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CHAPTER

2:

SOIL

CHARACTERIZATION,

TESTING

AND

SOIL

PROPERTIES

INTRODUCTION Adequate knowledge of ground conditions is very important for analyses, design and construction of geotechnical systems. Project delays, failures and cost over-run are the result of inadequate and inappropriate soil investigations. A soil investigation must be part of the design process and while it is important to keep costs down you should not sacrifice good ground information to save a few dollars to meet minimum cost. In fact, the cost of soils investigation rarely exceeds 0.5% of project costs.

In this chapter, you will learn about the need for site characterization and how to conduct a soils investigation, specify soil tests and extract soil parameters for design. When you complete this chapter, you should be able to Understand the purposes of a soils investigation Plan a soils investigation Specify lab and field tests Interpret soil tests results to obtain parameters for analyses and design.

2.1 Purposes of a Soils Investigation A soils investigation program is necessary to provide information for design and construction, and for environmental assessment. The purposes of a soils investigation are:
1. 2.

To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the proposed project. To enable an adequate and economical design to be made.

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3. 4. 5.

To obtain physical and mechanical properties of soils for design and construction. To obtain groundwater conditions. To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground and other local conditions.

6.

To determine suitability of materials for construction.

2.2 Phases of a Soils Investigation The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type, size and importance of the structure, the client, the engineers familiarity with the soils at the site and local building codes. Structures that are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations, high use buildings, etc. usually require a thorough soils investigation compared to a foundation for a house. A client may wish to take a greater risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site investigation. If the geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very simple soil investigation to confirm his/her experience. Some local building codes have provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. Regardless of the thoroughness of a site investigation, it is mandatory that a site visit be made to the proposed site. In the early stages of a project, the available information is often inadequate to allow a detailed plan to be made. A site investigation must be developed in five phases.

Phase I - Collection of available information such as (a) Maps - an assortment of maps giving geology, contours and elevations, climate, land use, aerial photos, regional seismicity, hydrology, etc. are constructed using geographical information systems (GIS) and are available on the Internet.

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(b) Existing reports check your company files or associates for any existing information on the site and/or nearby sites. (c) Newspaper clippings these may provide historical information such as if the site was flooded in the past or a building had existed at the site. (d) Site plans giving type of structure, location, size, finish grades, cut and fill, and importance of the structure. Normally, a soil investigation is conducted prior to the development of site plans. Occasionally, these plans are available.

Phase II - Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the topography and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site visit all the information gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site. Your site visit notes should include the following. 1. Photographs of the site and its neighborhood 2. Access to site for men and equipment. Sketch all fences, utility posts, driveways, walkways, drainage systems, etc. 3. Utility services that are available such as water and electricity 4. Sketch topography and include all existing structures, cuts, fills, ground depression, ponds, etc. 5. The state of any existing building at the site or nearby. You notes should include exterior and interior cracks, any noticeable tilt, type of construction e.g. brick or framed stucco five story building, evidence of frost damages, molds and any exceptional features. 6. Geological features from any exposed area such as a road cut.

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Phase III - Detailed soil exploration. The objectives of a detailed soil exploration are: 1. To determine the geological structure that should include the thickness, sequence and extent of the soil strata. 2. To determine the ground water conditions. 3. To conduct in situ tests. 4. To obtain disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests.

Phase IV Laboratory testing. The objectives of laboratory tests are: 1. To classify the soils. 2. To determine soil strength, failure stresses and strains, stress-strain response, Not all of these may be

permeability, compactability, and settlement parameters. required for a project.

Phase V Write report The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site, methods of exploration, soil stratigraphy, in situ and laboratory test methods and results, and the location of the ground water. You should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil, water bearing stratum, any soil and ground water condition such as frost susceptibility and water logged areas that may be troublesome during construction.

2.3 Soils Exploration Program

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A soil exploration program usually involves test pits and/or soil borings (boreholes). During the site visit (Phase II), you should work out most of the soil exploration program. A detailed soil exploration consists of: 1. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pits. 2. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits. 3. Planned depth of each borehole, or test pit. 4. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes. 5. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The sampling instructions must include the number of samples and possible locations. instructions often occur after the first borehole. 6. Requirements for groundwater observations. The initial boreholes or test pits should give general geological information about the site that can be used to plan and execute the detailed soil exploration. Boreholes should be located near heavily loaded parts of the structures, special structures, suspected dumpsites, old landslides areas and ground depression. The proposed area of the Changes in the sampling

structure should be divided using a grid approximately 20 m to 40 m for large areas and boreholes should be located at node points on the grid. A simple numbering system can be devised by labeling one side with numbers and the adjacent side with letters. A borehole at a grid node can be identified as say 3C. As a guide, a minimum of 3 boreholes should be drilled for a building area of < 250 m2 and about 5 for a building area 1000 m2 and less.

2.4 Soil Exploration Methods

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Access to the soil may be obtained by the following methods. 1. Trial pits or test pits. 2. Hand or powered augers. 3. Wash boring. 4. Rotary rigs. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods are given in Table 2.1 Table 2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Soil Exploration Methods. METHOD ADVANTAGES Test Pits Cost effective A pit is dug either by hand Provide detailed or by a backhoe. information of stratigraphy Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing. Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits. Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pit. HAND AUGERS The auger is rotated by turning and pushing down on the handle bar. DISADVANTAGES Depth limited to about 6m in stiff clays. May require side supports in coarse-grained soils and soft clays. Deep pits uneconomical Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils Time consuming Limited to depths above ground water level. Cost effective Depth limited to about 6m Not dependent on terrain Labor intensive Portable Undisturbed samples can be taken only for Low headroom required soft clay deposit Used in uncased holes Cannot be used in rock, Groundwater location stiff clays, dry sand, can be easily identified caliche soils, etc. and measured

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POWER AUGERS Truck mounted and equipped with continuous flight augers that bores a hole 100mm to 250 mm in diameter. Augers have solid or hollow stem.

Quick Used in uncased holes Understand samples can be obtained quite easily Drilling mud not used Groundwater location can be easily identified

Depth limited to about 15m. At greater depth drilling becomes difficult and expensive. Site must be accessible to motorized vehicle.

WASH BORING Water is pumped to bottom of borehole and soil washings are returned to surface. A drill bit is rotated and dropped to produce a chopping action.

Can be used in difficult terrain Low equipment cost Used in uncased holes

ROTARY DRILLS A drill bit is pushed by weight of drilling equipment and rotated by a motor

Quick Drill through any type of soil or rock Can drill to depths of 7500m Undisturbed samples can be easily recovered

Depth limited to about 30m Slow drilling through stiff clays, and gravels Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level. Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained. Expensive equipment Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle Difficulty in obtaining location of groundwater level Additional time required for set-up and clean-up

2.5 Soils Identification in the Field In the field, the predominant soil types based on texture are identified by inspection. Common descriptive terms and methods of identification are as follows. Color: Color is not directly related to engineering properties of soils, but related to soil mineralogy and texture.

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Gray and bluish: unoxidized soils White and cream: calcareous soils Red and yellow: oxidized soil Black and dark brown: soil contains organic matter Moisture: Appearance due to water are described as wet, dry and moist. Structure: Homogeneous: color and texture feel the same throughout. Non-homogeneous: color and texture vary. Shape: Angular shape edges, irregular: subangular smooth edges, irregular;

subrounded smooth, irregular; rounded smooth, egg or marble shape; flaky peels like mica or resembles sheets of paper; Flat width to thickness . 3; elongated ratio of length to width > 3 Weathering: Fresh, decomposed, weathered Carbonate: Effervesces with acidadd a small amount of hydrochloric acid and check if soil effervesces. If it does, it contains carbonate. Smell: Organic soils give off a strong odor that intensifies with heat. Non-organic soils have a subtle odor with the addition of water. Feel: Use feel to distinguish between sand, silts and clays. Sand has a gritty feel Silt has a rough feel similar to fine sand paper Clay feels smooth and greasy. It sticks to fingers and is powdery when dry. Consistency: Very stiff: Finger pressure barely dents soil but cracks under significant pressure Stiff: Finger pressure dents soil Firm: Soil can be molded using strong finger pressure

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Soft: Easily molded by finger Very soft: Soil flows between fingers when fist is closed. Dilatancy: Place a small amount of the soil in your palm and shake horizontally. Then strike it with the other hand. If the surface is slurry and water appears, the soil probably has a large amount of silt. Packing: Coarse-grained soils are described as: Very Loose: Collapses with slight disturbance, open structure Loose: Collapses upon disturbance, open structure Medium dense: indents when pushed firmly Dense: barely deforms when pushed by feet or by stomping Very Dense: impossible to depress with stomping

2.6 Depth of Boreholes The depth of borehole should cover the zone of soil that will be affected by the structural loads. There is no fixed rule to follow. In most cases, the depths of boreholes are governed by experience based on geological character of the ground, the importance of the structure, the structural loads and the availability of equipment. Some guidelines are 1. In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least between 1 to 3 times the width of the proposed foundation or until the stress increment due to the heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater. 2. In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7m to prove that the thickness of the stratum is adequate. 3. Borings should penetrate at least 3m into rock.

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4. Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed structure. 5. The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6m unless bedrock or very dense material is encountered.

2.7 Soil Sampling The objective of soil sampling is to obtain soils of satisfactory size with minimum disturbance for observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching an open-ended thin-walled tube, called a Shelby tube or, simply, a sampling tube, to drill rods and forcing it down into the soil. The tube is carefully withdrawn, hopefully, with the soil inside it. Soil

disturbances occur from several sources during sampling such as friction between the soil and the sampling tube, the wall thickness of the sampling tube, the sharpness of the cutting edge, and care and handling during transportation of the sample tube. To

minimize friction, the sampling tube should be thin and pushed instead of driven into the ground. Soil disturbance can significantly affect the consolidation and strength

parameters used for design.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.1 A thin wall tube and a split tube sampler

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One of the common types of soil samplers is the open-tube sampler that consists of a shelby tube - a thin-walled seamless steel tube of diameter 50mm or 75mm and length of 600mm - 900mm (Fig. 2.1a) that is fixed to a sampler head.. Another

popular sampler is the standard sampler, popularly known as the split spoon sampler, which has an inside diameter of 35mm and an outside diameter of 50mm (Fig. 2.1b). The sampler has a split barrel that is held together using a screw-on driving shoe at the bottom end and a cap at the upper end. The thicker wall of the standard sampler permits higher driving stresses than the shelby tube but does so at the expense of higher levels of soil disturbances. Split spoon samples are disturbed. They are used for visual examination and for classification tests. Hvorslev(1949) conducted a comprehensive study on the sampling disturbances caused by samplers and defined several critical factors such as area ratio, inside clearance ratio, outside clearance ratio, length to diameter ratio, method of advancing the sampler, method of sample recovery and stress relief.. One measure of the effects of sampler wall thickness is the recovery ratio defined as L/H where L is the length of the sample and H is the distance that the sampler was pushed. Higher wall thickness leads to the greater recovery ratio and greater sampling disturbance. Sampling tubes that are in common use have been designed to minimize sampling disturbances.

If the soils at a site show significant variations, it would be more prudent to map the geological structures carefully rather than to obtain large numbers of samples and laboratory test data.

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2.8 Groundwater conditions The upper surface of the ground water is called the water table. Many construction failures, court battles and construction cost overruns are due to the non-identification or non-disclosure of groundwater conditions at a site. The water table invariably fluctuates depending on environmental conditions (e.g. rainfall patterns, winter rains, monsoons, tides, drought), human activities (e.g., pumping groundwater from wells and draw down during construction) and geological conditions. When ground water is trapped in a permeable soil layer overlaid by an impervious layer, the pressure of the groundwater could be considerable. If a borehole is made such that the reduction of soil pressure (due to soil removal) is greater than the pressure of the water trapped in the permeable stratum, the trapped ground water may break out and shoot up above the ground surface. This is called artesian condition. If the water just reaches the ground surface, or stays below, we have a sub-artesian condition. It is particularly important to identify and disclose these conditions during the construction process because failure can occur with possible loss of lives and properties. You should not only identify the ground water level and any special conditions (e.g., artesian condition) but also the possible range of ground water level fluctuations.

Groundwater is measured using piezometers or standpipes. Measurements should be made over a period of days to detect any local variability. You should not rely on groundwater measurements from excavations.

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2.9 IN SITU or FIELD TESTS Over the years, several in situ testing devices have emerged to characterize the soil and to measure strength and deformation properties. The most popular devices are 1. Standard penetration tests (SPT) 2. Vane shear test (VST) 3. Cone penetrometer test (CPT) 4. Flat plate dilatometer (DMT) 5. Pressuremeter tests (PMT)

2.9.1 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) ASTM D1586 The standard penetration test (SPT) was developed circa 1927 and is perhaps the most popular field test. The SPT is performed by driving a standard split spoon sampler into the ground by a drop hammer of mass 64 kg falling 760mm (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). The number of blows to drive the sampler 150mm into the soil is recorded. The sum of the number of blows for the last two 150mm is the standard penetration number (N). The test is very simple, but the results are difficult to interpret.

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HAMMER

OPERATOR HAMMER LIFTERCONNECTOR INTERFACE CONNECTORS TO CATHEAD

GROUND SURFACE

GUIDE ROD CUSHION-HAMMER ROD INTERFACE SEGMENTS OF DRILL ROD JOINT IN DRILL ROD DRILLING MUD

DETERMINES NET INPUT ENERGY TO DRILL ROD

BOREHOLE WITH/WITHOUT CASING

DETERMINES TRANSFER MECHANISM TO SAMPLER

SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER SOIL-SAMPLER INTERFACE DISPLACEMENT DUE TO NET USEFUL ENERGY AT TIP DETERMINES NVALUE

Figure 2.2 Details of SPT Test.

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Figure 2.3 Driving sequence in an SPT (Source: http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/devices/)

The word standard is a misnomer for the standard penetration test. Several methods are used in different parts of the world to release the hammer. Also different types of anvil, rods and, rod lengths are prevalent. Various corrections are applied to the N values to account for energy losses, over burden pressure, rod length, etc. It is customary to correct the N values to a rod energy ratio of 60%. The rod energy ratio (ERr) is the ratio (in percent) of the energy delivered to the split spoon sampler to the free falling energy of the hammer. The corrected N values are denoted as N60 and given as

N 60 = N (

ERr ) 60

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Typical values for ERr in North America are 45% for donut hammers and between 55% and 83% for automatic hammers. For the United Kingdom, ERr = 60% for automatic hammers. Correction factors for rod lengths, sampler type and borehole diameter as suggested by Skempton (1986) are given in Table 2.2

Table 2.2 Correction factors for rod length, sampler type and borehole size (Skempton, 1986) Correction Factor Cr Item Rod length (below anvil) 10 m 6 10 m 46m 34m Cs Standard sampler US sampler without liners Cd Borehole diameter: 65 -115 mm 150 mm 200 mm 1.0 1.05 1.15 1.0 0.95 0.85 0.70 1.0 1.2 Correction factor

We can write a composite correction factor, Crsd, for the correction factors given in Table 2.2 as Crsd = Cr Cs Cd

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Various correction factors for overburden pressure have been suggested by a number of investigators. Only two such suggestions for correcting N values for overburden pressure are included in this text. These are: 95.8 2 cN = ; c N 2 (Liao and Whitman, 1985) z
1

1916 c N = 0.77 log10 ; c N 2 , z > 24kPa (Peck et. al., 1974) z

where cN is a correction factor for overburden pressures, z is the effective overburden pressure in kPa. A further correction factor is imposed on N values if the ground water level is within a depth B below the base of the footing. The ground water correction factor is:
cW = 1 1 z + 2 2 (D f + B)

where z is the depth to the groundwater table, Df is the footing depth and B is the footing width. If the depth of the groundwater level is beyond B from the footing base, cW = 1. Meyerhof (1965) proposed that no correction should be applied to N values for the effects of ground water as these are already incorporated in the measurement. The corrected N value is: Ncor = Crsd CN CW N(
ER r ) 60

The N value is used to estimate the relative density, angle of shearing resistance and settlement in granular soils. Typical correlation among N values, relative density and are given in Tables 2.3 and 2.4. You should be cautious in using the correlation in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 to determine the mechanical properties of soils and to design foundations

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because the scatter in data is generally large, i.e., the correlation coefficients are low. Experience and judgment are required to successfully use Tables 2.3 and 2.4. TABLE 2.3 Correlation of N, N60, , Dr and for coarse-grained soils. (kN/m3) 05 03 very loose 11-13 5 10 39 Loose 14-16 10 30 9 25 Medium 17-19 30 50 25 45 Dense 20-21 >50 >45 very dense >21 These values correspond to the peak friction angle. N N60 Description Dr (%) 0 15 16 35 36 65 66 85 >86 (degrees) 26 28 29 34 35- 40 * 38 45* >45 *

TABLE 2.4 - Correlation of N60 and su for saturated fine-grained soils. N60 02 35 69 10 15 15 30 > 30 Description Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Extremely stiff su (kPa) <10 10 25 25 50 50 100 100 200 > 200

The SPT test is very useful to determine changes in stratigraphy and locating bedrock. Also, you can inspect the soil in the split spoon sampler to describe the soil

profile and extract disturbed samples for laboratory tests.

2.9.2 Vane Shear Test (VST) ASTM D2573 The vane shear device consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally (90) to a rod Fig. 2.4. The vane is pushed, usually from the bottom of a borehole, to the desired depth usually at 1m intervals. A torque is applied at a rate of 6o per minute by a torque head device located on or above the soil surface and attached to the vane shear rod. The undrained shear strength is calculated from

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su =

2T h 1 d 3 ( + ) d 3

where T is the maximum torque, h is the height of the vane, and d is the diameter of the vane. The ratio h/d is generally 2. The factor 1/3 is based on the assumption of a uniform strain distribution between the top and bottom of the failure surfaces. The results are displayed as vane shear strength versus depth.

The insertion of the vane causes soil remolding. Higher blade thickness results in greater remolding and lower soil strengths. The blade thickness should not exceed 5% of the vane diameter.

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Casing Sheath

Section Y - Y Vane

Vane probe in protective sheath

Vane extended and ready for testing

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(Source: http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/devices/) Figure 2.4 Shear vane tester.

2.9.3

Cone Penetrometer Tests (CPT) ASTM D5778

A basic cone penetrometer (Figure 2.5a) is a cylindrical probe with a base area 10cm2 and cone angle 60o that is pushed into the ground at a rate of 2cm/s. An outer

sleeve sits above the cone base. The thrust required to drive the cone and the sleeve into the ground are measured independently so that the end resistance or cone resistance and side friction or sleeve resistance may be estimated separately. The CPT test results are normally recorded electronically and are reputed to be more reliable for stratigraphic characterization and in situ soil properties determination than SPT. There are several

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variants of the basic cone penetrometer. Three of there are the piezocone (uCPT or CPTu), seismic cone (SCPT) and the vision cone (VisCPT or VisCPTu).
Casing

connecting rod

cone

Filter to facilitate pore water pressure measurement

(a) Dutch cone

(b) Piezocone

(c)

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(Source: http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/devices/) Figure 2.5 (a) Basic CPT device (b) Piezocone (c) Parameters measured in a Piezocone test The Piezocone has porous elements inserted into the cone or sleeve to allow for pore water pressure measurements (Fig. 2.5b,c). The measured pore water pressure depends on the location of the porous elements. The piezocone is a very useful tool for soil profiling and estimation of in situ shear strength, bearing capacity and consolidation characteristics of soils. Typical results from a piezocone are shown in Fig. 2.6.

Cone Penetration Testing (CPT)

Real-Time readings in computer screen
Penetration at 2 cm/s

Sand

Clay
Buried Crust

Clay

(Source:http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/misc/CPTu%20Ani mation.pps) Figure 2.6 Piezocone results

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In the SCPT, geophones are installed inside the cone. Hammers on the surface are used to produce surface disturbances and the resulting seismic waves are recorded by the geophones usually three. The recorded data is then analyzed to give damping

characteristics and soil strength parameters.

Since no samples are recovered during any of the CPT variants described above, it is not possible to classify the soils. The VisCPT and VisCPTu have miniature cameras installed in the CPT probe that provide continuous images of the soil adjacent to the cone. Through image processing, the soil texture can be inferred. The VisCPTu can also be used to detect liquefiable soils.

Regardless of which CPT probe is used, the results are average values of the soil resistance over a length of about 10 cone diameters about 5 diameters above the tip plus about 5 cone diameters below the tip. In layered soils, the soil resistances measured by the cone may not represent individual layers especially thin layers ( < 5 cone diameters). The cone resistance is influenced by several soil variables such as stress level, soil density, straitgraphy, soil mineralogy, soil type and soil fabric. Results of CPT tests have been correlated with laboratory tests to build empirical relationships for strength and deformation parameters. Investigators have also related CPT results to other field tests particularly SPT. Figure 2.7 shows relationships between qc (kPa)/N (blows/ft) and grain size of soils. You should note that the scales on the axes are logarithmic.

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Figure 2.7 Empirical relationship between CPT test and SPT for different soil types (Robertson et. al., 1983; Burland and Burbidge, 1985)

The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained shear strength. Several adjustments are made to qc. One correlation equation is

su =

qc z Nk

where Nk is a cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration. Average values of Nk as a function of plasticity index can be estimated from N k = 19 I p 10 5 ; I p > 10

Results of cone penetrometer tests have been correlated with the friction angle. A number of correlations exist. Based on published data for sand (Robertson and

Campanella, 1983), you can estimate d using

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q = 35o + 11.5log c ; p zo 30

25o 50o p

where qc is the cone resistance and zo is the in situ effective vertical stress.

2.9.4

Pressuremeters

The Menard type pressuremeter (Fig. 2.8) consists of a cylindrical probe that is placed at the desired depth and pressure is applied to a measuring cell of the probe. The borehole is unlined over the height of the probe. The pressure applied is analogous to

the expansion of a cylindrical cavity. The pressure is raised in stages at constant time intervals usually 1 minute and volume changes or radial displacements are recorded at each stage. A pressure/volume change curve is then drawn from which the elastic modulus, shear modulus and the shear strength may be estimated. From consideration of the radial expansion of a cylindrical cavity in an infinite medium, the shear modulus is given as
G=V p V

where G is the shear modulus, V is the volume of the cavity and p is the pressure applied.

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Water pressure to expand membrane

ELASTIC ZONE

Gas Pressure to inflate guard cells

Directions of Principal Stresses r

Expanding Zone Plastic Zone

45+ /2

Guard Cell Pressure Cell Guard Cell

Directions of Shear Planes

(a) Vertical section

(b) stresses near probe

Figure 2.8 (a) Menard Pressuremeter (b) stresses near probe.

C
Volumetric deformation cm3

v2

v2 v1

B v A p Assumed elastic response

O p 1

p2

Pressure (kPa)

Figure 2.9 Illustration of PMT results

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The data from a PMT is usually plotted as pressure versus volumetric deformation as shown in Figure 2.9. The straight section of the curve AB is assumed to be the elastic response of the soil and the shear modulus is calculated from the test data as vc + ( v1 + v 2 ) p 2 v
E , we can calculate the elastic modulus E if we know the value of 2 (1 + )

G=

Since G =

Poissons ratio, . For drained test, 1/3 and E 2.67G.

The Menard PMT is useful for all soils except soft clays or gravels.

One of the

disadvantages of the Menard pressure meter is that it has to be inserted into a predrilled hole and consequently the soil is disturbed. The method of drilling is crucial for accurate pressuremeter results.

2.9.5 Self-boring Pressuremeter Test (SBPMT)

The Cambridge Camkometer (Fig. 2.10) is a self-boring pressuremeter that minimizes soil disturbances. Incremental pressures are applied to radially expand a rubber

membrane that is built into the side wall of the Camkometer and a feeler gauge measures the radial displacement. Thus, the stress-strain response of the soil can be obtained. Interpretation of the pressure meter test is beyond the scope of this book. An excellent source on the interpretation of the pressure meter test is Wroth (1984).

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Figure 2.10. Schematic of Cambridge Camkometer (redrawn, after Hughes & Wroth, 1972)
2.9.6 Flat Plate Dilatometer (DMT)

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The flat plate dilatometer consists of a tapered blade 95mm wide and 15mm thick and 240mm long (Figure 2.11). On the flat face the dilatometer is a flexible steel membrane 60 mm in diameter that when inflated pushes the soil laterally. The blade is attached to drill rods and is pushed into the soil at a rate of 2 cm/s by a drill rig. Tests are normally conducted every 200mm. The pneumatic pressures (a) to bring the membrane flush with the soil surface (b) to push the soil laterally for a distance of 1.1mm and (c) at which the membrane returns to its original position are recorded.

Figure 2.11 Flat plate dilatometer (Source: http://www.ce.gatech.edu/~geosys/Faculty/Mayne/Research/devices/)

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Results from dilatometers have been related to undrained shear strength, lateral earth pressures, overconsolidation ratio and elastic modulus. Dilatometers cause significant remolding of the soil before the test commences and the results obtained should be used with caution. The dilatometer test is best suited for clays and sands.

2.9.7 Plate Load Tests (PLT)

Plate load tests (Fig. 2.12) are used to estimate bearing capacity and settlement of shallow footings. The plates are made from steel with sizes varying from 150mm to 760mm. Two common plate sizes are used in practice. One is a square plate of width 300mm and the other is a circular plate of diameter 300mm. The test is carried out in a pit of depth at least 1.5m. Loads are applied incrementally in increments of 10 to 20% of the estimated allowable bearing capacity. Each load increment is held until settlement ceases. The final settlement at the end of each loading increment is recorded. Loading is continued until the soil fails or settlements are in excess of 10% of the plate diameter. The maximum load should be at least 1.5 times the estimated allowable bearing capacity.

Stress or load

Settlement

Bp

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Figure 2.12 Plate load test. If the soil were to behave like an elastic material then the settlement can be calculated from p = q ap B p 1 ( ) 2 Ip E (1)

where p is the plate settlement, ap is the applied stress, Bp is the width or diameter of the plate, is Poissons ratio, E = elastic modulus and Ip is an influence factor (0.82 for a rigid plate). The settlement of the real footing () of width B is related to the plate settlement by
2 = p Bp 1+ B
2

In the limit

Bp B

Equation (1) is only valid if the strains are small (infinitesimal). There are several problems associated with the plate load test. 1. The test is reliable only if the soil layer is thick and homogenous. 2. The depth of soil that is stressed below the plate is significantly lower than the real footing. A weak soil layer below the plate may not affect the test results because it may be at a depth at which the stresses imposed on the weak layer by the plate loads may be insignificant. However, this weak layer can have significant effect on the bearing capacity and settlement of the real footing. 3. Local conditions such as a pocket of weak soil near the surface of the plate can affect

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the test results but these may have no significant effect on the real footing. 4. The correlation between plate load test results and the real footing is problematic. Settlement depends on the size of the plate. Settlement increases with increases in the plate size. Bjerrum and Eggestad (1963) found that there is significant scatter in the relationship between plate size and settlement for a given applied stress. Bjerrum and Eggestad (1963) also reported that field evidence indicates that the limit of between 3 and 5 rather than a fixed value of 4. 5. Performance of the test is difficult. On excavating sand to make a pit, the soil below the plate invariably becomes looser and this has considerable influence on the test results. Good contact must be achieved between the plate and the soil surface but this is often difficult. If the plate were just above the ground water, the results would be affected by negative pore water pressure. 6. PLT are limited to shallow depths. A screw, called a screw plate that consists of a flat pitch auger device and is augured in the ground is used for tests at large depths.
HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

ranges

The hydraulic conductivity, k, in the field is obtained by pumping water at a constant flow rate from a well and measuring the decrease in ground water level at observation wells (Fig. 2.23). The hydraulic conductivity is calculated using Darcys law and Dupuits

assumption and is given as

r q ln 2 r 1 k= 2 2 h 2 h1

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With measurements of r1, r2, h1, h2, and q (flow rate of the pump), k can be calculated.

The essential points are: 1. Soils are products of nature that have been subjected to a variety of natural processes over space and time. Thus, a site investigation is necessary to

determine the nature of the soils at a proposed site for design and construction. 2. A soil investigation needs careful planning and is usually done in phases. 3. The extent of a soils investigation depends largely on the geology of the site, the type and importance of the structure, the structural loads and ground water conditions. 4. A number of tools are available for soil exploration. You need to use judgment as to the type appropriate for a given project. 5. Various field tests are used to determine soil strength and deformation parameters. Experience is required to successful use in situ tests results in foundation design.