1.

ZENER DIODE:
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener voltage of a standard diode is high, but if a reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it, the diode is permanently damaged. Zener diodes are designed so that their zener voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts. When a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode, there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode. The voltage drop across the Zener diode is equal to the Zener voltage of that diode no matter how high the reverse bias voltage is above the Zener voltage. The illustration above shows this phenomenon in a Current vs. Voltage graph. With a zener diode connected in the forward direction, it behaves exactly the same as a standard diode - i.e. a small voltage drop of 0.3 to 0.7V with current flowing through pretty much unrestricted. In the reverse direction however there is a very small leakage current between 0V and the Zener voltage - i.e. just a tiny amount of current is able to flow. Then, when the voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz), suddenly current can flow freely through it.

Avalanche Breakdown:
Avalanche breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both insulating and semiconducting materials. It is a form of electric currentmultiplication that can allow very large currents within materials which are otherwise good insulators. It is a type of electron avalanche. The avalanche process occurs when the carriers in the transition region are accelerated by the electric field to energies sufficient to free electron-hole pairs via collisions with bound electrons.

Uses of Zener Diodes:

Since the voltage dropped across a Zener Diode is a known and fixed value, Zener diodes are typically used to regulate the voltage in electric circuits. Using a resistor to ensure that the current passing through the Zener diode is at least 5mA (0.005 Amps), the circuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the diode is exactly equal to the Zener voltage of the diode.

2. SCHOTTKY DIODE:
A Schottky diode is a special type of diode with a very low forward-voltage drop. When current flows through a diode, it has some internal resistance to that current flow, which causes a small voltage drop across the diode terminals. A normal diode has between 0.7-1.7 volt drops, while a Schottky diode voltage drop is between approximately 0.15-0.45 this lower voltage drop translates into higher system efficiency.

Construction:
A metal-semiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor, creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductorsemiconductor junction as in conventional diodes). Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten; and the semiconductor would typically be N-type silicon. The metal side acts as the anode and N-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of the diode. This Schottky barrier results in both very fast switching and low forward voltage drop.

Reverse Recovery Time:

The most important difference between p-n and Schottky diode is reverse recovery time, when the diode switches from non-conducting to conducting state and vice versa. Where in a p-n diode the reverse recovery time can be in the order of hundreds of nanoseconds and less than 100 ns for fast diodes, Schottky diodes do not have a recovery time, as there is nothing to recover from (i.e. no charge carrier depletion region at the junction). The switching time is ~100 ps for the small signal diodes, and up to tens of nanoseconds for special high-capacity power diodes. It is often said that the Schottky diode is a "majority carrier" semiconductor device. This means that if the semiconductor body is doped n-type, only the n-type carriers (mobile electrons) play a significant role in normal operation of the device. The majority carriers are quickly injected into the conduction band of the metal contact on the other side of the diode to become free moving electrons. Therefore no slow, random recombination of n- and p- type carriers is involved, so that this diode can cease conduction faster than an ordinary p-n rectifier diode.

Applications:
Schottky diodes are often used for RF radio frequency applications as a mixer or detector diode. Another common application for the Schottky diode is as a power application as a rectifier.

3. VARACTOR:
A varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable reactance diode or tuning diode is a type of diode which has a variable capacitance that is a function of the voltage impressed on its terminals.

Operation of Variable Capacitor:

The capacitance of the capacitor is dependent upon the area of the plates - the larger the area the greater the capacitance, and also the distance between them - the greater the distance the smaller the level of capacitance. A reverse biased diode has no current flowing between the P-type area and the N-type area. The N-type region and the P-type regions can conduct electricity, and can be considered to be the two plates, and the region between them - the depletion region is the insulating dielectric. This is exactly the same as the capacitor above. As with any diode, if the reverse bias is changed so does the size of the depletion region. If the reverse voltage on the varactor or varicap diode is increased, the depletion region of the diode increases and if the reverse voltage on varactor diode is decreased the depletion region narrows. Therefore by changing the reverse bias on the diode it is possible to change the capacitance.

Applications:
Varactors are used as voltage-controlled capacitors, rather than as rectifiers. They are commonly used in parametric amplifiers, parametric oscillators and voltage-controlled oscillators as part of phase-locked loops and frequency synthesizers. For example, varactors are used in the tuners of television sets to electronically tune the receiver to different stations.

4. TUNNEL DIODE:
The tunnel diode has a region in its voltage current characteristic where the current decreases with increased forward voltage, known as its negative resistance region. This characteristic makes the tunnel diode useful in oscillators and as a microwave amplifier. These diodes have a heavily doped pn junction only some 10 nm (100 ) wide. The heavy doping results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side.

Forward Bias Operation:

Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first tunnel through the very narrow pn junction barrier because filled electron states in the conduction band on the n-side become aligned with empty valence band hole states on the p-side of the p-n junction. As voltage increases further these states become more misaligned and the current drops this is called negative resistance because current decreases with increasing voltage. As voltage increases yet further, the diode begins to operate as a normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the p n junction, and no longer by tunneling through the pn junction barrier. Thus the most important operating region for a tunnel diode is the negative resistance region.

Reverse Bias Operation:

When used in the reverse direction they are called back diodes and can act as fast rectifiers with zero offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals (they have an accurate square law characteristic in the reverse direction). Under reverse bias filled states on the p-side become increasingly aligned with empty states on the n-side and electrons now tunnel through the pn junction barrier in reverse direction this is the Zener effect that also occurs in Zener diodes.

Applications:
They are used in low power amplifiers, DLVA, microwave and RF power monitors, high-frequency triggers, ALC loops, zero bias detectors, ACP tunnel diode circuits, etc. Since they are more resistant to nuclear radiation, tunnel diodes are used in space applications like amplifiers for satellite communications.

5. SHOCKLEY DIODE:
The four-layer diode, also called the Shockley diode after its inventor William Shockley, is essentially a low-current SCR without a gate. It is classified as a diode because it has only two external terminals through anode and cathode. Because of its four doped regions it is often called a P-N-P-N diode. The basic structure, two transistor version, equivalent transistor circuit and schematic symbol of a Shockley diode are shown in figure.

Operation:
The easiest way to understand how it operates is to visualize it to be formed of two transistors Q1 and Q2 placed back to back, as shown in figure below. Figure shows the diode split-up into two parts, displaced mechanically but connected electrically. The left half is a P-N-P transistor while the right half is an N-PN- transistor. It may be seen that N-type base region of P-N-P transistor forms the collector of N-P-N transistor while P-type base of N-P-N transistor forms the collector of P-N-P transistor. Thus the four-layer diode is equivalent to the latch shown in figure.

Because there are no trigger inputs, the only way to switch the device on is to increase the anode-to-cathode voltage VAK to the forward switching voltage, and the only way to open it is by low current drop out. With a four layer diode it is not necessary to reduce the current all the way to zero to open the latch. The internal transistors of the device will come out of saturation when the current is reduced to a low value, called the holding current. The forward switching voltage V s is equivalent of the SCR forward breakover voltage, and the minimum current at which device will switch on is the switching current IS.

Breakover Characteristics of Shockley Diode:

Voltage-current characteristic of a Shockley diode is shown in figure. The device has two operating states: conducting and non-conducting. In non-conducting state, it operates on lower line with negligible current and a voltage less than switching voltage or breakover voltage. When the voltage tries to exceed the breakover voltage, the device breaks down and switches along the dotted line to the conducting or on-state. The dotted line indicates an unstable or a temporary condition. The device can have current and voltage values on this dotted line only briefly as it switches between the two stable operating states. In conducting state or in on-state, the device operates on the upper line. As long as the current through the device is greater than the holding current IH, then the voltage across it is slightly greater than knee voltage, VK. When the current falls below the level of the holding current IH, the device switches back along the dotted line to the non-conducting or off-state.

Applications of Shockley Diode:

One common application of the Shockley diode is as a trigger switch for an SCR. The circuit is shown in figure. When the circuit is energized, the capacitor will start getting charged and eventually, the voltage across the capacitor will be sufficiently high to first turn-on Shockley diode and then the SCR. Another application of this diode is as a relaxation oscillator.

6. SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier):

A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer, 3 terminals (Anode, Cathode and Gate) device that controls current. Anode - taken from the outer p-type material Cathode - taken from the outer n-type material Gate - taken from the inner p-type material. Gate is attached to the nearly cathode p-type material.

Terminologies:
Breakover voltage: Also called the forward-breakover voltage, this is the minimum forward voltage with the gate open that the SCR starts conducting. In other words, the point where SCR is turned ON. For example, if the breakover voltage of an SCR is 100V, then it can block a forward voltage until the supply voltage is < 100V. Peak Reverse Voltage: This is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse direction. Holding Current: It is the maximum anode current (with gate being open) at which the SCR is turned off from on condition. Forward Current Rating: It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destruction. Threshold Voltage: Threshold voltage is defined as the minimum voltage that required to make the SCR ON.

Mode of Operation:
In the normal "off" state, the device restricts current to the leakage current. When the gate-to-cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts current. The device will remain in the "on" state even after gate current is removed so long as current through the device remains above the holding current. Once current falls below the holding current for an appropriate period of time, the device will switch "off". If the gate is pulsed and the current through the device is below the holding current, the device will remain in the "off" state.

V-I characteristics of SCR:

Forward Characteristics: (Forward Conduction) In forward conduction anode has a positive polarity with respect to the cathode and when supply voltage is increased from suddenly the SCR starts conducting (breakover voltage), Voltage drops at this point suddenly as shown by the dotted line. If the proper gate current is made to flow, then SCR can close at the smaller supply voltage.

Reverse Characteristics: The polarity of Anode is negative with respect to the polarity of cathode. Initially the anode current retains small (leakage current), Beyond a particular reverse voltage, the SCR starts massive conduction (Avalanche), Reverse breakdown voltage.

Turning the SCR ON: Forward voltage triggering: when anode cathode forward voltage is increased with gate circuit opened, junction J2 will break. This is known as avalanche breakdown at this voltage thyristor changes off state to on state with low voltage and large forward current. Here J1 and J3 already forward biased.

Turn off methods of an SCR:

There are three methods of switching off the SCR, namely natural commutation, reverse bias turn-off, and gate turn-off. Natural Commutation: When the anode current is reduced below the level of the holding current, the SCR turns off. However, it must be noted that rated anode current is usually larger than 1,000 times the holding value. Since the anode voltage remains positive with respect to the cathode in a dc circuit, the anode current can only be reduced by opening the line switch S, increasing the load impedance RL or shunting part of the load current through a circuit parallel to the SCR, i.e. short-circuiting the device. Reverse Bias turn off: A reverse anode to cathode voltage (the cathode is positive with respect to the anode) will tend to interrupt the anode current. The voltage reverses every half cycle in an ac circuit, so that an SCR in the line would be reverse biased every negative cycle and would turn off. This is called phase commutation or ac line commutation. To create a reverse biased voltage across the SCR, which is in the line of a dc circuit, capacitors can be used. The method of discharging a capacitor in parallel with an SCR to turnoff the SCR is called forced commutation. Gate Turn off: In some specially designed SCRs the characteristics are such that a negative gate current increases the holding current so that it exceeds the load current and the device turns-off.

Application of SCR (Half wave power control):

Being a unidirectional (one-way) device, at most we can only deliver half-wave power to the load, in the half-cycle of AC where the supply voltage polarity is positive on the top and negative on the bottom. With no triggering to the gate, and the AC source voltage well below the SCR's breakover voltage rating, the SCR will never turn on. Connecting the SCR gate to the anode through a standard rectifying diode (to prevent reverse current through the gate in the event of the SCR containing a built-in gate-cathode resistor), will allow the SCR to be triggered almost immediately at the beginning of every positive half-cycle: We can delay the triggering of the SCR, however, by inserting some resistance into the gate circuit, thus increasing the amount of voltage drop required before enough gate current triggers the SCR. In other words, if we make it harder for electrons to flow through the gate by adding a resistance, the AC voltage will have to reach a higher point in its cycle before there will be enough gate current to turn the SCR on.

7. DIAC:
The DIAC, or 'diode for alternating current', is a diode that conducts current only after its breakover voltage has been reached momentarily.

Construction of DIAC:
A diac is a P-N-P-N structured four-layer, two-terminal semiconductor device, as shown in figure. A1 and A2 are the two main terminals of the device. There is no control terminal in this device. A diac unlike a diode, resembles a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) but with the following exceptions. There is no terminal attached to the middle layer (base), The three regions are nearly identical in size, The doping level at the two end P-layers is the same so that the device gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of the applied voltage.

Operation of DIAC:
When the terminal A2 is positive, the current flow path is P1-N2P2-N3 while for positive polarity of terminal A 1 the current flow path is P2-N2-P1-N1. The operation of the diac can be explained by imagining it as two diodes connected in series. When applied voltage in either polarity is small (less than breakover voltage) a very small amount of current, called the leakage current, flows through the device. Leakage current caused due to the drift of electrons and holes in the depletion region, is not sufficient to cause conduction in the device. The device remains in non-conducting mode. However, when the magnitude of the applied voltage exceeds the avalanche breakdown voltage, breakdown takes place and the diac current rises sharply, as shown in the characteristics shown in figure.

Characteristics of a Diac:
The diac acts like an open-circuit until its switching or breakover voltage is exceeded. At that point the diac conducts until its current reduces toward zero (below the level of the holding current of the device). The diac, because of its particular construction, does not switch sharply into a low voltage condition at a low current level like the SCR or triac. Instead, once it goes into conduction, the diac maintains an almost continuous negative resistance characteristic, that is, voltage decreases with the increase in current.

8. TRIAC:
TRIAC is a type of Thyristor that can conduct current in both directions when the polarity activated. The TRIAC is like the DIAC with a gate terminal. The TRIAC can with ON by a pulse or gate current does not require the forward break over voltage to conduct as does the DIAC, Basically the TRIAC can be a thought of simply two SCR's connected in parallel in opposite directions with a common gate terminal. Unlike the SCR the TRIAC can conduct current in either direction depending on the polarity of voltage across its anode (A 1 and A2) terminals.

Operation and working of TRIAC:

Though the triac can be turned on without any gate current provided the supply voltage becomes equal to the breakover voltage of the triac but the normal way to turn on the triac is by applying a proper gate current. As in case of SCR, here too, the larger the gate current, the smaller the supply voltage at which the triac is turned on. Triac can conduct current irrespective of the voltage polarity of terminals MT1 and MT2 with respect to each other and that of gate and terminal MT2. Consequently four different possibilities of operation of triac exists. They are:

1. Terminal MT2 and gate are positive with respect to terminal MT1: When terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 current flows through path P1-N1-P2-N2. The two junctions P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased whereas junction N1 P2 is blocked. The triac is now said to be positively biased. A positive gate with respect to terminal MT1 forward biases the junction P2-N2 and the breakdown occurs as in a normal SCR. 2. Terminal MT2 is positive but gate is negative with respect to terminal MT1: Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 1 but now junction P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers injected into P 2 turn on the triac. 3. Terminal MT2 and gate are negative with respect to terminal MT1: When terminal MT2 is negative with respect to terminal MT1, the current flow path is P2-N1-P1-N4. The two junctions P2-N1 and P1 N4 are forward biased whereas junction N1-P1 is blocked. The triac is now said to be negatively biased. A negative gate with respect to terminal MT1 injects current carriers by forward biasing junction P2-N3 and thus initiates the conduction. 4. Terminal MT2 is negative but gate is positive with respect to terminal MT1: Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 3 but now junction P 2-N2 is forward biased, current carriers are injected and therefore, the triac is turned on.

9. Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS):

Silicon controlled switch (SCS), like the SCR, is a unilateral, four layer three junction P-N-P-N silicon device with four electrodes namely cathode C, cathode gate G 1, anode gate G2 and the anode A, as shown in figure. Infact, the SCS is a low power device compared with the SCR. It handles currents in milli-amperes rather than amperes. SCS differs from an SCR in the following aspects. It has an additional gatethe anode gate. It is physically smaller than SCR. It has smaller leakage and holding currents than SCR. It needs small triggering signals.

Operation of a Silicon Controlled Switch:

In a two-transistor equivalent circuit, it is seen that a negative pulse at the anode gate G2 causes transistor Q1 to switch on. Transistor Q1 supplies base current to transistor Q2, and both transistors switchon. Similarly, a positive pulse at the cathode gate G1 can switch the device on. Since only small currents are involved, the SCS may be switched off by an appropriate polarity pulse at one of the gates. At the cathode gate a negative pulse is required for switching-off while at the anode gate a positive pulse is needed.

Voltage Ampere Characteristics of SCS:

The volt-ampere characteristic of an SCS is similar to that of an SCR and is shown in figure. With the increase in applied voltage, the current first increases slowly up to point A and then rapidly in the region AB, as shown in the figure. At point B, the product 12 exceeds unity and the device is suddenly switched on. In the onstate, the current increases enormously and is limited by the external series resistor. SCS also exhibits negative differential resistance in the on region similar to SCR.