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Effects of satisfaction with communication on the relationship between individual-job congruence and job performance/satisfaction
Jose R. Goris
School of Business, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan, USA
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the moderating inuence of communication satisfaction on the association between individual-job congruence and both job performance and job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach Moderated regression analysis was used to assess data collected from 302 employees addressing the research variables of job scope, growth need strength, satisfaction with communication, job performance, and job satisfaction. Findings Satisfaction with communication received weak support as a moderator of the individual-job congruence model; nevertheless, it received strong support as a main predictor of both performance and satisfaction. Research limitations/implications Low statistical power frequently reected by moderated regression analysis may explain the weak support communication satisfaction received as a moderator. Different approaches for solving the presence of low power are discussed. On the other hand, the elusive venture of promoting and experiencing satisfaction with communication has been detected and the need for exploring the possible curvilinear effects of specic communication dimensions and organizational constructs on communication satisfaction is introduced. Practical implications Variables associated with human interaction may be dysfunctional at both extremes. For example, upward communication might have favorable and unfavorable consequences on satisfaction with communication. Thus, dealing with communication satisfaction may necessitate the adoption of a contingency approach. Originality/value The uniqueness of this research lies in its effort of exploring the moderating impact of communication satisfaction on the job characteristics model. The results encourage future research endeavors and particular management practices. Keywords Communication management, Job descriptions, Job design, Job satisfaction, Individual psychology, Employee communications Paper type Research paper

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Received December 2004 Revised July 2006 Accepted July 2006

Introduction Communication is vital to all functions of organizations. Mechanical systems are generally activated and coordinated through electrical impulses. Organizations, however, are different. As social systems, they are activated and coordinated through communication. Nevertheless, to be operationally meaningful, specic perspectives of the organizational importance of communication are necessary. Particular facets of communication and their associations to other organizational constructs need to be

Journal of Management Development Vol. 26 No. 8, 2007 pp. 737-752 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0262-1711 DOI 10.1108/02621710710777255

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investigated and understood (Piccolo and Colquitt, 2006; Chien, 2004; Requena, 2003; Goris et al., 2002; Roberts and OReilly, 1979). Accordingly, this study has one basic thrust: To explore the impact of satisfaction with communication on the individual-job congruence association with both job performance and job satisfaction. Roberts and OReilly (1979, p. 42) have indicated the need for specicity in investigating communication in organizations by stating that theories relevant to communication in organizations cannot be developed until facets of organizational communication are specied and some of their correlates identied. To specify these facets and their correlates, researchers and management practitioners must of necessity be selective in their approaches to communication in organizations. Consequently, organizational theorists and managers have developed several contingency models to help them be specic. Contingency models intend to respond to specic situations and to specic individuals. They also attempt to improve organizational effectiveness and the quality of work life. As stated by Stoner (1982, p. 54), the contingency approach to management considers that, the task of managers is to identify which technique will, in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, and at a particular time, best contribute to the attainment of management goals. One of these contingency approaches is the individual-job design model, also known as the Job Characteristics Model JCM (Hackman and Lawler, 1971; Hackman and Oldham, 1976, 1980). The JCM proposes that a match between the growth needs of an individual and the motivating characteristics of the job being performed may produce high levels of performance and satisfaction. Thus, high levels of performance and satisfaction are predicted for high growth need strength individuals in high scope jobs and low growth need individuals in low scope jobs. This model is unique to management practitioners in at least two ways: it species a match between an individuals needs and the characteristics of a particular job; and it emphasizes output variables of performance and satisfaction. Torraco (2005) recognizes that the JCM has had a persistent inuence on work design practices and has accumulated an impressive amount of related research. The particular proposition suggesting that a match between individual growth needs and job characteristics results in high levels of both performance and satisfaction has received some support (Farias and Varma, 2000; Goris et al., 2000; Fried, 1991; Spector and Jex, 1991; Fried and Ferris, 1987; Spector, 1985). However, other studies have shown results that are inconsistent with the JCM. For instance, a literature review conducted by Graen et al. (1986) revealed that ten of 21 tests concerning the association between individual-job congruence and job satisfaction were statistically insignicant. Of 13 studies of the relationship between individual-job congruence and job performance, only three showed signicance. Applying univariate and multivariate hierarchical moderated multiple regression analyses, Tiegs et al. (1992) found no support for growth need strength as a moderator of the JCM. Additionally, in a review of 31 case studies and experiments, Kelly (1992) found only limited support for growth need strength as a moderator the JCM. Because of the reported inconsistent results, new approaches for investigating the JCM are emerging. Kelly (1992) proposes what he calls the twin-track model of job re-design. His approach avoids restricting re-design studies to the variables specied in the JCM. It provides for adding a full range of possible outcome determinants, including employee extrinsic motivation, job expectancies, the valence of different

types of reward, and the role of goal setting. Farias and Varma (2000) propose a unied approach to work and design taking into consideration the Job Characteristics Model, Sociotechnical Systems, and Reengineering Model. Adopting a curvilinear approach to the study of the JCM, Champoux (1992, p. 107) reported that the results of his investigation pointed . . . to adding a curvilinear effect of Job Scope to the basic Job Characteristics Theory. Zeffane (1994) explored the relative effects of both task characteristics and characteristics pertaining to demography, sub-unit structure, technology, uncertainty, and work-group performance on job satisfaction. Results of his investigation indicate that both task-related factors and other organizational constructs, such as communication and interpersonal relations, may affect job satisfaction. Other researchers, including Porter et al. (1975), Clayton (1981) and Brousseau (1983), have suggested that an individuals reaction to his or her job may be inuenced not only by the properties of the job and his or her needs but also by the nature of the work context or organizational milieu surrounding the job. Congruent with this suggestion, Piccolo and Colquitt (2006, p. 337) found that leaders could inuence perceived core characteristic levels by changing the language, imagery, and symbols used to communicate meaning on the job. Other variables such as organizational politics, interpersonal relations, downward communication, security, pay, and need for independence also have been shown to moderate the individual-job congruence relationship with performance and/or satisfaction (Vigoda, 2000; Goris et al., 2000; Clayton, 1981; Oldham et al., 1976). Consequently, the moderating approach to the study of the JCM, which, as explained by Zedeck (1971), is a systematic way of investigating in what manner organizational and individual facets exert their inuence and alter the relationship among target variables, may result benecial while trying to understand the functioning of the JCM. This study explores the moderating effect of satisfaction with communication on the Job Characteristics Model. Grifn (1980) and Jenkins (1977) theorized that variables that differentially affect performance and satisfaction become potential moderators of performance/satisfaction relationships. Gross (1978) indicated that the plausibility of a hypothesis may be bolstered by what is known concerning the nature of the relationship of the potential moderator to the different variables of the model being investigated. Recent studies show that satisfaction with communication is correlated with high levels of both job performance and job satisfaction (Chien, 2004; Requena, 2003; Coopman, 2001; Llozor et al., 2001; Miles et al., 1996; Clampitt and Downs, 1993; Downs, 1988; Pincus, 1986). Therefore, the proposition that satisfaction with communication may moderate the individual-job congruence relationship with performance and satisfaction is plausible. This research proposes that satisfaction with communication will interact with both job scope and growth need strength to predict job performance and job satisfaction, as depicted in Figure 1. Thus, the following two hypotheses are studied: H1. Communication satisfaction will signicantly moderate the association between individual-job congruence and job performance. H2. Communication satisfaction will signicantly moderate the relationship between individual-job congruence and job satisfaction.

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Figure 1. Conceptual representation of the proposed moderating impact of communication satisfaction on the individual-job congruence association with performance and satisfaction

Methodology Sample In total, 629 employees from two companies, Y and Z, located in a large metropolitan area of the southern section of the USA, constituted the original sample. Not included were 17 employees because of business trips, sickness, or vacations. Thus, 612 individuals involving 102 managers and 510 non-managers constituted the sample of this research. Company Y, with 27 employees, is the headquarters of a manufacturing rm that produces a comprehensive line of heavy-duty premium quality lubricants. Company Z, with 602 employees, is a division of a multinational rm that deals with the research, design, engineering, and manufacturing of petroleum drilling products. In total, 302 participants (49.35 percent of the sample) completed and returned the research instruments. There were 249 male respondents and 53 female respondents; 20 percent were under 30 years of age, 54 percent between 30 and 39, and 26 percent were over 39 years of age. Measures Job scope. A subscale of the Job Diagnostic Survey as developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975, 1980) was used to determine the Motivational Potential Score (MPS) or job scope level as perceived by participants. The MPS reects employees perceptions of jobs in terms of variety, identity, signicance, autonomy, and feedback (1 low; 7 high). It is a widely used perceptual measure of job scope. Growth need strength. This research used the job choice format of the Job Diagnostic Survey to measure growth need strength (Hackman and Oldham, 1975, 1980). The job choice subscale provides an index of strength of higher order needs relative to lower order needs. The measure reects employees desire to obtain growth satisfactions from their work (1 low; 7 high). Job performance. Three measures of performance were used: quality of performance, quantity of performance, and overall job performance. They were obtained by having employees rate their own performance and by having their

supervisors rate them. Both sources used a seven-point scale with 7 being the highest and 1 the lowest. In relation to quality of performance, participants were requested to respond to the following two questions: how would you rate the quality of your own performance in your job? And, how do you think your supervisor would rate the quality of your performance? Two other similar questions asked about the quantity of performance. In addition, supervisors were requested to assess the performance of their subordinates in terms of quality and quantity, independently. The performance data collected yielded a signicant (p , 0.01) relationship between the self rating of quality of performance and the supervisory rating of quality of performance (r 0.32). A weaker but still signicant (p , 0.01) relationship also was found between the two measures of quantity of performance (r 0.19). For research purposes, some aggregation was necessary. First, self-rating and supervisory rating scores were combined to arrive at the nal measures of quality and quantity of performance. Second, the calculated measures of quality and quantity of performance were averaged to get an overall assessment of job performance. Job satisfaction. The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) provided the primary means for measuring job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1969). The measure assesses ve dimensions of job satisfaction: (1) satisfaction with work; (2) satisfaction with pay; (3) satisfaction with promotions; (4) satisfaction with supervision; and (5) satisfaction with co-workers. A sixth dimension concerning overall job satisfaction was attained by summing up the responses to two global, direct questions included in a Likert-type scale developed by Wanous (1974). The reported correlation between the two items was 0.73. Communication satisfaction. The Roberts and OReilly (1974, 1979) organizational communication instrument was used to measure communication satisfaction perceived overall satisfaction with communication. The instrument measures 15 different facets of communication. However, it is suggested that for research purposes it would be appropriate to select only those of particular interest. The present study uses the facet of communication satisfaction, which refers to how employees feel about communication in general, including the amount of information they receive, contacts with their immediate superiors and others, the accuracy of information of information available, etc. Data collection Incorporating the above research measures, a pre-tested questionnaire was used for collecting the data. After securing lists of the participants, a numbered copy of the questionnaire was distributed to each member of the sample. Each individual was told that the number on the questionnaire would be used for matching statistical data only and that no one else would see the number except the researcher. This number was important for later identifying respondents supervisors and gathering the supervisory performance appraisals.

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The internal mail system of each of the participating organizations was used to deliver the research instrument and introductory letter. Completed questionnaires were mailed to the Department of Management of a local university. In total, 316 employees completed and returned questionnaires. Of this total, there were seven whose identication numbers had been cut or erased. Two others were improperly answered. Consequently, 307 questionnaires were usable. The supervisors then were asked to rate the respondents performance. Using the number assigned to each returned questionnaire and the assistance of the director of human resources of each participating rm, the immediate supervisor of each respondent was identied for a total of 79 supervisors. Again, the internal mail system was used to deliver the performance scale and related materials to the supervisors. The performance evaluations were returned directly to the university. During the two weeks taken by supervisors to assess employees performance, one employee resigned and another one was dismissed. Additionally, one supervisor for three individuals did not respond. Therefore, ve additional cases were dropped from the list of actual respondents, leaving a total of 302 participants. These were individuals who appropriately completed the questionnaire and for whom supervisors provided performance evaluations, a response rate of 49.35 percent. With a span of control ranging from two to eight subordinates, none of the 78 supervisors who participated in the assessment of respondents performance accounted for a disproportionate amount of the data collected. No events projects or activities were detected that might have inuenced participants performance during the period between the time respondents completed the research instrument and the time supervisors conducted the performance assessment. Statistical technique Moderated regression analyses were used to test the two hypotheses concerning the proposed moderating effects of satisfaction with communication on the relationship between individual-job congruence with both job performance and job satisfaction. Following Zedeck (1971) and Cohen and Cohen (1975), these moderated regression analyses were performed by regressing the work outcomes, job performance and job satisfaction, on a linear combination of predictors, moderator, and predictors-moderator interactions. In order to conduct the analyses, respondents were dichotomized into high and low groups on their scores on job scope and growth need strength. The median was used for this purpose. Individuals whose scores were equal to or greater than the medians of job scope and growth need strength, respectively, constituted the high-congruent group. The low-congruent group, likewise, was formed by those whose scores were less than the medians. Three regression equations were developed for the test as follows: Model 1. Model 2. Model 3. Y a bX Y a bX cZ Y a bX cZ dXZ

In the rst equation (Model 1), the dependent variable was regressed on the predictors: growth need strength and job scope. The second equation (Model 2) included the predictors and the proposed moderator, communication satisfaction. Finally, in the last

equation (Model 3), the dependent construct was regressed on predictors, proposed moderator, and predictors-moderator interaction. Any moderating effects would be detected if the predictors-moderator interaction (Model 3) accounted for a signicant amount of criterion variance after both predictors and moderator variables entered the regression equation (Model 2). The variance was assessed by the F value related with each change in R 2 of the regression equations. Methodological clarications Some methodological observations should be made about this study. Measuring organizational and individual constructs by aggregating self-reported data from research participants, as was done in this study, may raise questions. For two reasons, however, the researcher is condent that the measures of job performance, job satisfaction, communication satisfaction, and desire for interaction are meaningful. First, as shown in the intercorrelations of the investigated variables in Table I, job performance/job satisfaction correlations ranged from 0.05 to 0.26 with the median and mean of these correlations both equal to 0.15. These results mirror previously reported ndings (Brayeld and Crockett, 1955; Vroom, 1964; Srivastva, 1975; Fisher, 1980; Petty et al., 1984; Judge et al., 2001; Fisher, 2003). Second, a graphical analysis of residuals yielded properties that suggest the residuals were independent, had zero mean, had a common variance, and followed a normal distribution. These important reasons support the belief that the data represent properly the constructs in this investigation. Results and analysis H1 proposing that satisfaction with communication would signicantly moderate the association between individual-job congruence and job performance received some support. As shown in Section I of Table II, satisfaction with communication received support as a moderator of the association between the high individual-job congruence situation and both quality of performance (DR 2 0.071) and overall performance (DR 2 0.065). Moderating effects were not detected under conditions of low congruence (see Part B under Section I in Table II). H2 proposing that communication satisfaction would signicantly moderate the relationship between individual-job congruence and job satisfaction received no support, as indicated by the results in Section II of Table II. Nevertheless, the proposed moderator, communication satisfaction, received strong support as a main predictor of job satisfaction. Zedeck (1971, p. 304) states that when Model 2 and Model 3 in Table II, are signicantly different from Equation 1 (Model 1), but not from each other, then the variable (the suggested moderator), is an independent predictor and not a moderator variable. The detected predicting effects were stronger under conditions of low congruence than under conditions of high congruence. Under conditions of low congruence, low growth need strength individuals in low scope jobs, satisfaction with communication was found to be a signicant predictor of all the six dimensions of satisfaction investigated: Satisfaction with work (DR 2 0.162), with supervision (DR 2 0.128), with pay (DR 2 0.120), with promotions (DR 2 0.033), with coworkers (DR 2 0.035), and overall job satisfaction (DR 2 0.090). On the other hand, under conditions of high congruence, high growth need strength individuals in high scope jobs, satisfaction with communication was found to be a signicant

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Research variables 1.00 0.39 * 1.00 0.38 * 0.39 * 1.00 0.25 * 0.34 * 0.20 * 1.00 0.25 * 0.43 * 0.38 * 0.33 * 1.00 0.39 * 0.34 * 0.47 * 0.29 * 0.34 * 1.00 0.40 * 0.56 * 0.40 * 0.41 * 0.38 * 0.34 * 1.00 0.00 0.31 * 0.03 0.20 * 0.17 * 0.01 0.05 1.00

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Notes: *Signicant at 0.01; * *signicant at 0.05

Table I. Intercorrelations among research variables (n 302) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.22 * 0.62 * 0.24 * 0.25 * 0.29 * 0.26 * 0.40 * 0.32 * 1.00 10 0.12 * * 0.26 * 0.18 * 0.12 * * 0.15 * 0.10 0.18 * 0.15 * 0.23 * 1.00 11 0.10 0.18 * 0.09 0.05 0.15 * 0.06 0.17 * 0.08 0.22 * 0.61 * 1.00 12 0.12 * * 0.24 * 0.15 * 0.10 0.17 * 0.09 0.19 * 0.13 * * 0.25 * 0.89 * 0.90 * 1.00

Communication satisfaction Work satisfaction Supervision satisfaction Pay satisfaction Promotion satisfaction Coworkers satisfaction Overall job satisfaction Growth need strength Job scope Quality of performance Quantity of performance Overall job performance

Moderated regression analysis changes in R 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Section I. Congruence submodel and performance dimensions A. High congruence submodel (n 96)a Performance: Quality Quantity Overall performance B. Low congruence submodel (n 91)b Performance: Quality Quantity Overall performance Section II. Congruence submodel and satisfaction dimensions A. High congruence submodel (n 96)a Satisfaction with: Work Supervision Pay Promotions Coworkers Overall job satisfaction B. Low congruence submodel (n 91)b Satisfaction with: Work Supervision Pay Promotions Coworkers Overall job satisfaction

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0.085 0.087 0.105 0.031 0.031 0.035 0.004 0.000 0.001 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.071 * * 0.039 0.065 * * 0.015 0.048 0.037

0.109 0.003 0.005 0.001 0.041 0.038 0.236 0.093 0.005 0.112 0.014 0.058

0.057c 0.024 0.011 0.016 0.056c 0.129c 0.162c 0.128c 0.120c 0.033c 0.035c 0.090c

0.004 0.009 0.021 0.012 0.001 0.027 0.007 0.008 0.015 0.001 0.001 0.031 Table II. Moderating inuence of communication satisfaction on the high/low congruence submodels with job performance (section I) and job satisfaction (section II)

Notes: aHigh growth need strength individuals in high scope jobs; blow growth need strength individuals in low scope jobs; ccommunication satisfaction found to be a predictor; * *signicant at 0.05

predictor of three of the six dimensions of satisfaction studied: Satisfaction with work (DR2 0.057), satisfaction with coworkers (DR2 0.056), and overall job satisfaction (DR2 0.129). The above results, based on moderated regression analyses, suggest that communication satisfaction is more a predictor than a moderator of the individual-job congruence association with performance and satisfaction. However, a word of caution regarding the validity of the results from moderated regression analyses may be appropriate. Aguinis (1995) presents a way to interpret the lack of denite support of moderators when using moderated regression analyses. He suggests that, In spite of the increased use of moderated multiple regression in management research, concerns have been raised regarding difculties associated with its use (Aguinis, 1995, p. 1142). He discusses how tests of hypotheses regarding the effects of moderators, when using

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moderated regression analysis, often have very low statistical power. In the context of MMR (moderated multiple regression), power is the probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis of no moderating effect. If power is low, Type II statistical error rates are high and, thus, researchers may erroneously dismiss theoretical models that include moderating effects. In other words, in low power conditions, conclusions of null moderating effects may often be incorrect (Aguinis, 1995, p. 1142). Thus, the lack of denite support for communication satisfaction as a moderator in the current investigation, based on moderated regression analyses, may not be conclusive. Aguinis and Stone-Romero (1997), Aguinis (1995), and Stone-Romero et al. (1994) discuss some methodological artifacts to deal with the low power of moderated regression analysis that future similar research efforts may take into consideration. These artifacts include predictor variable range, size across moderator-based subgroups, unequal proportions across moderator-based subgroups, sample size, and operationalization of predictor and criterion variables. Discussion and conclusions The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating inuence of satisfaction with communication on the association between individual-job congruence and performance/satisfaction. Satisfaction with communication received some support as a moderator. However, it received stronger support as a predictor. It appears that either as a moderator or a predictor, or both, communication satisfaction has signicant inuence on job performance and job satisfaction. This conclusion is validated by the calculated correlation coefcients concerning the association between communication satisfaction with job performance and job satisfaction. As exhibited in Table I, satisfaction with communication was found to be signicantly associated with the six dimensions of job satisfaction included in the investigation: Satisfaction with work (0.39), with supervision (0.38), with pay (0.25), with promotion (0.25), with coworkers (0.39), and overall satisfaction (0.40). Also, communication satisfaction was signicantly related to two of the three dimensions of performance: Quality of performance (0.12) and overall job performance (0.12). Thus, practitioners do well when they invest time to promote satisfaction with communication in their work units. This is a justiable but challenging endeavor. Generally, the signicance of communication satisfaction on important organizational constructs like job performance and job satisfaction is recognized (Kirkman et al., 2004; Chien, 2004; Requena, 2003; Ilozor et al., 2001; Mestre et al., 2000; Pettit et al., 1997; Clampitt and Downs, 1993). However, the identication of strategies and tactics for promoting and accomplishing satisfaction with communication in organizations may be an elusive venture (Kirkman et al., 2004; Goris et al., 2000; Eisenberg and Witten, 1987). The elusive venture management practitioners may confront when trying to promote satisfaction with communication among their employees is demonstrated by Eisenberg and Witten (1987) through a literature review and conceptual analysis involving open communication. They document how unique employees react differently to open communication under different circumstances. When managers and employees are open in their communication efforts, both functional and dysfunctional attitudes may result. Thus, open communication may be associated with high levels of dissatisfaction with the job and the organization, including its

communication processes, thereby negatively impacting satisfaction with communication and organizational effectiveness. Eisenberg and Witten (1987, p. 421) suggest that open communication may be harmful to organizations during a crisis. They also reect on how organizational politics may affect employees attitudes toward open communication. For example, open communication involving the disclosure of technical information may be especially risky for rst-level employees. These workers have few means of building power bases other than from the highly specialized information they possess. Thus, they will feel more comfortable with less open communication. Eisenberg and Witten (1987, p. 422) state Upward communication in organizations presents a more fundamental dilemma for employees. Although the interests of the organization often are best served when employees reveal all they know about problems and opportunities, revealing such information can be damaging to the individuals job security and career aspirations. This dilemma is also documented in a case study conducted by Appelbaum et al. (2005). They found that experienced workers engaged in information ows from the bottom-up felt that they were transmitting their technical knowledge to their inexperienced supervisors. These workers expressed that this sharing of information without receiving feedback was not communication. Workers stated that communication does not exist. Obviously, in this situation, bottom-up communication appeared to be generating communication dissatisfaction. The complexity of managing organizational communication processes and promoting communication satisfaction is also illustrated by the results of a study by Kirkman et al. (2004) investigating the moderating role of face-to-face communication on the association between virtual team empowerment and its performance. They found that the appropriate number of face-to-face team meetings may be determined by team empowerment. They report that empowered teams might need fewer face-to-face meetings than less empowered ones. The traditional, typical position is that face-to-face communication represents the richest communication channel. Kirkman and his colleagues found that this is not always the case. The challenges encountered when trying to promote favorable communication attitudes in organizational life is also documented by Goris et al. (2000). In a study investigating the effects of communication direction on job performance and satisfaction, they found that 23 of the 27 correlation ratios concerning the association of communication direction (upward, downward, and lateral) with job performance and job satisfaction were negative. The researchers concluded that high levels of upward, downward, and lateral communication might restrain job performance and job satisfaction. For example, they explained, high levels of upward communication might cause employees to believe that their superiors do not know how to perform their jobs. If this perception emerges, employees might think they are being exploited when required to transmit more and more information upward. Or they may feel overly controlled by their bosses. Goris and his colleagues argued that the conclusion reached might be explained by the possible presence of curvilinear effects in the association of the investigated variables. They indicated that if curvilinear relationship exists, the pattern between the dependent variables (job performance and job satisfaction) and the independent variables (upward, lateral and downward communication) might resemble an inverted U-shaped curve with elements of positive, zero, and negative correlation. That is, the communication direction dimensions may increase work

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outcomes positively up to a point. After that point, further communication saturation may decrease performance and satisfaction. Such a variable effect can be seen as a situation of management contingency of isolating key variables and determining the proper mix in specic circumstances. Management practitioners may benet by recognizing that it is when the appropriate mix and amount of upward, downward, and lateral communication are accomplished that satisfaction with communication may be attained as well as its desired, favorable impact on work outcomes as performance and satisfaction. Another study by Goris et al. (2002) resulted in various negative associations between three communication dimensions accuracy of information, communication underload, and communication overload with one to another and with specic facets of job satisfaction and job performance. These inverse relationships may suggest that one variable may restrain others. For example, communication underload (possessing too little information) and communication overload (receiving too much information) may interfere with information accuracy. Thus, communication overload and communication underload may inhibit satisfaction with communication. This inhibition might have negative consequences in both job performance and job satisfaction. In conclusion, satisfaction with communication received weak support as a moderator of the individual-job congruence association with both performance and satisfaction. Nevertheless, this investigation shows that satisfaction with communication may have a signicant, predicting inuence on both job performance and job satisfaction. However, as it has been documented, to provide for employees to experience satisfaction with communication is an elusive venture. To accomplish this venture, managers are required to maneuver through the intricacy of organizational communication facets like open communication, directionality of communication (downward, upward, and lateral), amount of information transmitted, and face-to-face interaction. Xie and Johns (1995) recognize that too little or too much of good thing may provoke negative reactions. Thus, researchers may assist management practitioners by adopting a contingency approach to the study of communication satisfaction. McGregor (1967), as cited by Eisenberg and Witten, anticipated the need for a contingency approach to communication as follows: virtually every variable associated with human interaction may be dysfunctional at both extremes. Like other variables, the openness of communication is relative for all practical purposes, not absolute . . . (Eisenberg and Witten, 1987, pp. 162-3). Thus, future research endeavors should identify the circumstances in which specic communication dimensions and organizational constructs may promote or inhibit communication satisfaction. The presence of curvilinear effects of various communication dimensions including directionality of communication, communication load, face-to-face interaction, and electronically mediated communication on satisfaction with communication need to be investigated. Knowing when, how, and to whom to communicate becomes a strategic managerial decision that might assist management practitioners as they try to inuence employees perceptions of job characteristics, as well as workers levels of performance and satisfaction.
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Individual-job congruence

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Further reading OConnor, E.J., Peters, L.H. and Gordon, S.M. (1978), The measures of job satisfaction: current and future considerations, Journal of Management, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 17-26. Schwab, D.P. and Cummings, L.L. (1970), Theories of performance and satisfaction: a review, Industrial Relations, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 408-30. About the author Jose R. Goris is currently a Professor of Management in the School of Business at Andrews University in Berrien Springs, Michigan. He earned a PhD in Organization Theory and Policy from the University of North Texas, an MBA in Industrial and Interpersonal Relations from the Inter American University of Puerto Rico, an MA in Educational Administration from Loma Linda University, California and a BA in Business Administration from Antillean Adventist University, Puerto Rico. Professor Goris has worked for Southwestern Adventist University in Keene, Texas as the MBA Director, Chair of the Business Department, and Management Professor. His work has been published in the Journal of Business and Psychology, the International Journal of Management, the Journal of Business Communication, and FORUM Empresarial from the University of Puerto Rico. Professor Goris has offered consulting services to nonprot and for-prot organizations in Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, Ukraine, and the USA. He is a member of the Academy of Management, the Christian Business Faculty Association, and the Midwest Academy of Management. Jose R. Goris can be contacted at: gorisj@andrews.edu

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