley Graben. In southern Poland, the coal bed methane resources is located at Upper Silesian Coal Basin. The upside potential is estimated at some 1.0 tcf of gas (3). Figure 2.3 shows coal bed methane Basins in Europe.

21

Figure 2.3: Coal bed methane Basins in Europe 2.8.4 Canada It is estimated that Canadas coal bed methane resources is about 540 TCF. The majority of the CBM resources in Canada are found in Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB).(2)

2.8.5

Indonesia The untapped resources of coal bed methane in Indonesia are estimated to be at 453 tcf.

The majority of coal bed methane resources in Indonesia are found in the coal bearing basins of South Sumatra and Kalimantan. (3)

CHAPTER 3

22

PROCESS TO DEVELOP OR EXTRACT THE HYDROCARBON FROM COAL BED METHANE (CBM) 3.1 Introduction to Conventional Technique Coal Bed Methane (CBM) is a natural gas containing 100% methane produced from coal seam reservoirs. There are two methods to produce methane from coal bed. The first method is through conventional technique by pumping large volumes of water in order to release the water pressure that traps gas with the coal (M.V.Jadhav). The methane is adsorbed into solid coal matrix and methane is released when coal seam depressurized. Wells are drilled into coal seam, the seam is dewatered then methane is extracted, compressed and piped to market. Water is pumping into the well for allowing methane to desorb from coal and flow as gas up to the well. While dewatering is occurring, the operator should make sure that the pump jack is not running too long. If the water level is pumped too low, this will allow the gas to travel up the tubing into the water line, causing the well to become "gassy". The main objective is not to put the gas in the water line, but to allow it to flow up the backside of the well (casing) and into the pipeline, where it can be transported to the compressor station and delivered to the customer for sales. Once the gas goes up the tubing, it is usually recovered in a water-gas separator at the surface. However, pumping water and gas is inefficient and can cause pump wear and breakdown. The mass transport in the coal model consist two step processes. The first is on gas diffusion from matrix to matrix in to the fractures, then a laminar fluid flow through the fractures. Methane is physically bound to individual coal particles. The coal seam structure consists of a coal matrix broken up by a system of natural fractures called cleats. Gas production from CBM reservoirs is governed by a complex interaction of single phase gas diffusion through primary porosity while two phase gas and water flows through cleat system. The cleat system acts as a pathway in methane production; as shown in Figure 1. The cleats are normally complete water saturated. Gas production starts as water is drained from the cleats. When the reservoir pressure is reduced, gas molecules desorb from coal and diffuse through the matrix to a cleat.
23

Figure 3.1: Schematic system in cleat system of coal

3.2

Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery The other method is through new technologies of extraction and recovery of CBM.

Usually, the methane recovery can be done by injection of various gases. One used enhanced coal bed methane recovery using nitrogenase enzyme. Another enhanced CBM recovery is via microorganisms. The primary recovery using water pumping, methane can be recovered up to 50 60 % (M.V.Jadhav and J.N.Vishnukumar) but with new technologies, it can be recovered up to 80% of methane produced. Enhanced CBM recovery is done by injecting another gas in order to maintain the reservoir, not for depressurized but reducing the partial pressure. The adsorption- desorption behavior gases on coal plays important role in ECBM, as portrayed in Figure 3.2 (J.N.Vishnukumar).

24

Figure 3.2: Desorption of methane

Trend of Coal Bed Methane recovery is represented in Figure 3.3. Usually the secondary recovery is done using the following techniques: a) Selective adsorption of Carbon Dioxide, which in turn displaces methane. b) Increasing cleat pressure and use of partial pressure mechanism by injecting Nitrogen gas to displace methane.

25

Figure 3.3: General trend of methane production for various ECBM techniques The conventional secondary recovery using the gas injection is around 6 8% and total recovery using primary and secondary will be approximately 60%, which significantly less than natural gas recovery (75 80%). Using gas injection, there are some disadvantages occurs in this method: 1. It is difficult to purify the CO2 from a mixture of flue gases. 2. Coal swelling may occur. 3. Using N2 to reduce the partial pressure may have early breakthrough in CBM production.

26

3.2.1

Enhanced Coal Bed Methane recovery using Nitrogenase enzyme Since Nitrogen gas is most easily available, a biogenic enzyme is used to fix the Nitrogen

as Ammonia (CH3). Ammonia has a higher adsorptivity on coal surface compared to Nitrogen, thus Ammonia is more efficient in desorbing the methane. Therefore, better production of methane can be expected. The basic equation of conversion from Nitrogen to Ammonia as shown below: N2 + 8H+ + 8e2NH3 + H2

Enzymes are defined as a biocatalysts synthesized by living cells. Usually, enzyme is protein in nature, colloidal and specific in their action. They increase the activity and improve rate of reaction. Enzymes are best catalyst due to its great specifity and high turnover rates. The mechanism in ECBM using Nitrogenase enzyme is outlined as follows: 1. Extraction of Nitrogenase enzyme from nitrogen fixing bacteria.

2. Immobilization of the enzyme in suitable media.

3. Application of semipermeable membrane to prevent loss of nitrogen and enzyme.

27

4. Injection of enzyme with appropriate substrate. 5. Injection of nitrogen. 6. Nitrogen is converted into Ammonia in presence of Nitrogenase enzyme. 7. Ammonia passes through the membrane into coal seam. 8. Selective adsorption of Ammonia is favoured on coal surface due to high adsorptivity. 9. Higher amount of methane is desorbed which leads to better recovery. The proposed set for the ECBM is shown as below in Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.4: Basic Setup on the ECBM using Nitrogenase Enzyme

28

From the literature, it is found that the adsorptivity of Ammonia is higher than Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide and Methane. Considering the ammonia solubility in water at reservoir condition, it is determined that the amount of ammonia dissolved in water will be minor. The basic flow path equation for ECBM using Nitrogenase enzyme are: N2 + 8H+ + 8eN2 + Nitrogenase enzyme 2NH3 + H2 NH3

Figure 3.5 shows the molecular structure of Nitrogenase enzyme. In coal cleat, ammonia distributes into two phases; first ammonia dissolved in water. Then ammonia adsorbed in coal surface. Using the data calculated, it is found that more 70% of Ammonia adsorbed on the coal surface. Figure 3.6 shows ammonia in coal seam.

Figure 3.5: Molecular structure of Nitrogenase enzyme

29

Figure 3.6: Explanation of Ammonia in coal seam 3.2.2 Enhanced Coal Bed Methane using Microorganism There are two principle methods of ECBM recovery using microorganism. The first is use of nitrogen injection and the second one through displacement desorption employing carbon dioxide injection. Nitrogen is chosen as an injection gas due to its availability while carbon dioxide gives benefit of green house sequestration. Injection of N2 CO2 mixtures rich in N2 lead to fast recovery of methane, while mixtures rich in CO2 gives slower initial recovery increases breakthrough time and decreases the injection to sweep out the coal bed. Based on M.V.Jadhav paper, it more focuses on fixation of nitrogen and carbon dioxide with help of bacteria. Bacteria are unicellular and prokaryotes (organism that have false nucleus). Some of classification of bacteria are cryophilic, thermophilic and hyperthermophilic. The thermophiles bacteria can sustain and reproduce at temperature as high as 700C. Prokaryotes and free living bacteria only responsible for fixing nitrogen and carbon dioxide. These bacteria should be strictly anaerobic or facultative anaerobes where in coal seam, it is oxygen free.

30

Bacteria can be reproduced by binary fission. The main advantage of binary fission is that one cell divides producing two cells. There are four phases where bacteria can be present at various interval of time: Lag Phase the addition of inoculums to a new medium. Then, double the population while bacteria grow in size. Log Phase the cells divide steadily at a constant rate. The generation time of bacteria can be calculated using special log formula. Stationary Phase the growth begins to taper off after several hours. Decline Phase the bacteria die in this phase.

The conversion of molecular nitrogen into ammonia is known as nitrogen fixation. Some examples of Nitrogen Fixing bacteria are Azospirilum lipoferum, Tricodesmium and Methylomonas methanitrificans. For Carbon dioxide fixation, these archaebacteria generated to reduce CO2 with the formation of methane gas. Some examples of Carbon dioxide Fixing bacteria are Carboxydotrotrophic, Arthobacter and Methanobacterium. From the experiment done, the optimum growth conditions are scored by measuring methane concentrations after 48 hours inoculation. The methane production rate is determined from consecutive methane concentration measurements. In inoculation, microbes are injected followed by injection of N2 and CO2. This ensure that time for bacteria to settle down on coal matrix is quite sufficient. After settling down, the bacteria fix nitrogen in to the form of ammonia while carbon dioxide fixing bacteria use the glucose and CO2 to release methane. The adsorption/ desorption of the components to/from coal bed surface is approximated by an extended Langmuir isotherm and the gas phase behavior is predicted by Van der Waals interaction forces. Figure 3.7 represent the Langmuir isotherm and break through curve for the ammonia.

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Figure 3.7: The Langmuir isotherm and break through curve for ammonia

As a conclusion, the conversion of nitrogen to ammonia may lead to more recovery. The methane production can be enhanced by 8 10% by using the microorganism to increase the methane recovery in coal seam, which is more ecofriendly and save to the environment.

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CHAPTER 4

THE CHALLENGES OF OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY IS FACING IN SOURCING THE HYDROCARBON

4.1

Introduction There are several challenges has been facing by the oil and gas industry in sourcing the

hydrocarbon from coal bed methane (CBM). The first challenge is the development of CBM was produce large amount of water and this water improperly managed. This is occurs as a result of
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the large amount of water being pumped from coal seam aquifers. Besides that, the effect of carbon dioxide produce from methane recovery plant on environment is concerned. To reduce the effect of this gas, carbon dioxide will be used back to enhance the CBM recovery by injecting back to the CBM reservoir. 4.2 4.2.1 CBM product water management CBM development reduce flow to streams, springs and wells Large amount of water being pumped from coal seam aquifers, cause the impact to springs and streams and to the level of water in drinking and livestock wells. This happens at very specific location. If a spring or stream is fed by a coal seam aquifer (the coal seam surfaces and discharges water into a stream or spring), CBM development in the local area may decrease flow to those water bodies. And if a spring or stream is not fed by a coal seam aquifer, decreases in flow would be minimal. However, if CBM product water is land applied or impounded in a holding pond (most often these ponds are not lined and discharge to the subsurface), streams down slope may have increased flow during development due to subsurface flow. If a drinking water or livestock well gets water directly from a coal seam, then CBM development in the local area may decrease the water level in that well. Duration of impacts to spring flow and water available from wells will depend on the total area developed and timing. 4.2.2 The quantity of the CBM product water Extraction of CBM involves pumping large volumes of water from the saturated coal seam in order to release the water pressure holding the gas in the coal seam. Each well produces 5 to 20 gallons of water per minute. At 12 gallons per minute, one well produces a total of 17,280 gallons of water per day. It is common to have one well every 80 acres, and in the Powder River Basin, there are up to three methane-bearing coal seams. Therefore, there may be up to three wells per 80 acres.

4.2.3

The quality of CBM product water and its effects on soil

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CBM product water has a moderately high salinity hazard and often a very high sodium hazard based on standards used for irrigation suitability. Irrigation with water of CBM product water quality on range or crop lands should be done with great care and managed closely. With time, salts from the product water can accumulate in the root zone to concentrations which will affect plant growth. Saline conditions stunt plant growth because plants must work harder to extract water from the soil. The sodium hazard of CBM product water poses additional threats to certain soil resources. Sodic irrigation water causes soil crusting and impairs soil hydraulic conductivity, adversely affecting water availability and aeration and subsequent crop growth and yield. Upon wetting of soils containing swelling clay, sodium causes the degree of swelling in the clay to increase, leading to dispersion and migration of clay particles. Current research at Montana State University shows that water with sodium levels equal to typical Montana CBM product water can degrade the physical and chemical properties of heavier, clay soils, making such soils completely unsuitable for plant growth. The risk of sodium degradation has been observed in other soil textures. Jim Oster (personal com.) observed crusting, poor soil tilth, hardsetting and aggregate failure on a sandy loam soil irrigated with water with EC ~ 1 and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ~ 7. Minhaus (1994) saw irreversible and severe reduction in infiltration on sandy loam soil with long term irrigation under high SAR water followed by monsoon rain. There are many factors in addition to soil textures that affect infiltration rates. Mineralogy, lime, sesquiozides, organic matter content, cultivation, irrigation method, wetting rate, antecedent water content and time since cultivation all play a role in infiltration. The only way to be certain of the impacts of sodic irrigation water on the soil is to periodically sample and test the irrigation water and the soil.

4.2.4 The quality of CBM product water and its effect on plants Disposal of the quantities of CBM product water into stream channels and on the landscape poses a risk to the health and condition of existing riparian and wetland areas. High
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salinity and sodium levels in product water may alter riparian and wetland plant communities by causing replacement of salt intolerant species with more salt tolerant species. It is well recognized that encroachment of such noxious species as salt cedar, Russian olive, and leafy spurge is enhanced by saline conditions.

Impounded CBM discharge in an ephemeral channel. Die-off of plants within weeks of release.

Encroachment of halophytic weed species within one season.

Figure 4.1: Left: An example of soils of eastern Montana that are high in swelling (montmorillonitic) clay. Right: Complete dispersion of the same soil following a season of exposure to high saline/sodic water.

4.2.5

Managing CBM product water Currently, CBM product water in the Powder River Basin is managed by the following

methods:
a.

Discharged into a stream channel - Although direct stream discharge is no longer permitted on new wells, existing operations were "grandfathered" and are still discharging directly into streams. Also, proposals are being advanced to allow regulated discharges during certain flow conditions.
b.

Impounded - This method involves constructing a pond in which CBM

product water is stored or allowed to infiltrate to the subsurface. There are several terms for these impoundments: "holding ponds", "zero discharge ponds" or

36

"infiltration ponds". Although they do not directly discharge water on the land surface, most impoundments are not lined and do discharge to the subsurface. Some percentage of seepage flow from impoundments is likely to reach stream channels via subsurface flow.
c.

Land applied to crop or rangeland - through some form of irrigation

equipment.
d.

Other uses - CBM product water is also used for dust control and, in some

cases, is being used by coal mines. Another option proposed for disposal of CBM product water in eastern Wyoming and Montana is to reinject the CBM product water back into an aquifer(s). This practice occurs in the southwest U.S., where CBM product water is injected into formations below CBM-bearing coal. This approach avoids surface discharge. 4.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestration with Enhanced CBM Recovery There is a growing concern in the international community that CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels may play an important role in global climate change. Recent efforts in reducing the carbon content in fuels and improving the energy efficiency can certainly help in reducing the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere. The first large-scale opportunities for carbon dioxide sequestration are likely to be associated with storage in geologic formations. These geologic formations include oil and natural gas reservoirs, saline aquifers, and coal beds. In some instances, the recovery of a saleable commodity will offset the cost of sequestration. Included within this category are CO2 injection for enhanced oil recovery, reassure maintenance of oil or gas reservoirs, and enhanced methane production from coal seams. Of the sequestration options available, geologic sequestration of CO2 in coal formations to enhance coal bed methane production is considered one of the methods with the greatest short term potential. Figure 2 shows the CO2 sequestration process at BPs Tiffany field. CO2 from methane recovery plant is injected back to CBM reservoir in order to enhance CBM recovery.

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Figure 4.2: CO2 sequestration with enhanced coal bed methane recovery at BPs Tiffany Field.

Current research activities focus on addressing the risks involved in geologic sequestration of CO2 in coal seams. The actual CO2 sequestration capacity of coal is largely dictated by how effectively injected gases contact and interact with the reservoir over the active project lifetime and also defined as the economic limit for methane recovery and CO2 storage. Usually this is dictated by CO2 breakthrough, poor injectivity or a variety of other factors that make further operation economically prohibitive.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Coal plays an important role as an alternative energy source. The methane content of the coal is usually referred to as coal-bed methane (CBM). A spectrum of geology factors including
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stratigraphy, sedimentology, structural geology, hydrogeology, geochemistry and coal petrology will determines the properties of coal as a source and reservoir rocks. Worldwide CBM reserve and resources are in Australia, China, Europe, Canada and Indonesia. Two methods to produce methane from coal bed are by using conventional techniques and Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery.

REFERENCES: Chapter 1 [1] [2] Energy Information Administration, 2008. www.eia.doe.gov. Koplow.D, Bio fuels At What Cost? International Institute for Sustainable Development, October 2006, [3] Wood, D.A., 2009a. Global LNG Report: Uncertain supply and demand outlook for LNG, World Oil, February 2009 [4] Larry Thomas, Coal Geology, John Wiley & Sons, LTD, 2002

Chapter 2
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[1]

D.K. Luo*, Y.J. Dai, L.Y. Xia, Economic evaluation based policy analysis for coalbed methane industry in China, Elsevier, 2010

[2]

Ali S. Ziarani, Roberto Aguilera, Chris R. Clarkson, Investigating the effect of sorption time on coalbed methane recovery through numerical simulation, Elsevier, 2011

[3]

Alex Chakhmakhchev, IHS, Worldwide Coalbed Methane Overview, Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2007

Chapter 3 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] J.N. Vishnukumar, Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery Using Nitrogenase Enzyme, SPE-113033-STU, November 2007 D.W.Moore, J.F.Lea, J.cox, Coal bed Methane Production Facilities: A Case History,SPE 20668,Arco Oil & Gas Co, September 1990 D.A.Sampson, J.F.Lea, J.C.Fox, Coal Bed Methane Production, SPE 80900, BP America and Texas Tech University, March 2003 J.F.Manrique, B.D.Poe Jr, K.England, Production Optimization and Practical Reservoir Management of Coal Bed Methane,SPE 67315, Schlumberger, March 2001 M.V.Jadhav, Enhanced Coalbed Methane Recovery Using Microorganisms SPE 105117, Maharashtra Inst.of Technology, March 2007

Chapter 4 [1] [2] [3] [4] Kristin Keith and Jim Bauder, Coal Bed Methane Montana State University-Bozeman John Wheaton, Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology, 2003 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalbed_methane http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_bed_methane_extraction http://waterquality.montana.edu/docs/methane/cbmfaq.shtml

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