lithosphere

(lth sfr ) , brittle uppermost shell of the earth, broken into a number of tectonic plates. The lithosphere consists of the heavy oceanic and lighter continental crusts, and the uppermost portion of the mantle. The crust and mantle are separated by the Moho or Mohorovicic discontinuity (see earth and seismology). The thickness of the lithosphere varies from to around 1 mi (1.6 km) at the mid-ocean ridges to approximately 80 mi (130 km) beneath older oceanic crust. The thickness of the continental lithospheric plates is probably around 185 mi (300 km) but is uncertain due to the irregular presence of the Moho discontinuity. The lithosphere rests on a soft layer called the asthenosphere, over which the plates of the lithosphere glide. See plate tectonics.

Lithosphere by STEPHANIE BENDER on JUNE 27, 2009 According to the United States Geological Survey (the USGS), the lithosphere is, the solid outer zone of the Earth comprising the crust and the upper layer of the mantle. Also, according to the USGS, the term comes from the Greek word, lithos, meaning, rock, and the word, sphere, which can be any round object, such as a ball, an orange, or, even, you guessed it, a planet. Wasnt that helpful? To a Geologist, a scientist who studies the Earth, maybe; but, for us mere mortals, not really. When I think of, Crust, I think of the top of a pie. Apples my favorite, but anyway, back to the topic. Other times, I think of a loaf of fresh-baked, piping-hot bread, right out of the oven, smothered with honey butter. Oh, its so good! Wait a minute! What am I doing? OK, OK, let me make this point so I can forget about food. When we discuss, The Earths crust, were talking about the outer layer of the Earths surface. This is part of the lithosphere. The crusts made from 3 different types of rock: Igneous; sedimentary; and, metamorphic. Igneous rock forms when cracks in the Earth, known as fissures, break open or a volcano erupts. Both events bring hot, molten rock, known as magma, to the surface, where it cools and becomes different types of rock; what types may depend upon what else mixes with it, how much pressure its under, or how much time passes. The magma, comes from the other part of the lithosphere. Its released from the upper portion of the mantle. The lithospheres responsible for the renewal of the Earths surface. When the magmas released, it becomes known as lava. Other types of rock might be present when the lava arrives; and, since intense heat, pressure, or both can change the rocks from to another, the crust might appear very different afterwords. Some rocks are melted down entirely, and their molten remains may return to the mantle. Eventually, those remains will make another appearance; but, when, or in what form, when all is said and done, who can say? The lithosphere is very important to the rock cycle. Without it, our planet wouldnt change. I remember the horrible eruption of Mount St. Helens. The devastation, looked like pictures from Japan, after the atomic bombs hit Hiroshima and Nagasaki; but, I recall hearing later that scientists discovered never-before-seen plant life due to

the changes the particles underwent from the pressure, high heat, iron content, and their quick ability to adapt. Like our hearts, the lithosphere keeps our Earth young and healthy. Universe Today has some other great articles, if you want to learn more about this or similar subjects. One excellent resource is, Earth, Barely Habitable?. Another is, Interesting Facts About Planet Earth. lithosphere The Oxford Companion to the Earth | 2000 | PAUL HANCOCK and BRIAN J. SKINNER | Copyright lithosphere Plate tectonics relies on the concept of a rigid lithosphere. Although the term crust was used originally in geology to denote such a rigid layer, the modern concept of the lithosphere generally includes the crust and the uppermost part of the upper mantle (Fig. 1). Whereas the base of the crust is essentially a compositional boundary between mafic and ultramafic rocks, characterized by a rapid increase in seismic P-wave velocity to more than 8 km s1 (the Mohorovicic discontinuity), the lithosphere is defined rheologically as the strong, elastic layer at the surface of the Earth, overlying the weak, ductile asthenosphere. The base of the lithosphere is marked by he transition from brittle to ductile deformation, and is probably gradational. The lithosphere, as defined in this way, is sometimes referred to as a mechanical boundary layer. Because the lithosphere is rigid, it cannot convect as the deeper mantle does. Heat therefore passes through it mainly by conduction, which is a less effective mechanism than convection. In consequence, the geothermal gradient in the lithosphere is considerably higher than that in the rest of the mantle, and there is a large temperature difference across it. One can therefore also think of the lithosphere as a thermal boundary layer. There are several ways of estimating the thickness of the lithosphere. Because it is a rheological boundary, and rheological properties depend, inter alia, on strain rate, the thickness also depends on strain rate. One of the most common ways of estimating lithospheric thickness is to use seismology. Since this depends on the elastic deformation of rocks at frequencies of about 0.011 Hz, it is effectively a very high strain-rate method. Seismology shows that the velocity of seismic waves generally increases with depth in the upper mantle. However, in most places there is a small decrease in velocity starting at depths of around 100 km, which is thought to mark the transition from lithosphere to asthenosphere. The thickness of the lithosphere defined on this basis varies between different geological provinces. It is greatest under the cratonic centres of continents, where it may possibly reach around 300 km, and it is least, probably about 4 km, under mid-ocean ridges where new lithosphere is formed. Lithospheric thickness generally increases with age since its last major tectonic reactivation. The lithosphereasthenosphere transition should roughly follow the isotherm corresponding to the brittleductile transition. For oceanic lithosphere the

depths of isotherms are determined by conductive cooling since its creation at a midocean ridge. These depths can be computed and are approximately proportional to the square root of the age, as therefore is the lithospheric thickness. The seismically defined oceanic lithosphere increases in thickness from just a few kilometres at zero age to about 100 km at ages of over 100 Ma (million years). These depths correspond approximately to the 1000 C isotherm. Another method of estimating lithospheric thickness is by measuring how much it flexes under applied loads. Geophysicists have shown that the lithosphere can be modelled successfully as a thin elastic plate overlying a viscous substratum. The magnitude and wavelength of the flexure depend on the applied load and on the thickness of the plate. A variety of loads can be modelled, including sea mounts, ocean islands, subducting slabs, and the isostatic forces acting on the dipping boundaries of fault blocks. Such studies also show an increase of lithospheric thickness with age, but the thicknesses inferred are approximately one-third of those determined seismically. This is because flexural adjustments take place over long timescales of around 105 years or more, and at these low strain rates the brittle ductile transition occurs at lower temperatures. In fact, the elastic thickness estimates from flexural studies fall between the 350 C and 650 C isotherms (Fig. 2). The fact that the lithosphere comprises a significant part of the upper mantle has an important effect on its rheology. Oceanic lithosphere is typically over 90 per cent mantle; its strength, dominated by the mineral olivine, is high, and its density is also relatively high. Continental lithosphere may be only about 60 per cent mantle, and with significant quantities of typically crustal minerals such as feldspar and quartz it is much weaker, and relatively light. Thus, if two lithospheric plates are in collision and one is oceanic, the oceanic one can resist major deformation and be relatively easily overridden to form a subduction zone. However, if two continental plates are in collision, both are too light to sink easily, but they are also weak enough to be relatively easily folded or faulted. Thus continental collision zones tend to be wide and complex, containing many individual fault blocks as well as large fold mountains. Roger Searle Bibliography Kearey, P. and and Vine, F. J. (1996) Global tectonics. Blackwell Science, Oxford.