Inside the Internet Between end systems TCP protocol for reliable transmission Inside the network core

IP protocol: forwarding packets between routers Between routers or between end system and router high speed link: ATM, POS (Packet over SONET), satellite links access network: Ethernet, modem, xDSL, HFC Network structure network edge:applications and hosts network core: routers network of networks access networks, physical media: communication links

A Network network layer of functions required to transport packets end-to-end set examples: IP, Appletalk, IPX intermediate system forwards data not destined to itself Modern networks have more than the physical and the data link layers. The network layer is a set of mechanisms that can be used to send packets from one

computer to another in the world. There are two types of networks: With packet switching, data packets can be carried together on the same link. They are differentiated by addressing information. Packet switching is the basis for all data networks today, including the Internet, public data networks such as Frame Relay or X.25, and even ATM. Packet switches have queues. Network topology Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer[1][2] or biological network.[3] Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology refers to the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design. In general physical topology relates to a core network whereas logical topology relates to basic network. Topology A topology describes the configuration of a communication network. The way in which the elements of a network are mapped or arranged is known as a network topology. A topology describes the physical and the logical interconnection between the different nodes of a network. Network topologies are classified as physical, logical and signal topologies. A physical topology describes the mapping of the network nodes and the physical connections between them. Signal topology describes the paths, which the signals take while they pass over the network. The mapping of the paths taken by data as they travel over the network is known as a logical topology. The terms, signal topology and logical topology are closely related. Let us see the different types of network topologies in detail. Types of Network Topologies Bus Topology: In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common transmission medium having two endpoints. All the data that travels over the network is transmitted through a common transmission medium known as the bus or the backbone of the network. When the transmission medium has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is known by the name, 'linear bus topology'. In case the transmission medium, also called the network backbone, has more than two endpoints, the network is said to have a distributed bus topology. Bus topology is easy

to handle and implement and is best suited for small networks. But the downside of this topology is that the limited cable length limits the number of stations, thus limiting the performance to a less number of nodes.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and the last nodes are connected to each other. The data that are transmitted over the network pass through each of the nodes in the ring until they reach the destination node. In a ring network, the data and the signals that pass over the network travel in a single direction. The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the network nodes. The data flow along two directions in the two rings formed thereby. The ring topology does not require a central server to manage connectivity between the nodes and facilitates an orderly network operation. But, the failure of a single station in the network can render the entire network inoperable. Changes and moves in the stations forming the network affect the network operation.

Mesh Topology: In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes. In a

partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more than one node. This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point links between all the nodes. The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the transmissions. Star Topology: In this type of network topology, each node of the network is connected to a central node, which is known as a hub. The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes across the central hub. A distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star networks. The centralized nature of a star network provides a certain amount of simplicity while also achieving isolation of each device in the network. However, the disadvantage of a star topology is that the network transmission is largely dependent on the central hub. The failure of the central hub results renders the entire network inoperable. Tree Topology: It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of nodes connected to those at a lower level. Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies. These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic topologies used in them. Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn 'live' for the transmission of information!

Networking Architecture. The IntServ over DiffServ architecture consists of the following elements: Hosts The hosts use RSVP signaling to request a specific QOS level. Some hosts are also able to provide traffic control functions e.g. DS marking of the packets and traffic shaping. Edge routers The edge routers are located at the boundary between the RSVP/Intserv network and the DiffServ network. These routers consist of two parts, one part is RSVP capable and interacts with the Intserv network and the other is DiffServ

capable and interacts with the DiffServ admission control component to provide admission control feedback to the hosts generated RSVP signaling. Boundary Routers Boundary routers are located at the ingress and egress points of the DiffServ network. These routers provide traffic conditioning functions to ensure that the traffic conforms to the SLA (Service Level Agreement) negotiated between IntServ (customer) and DiffServ (ISP) networks. To implement traffic conditioning and to manage the resource allocation on the transit network, the boundary routers communicate with so-called bandwidth brokers (BB). Stub networks The stub networks are the sender's or the receiver's local access network. These stub networks contain Intserv capable hosts and a mesh of leaf routers which are not explicitly required to be Intserv capable. Leaf routers which are not Intserv capable act as a non-RSVP clouds. The stub networks may also use DiffServ mechanisms such as BBs for providing QoS to the end users. Transit network The transit network can provide different QoS levels by applying appropriate per-hopbehaviors (PHBs). The transit network is not able for RSVP signaling, but it is able to carry the RSVP messages transparently. The transit network could consist of several autonomous administrative domains.

Switching is the way telephone networks operate. A circuit emulates the physical signals of a direct end-to-end cable. When computers are connected by a circuit switched network, they establish a direct data link over the circuit. This is used today for modem access to a data network. Modern circuit switches are based on byte multiplexing and are thus similar to packet switches, with the main difference that they perform non-statistical multiplexing (see later). A network has intermediate systems (ISs): those are systems that send data to next ISs or to the destination. Using interconnected ISs saves cable and

bandwidth. Intermediate systems are known under various terms depending on the context: routers (TCP/IP, AppleTalk,), switches (X.25, Frame Relay, ATM, telephone), communication controllers (SNA), network nodes (APPN) In computer networking jargon, the computers that we use on a daily basis are often referred to as hosts or end systems. They are referred to as hosts because they host (run) application-level programs such as a Web browser or server program, or an e-mail program. They are also referred to as end systems because they sit at the edge of the network. Hosts are sometimes further divided into two categories: clients and servers. Informally, clients often tend to be desktop PCs or workstations, whereas servers are more powerful machines. But there is a more precise meaning of a client and a server in computer networking. In the so-called client/server model, a client program running on one end system requests and receives information from a server running on another end system. This client/server model is undoubtedly the most prevalent structure for Internet applications. The Web, e-mail, file transfer, remote login (for example, Telnet), newsgroups, and many other popular applications adopt the client/server model. The other model used in computer networks is referred to as peer-to-peer model. In this model the two hosts takes the same role and run the same programs. A typical example of peer-to-peer application is the teleconferencing.

Application Layer Application layer supports network application applications that are distributed over the network applications that communicates through the network Many known protocols FTP: file transfer SMTP: email protocol HTTP:web protocol An application uses UDP or TCP, it is a designers choice Interface with the transport layer use for example the socket API: a library of C functions socket also means (IP address, port number) The Application Layer is responsible for supporting network applications. The application layer

includes many protocols, including HTTP to support the Web, SMTP to support electronic mail, and FTP to support file transfer. We shall see in Chapter 2 that it is very easy to create our own new application-layer protocols Transport Layer Why a transport layer ? transport layer = makes network service available to programs is end-to-end only, not in routers In TCP/IP there are two transport protocols UDP (user datagram protocol) unreliable offers a datagram service to the application (unit of information is a message) TCP (transmisssion control protocol) reliable offers a stream service (unit of information is a byte) Physical, data link and network layers are sufficient to build a packet transport system between computers. However, this is not enough for the programmer. When you write a lowlevel program which uses the network (as we will do in this lecture), you do not handle packets, but data. The primary goal of the transport layer is to provide the programmer with an interface to the network. Second, the transport layer uses the concept of port. A port is a number which is used locally (on one machine) and identifies the source and destination of the packet inside the machine. We will come back to the concept of ports later in this chapter. The transport layer exists in two varieties: unreliable and reliable. The unreliable variety simply sends packets, and does not attempt to guarantee any delivery. The reliable variety, in contrast,

makes sure that data does reach the destination, even if some packets may be lost from time to time. In the Internet there are two transport protocols, TCP and UDP, either of which can transport application-layer messages. TCP provides a connection-oriented service to its applications. This service includes guaranteed delivery of application-layer messages to the destination and flow control (that is, sender/receiver speed matching). TCP also segments long messages into shorter segments and provides a congestion control mechanism, so that a source throttles its transmission rate when the network is congested. The UDP protocol provides its applications a connectionless service, which is very much a no-frills service.

Network Layer Set of functions required to transfer packets end-to-end (from host to host) hosts are not directly connected - need for intermediate systems

examples: IP, Appletalk, IPX Intermediate systems routers: forward packets to the final destinationinterconnection devices

Modern networks have more than physical and data link. The network layer is the set of mechanisms that can be used to send packets from one computer to another in the world. There are two types of networks: With Packet switching, data packets can be carried together on the same link. They are differentiated by addressing information. Packet switching is the basis for all data networks today, including the Internet, public data networks such as Frame Relay, X.25, or ATM. Circuit Switching is the way telephone networks operate. A circuit emulates the physical signals of a direct end-to-end cable. When computers are connected by a circuit switched network, they establish a direct data link over the circuit. This is used today for modem access to a data network. Modern circuit switches are based on byte multiplexing and are thus similar to packet switches, with the main difference that they perform non-statistical multiplexing (see later in this chapter). A network has Intermediate systems (ISs): those are systems that send data to next ISs or to the destination. Using interconnected ISs saves cable and bandwidth. ISs are known under various terms depending on the context: routers (TCP/IP, AppleTalk,), switches (X.25, Frame Relay,

ATM, telephone), communication controllers (SNA), network nodes (APPN). The Internet's network layer has two principle components. It has a protocol that defines the fields in the IP datagram as well as how the end systems and routers act on these fields. This protocol is the celebrated IP protocol. There is only one IP protocol, and all Internet components that have a network layer must run the IP protocol. The Internet's network layer also contains routing protocols that determine the routes that datagrams take between sources and destinations. The Internet has many routing protocols.

TCP/IP Modern networks have more than physical and data link. The network layer is the set of mechanisms that can be used to send packets from one computer to

another in the world. There are two types of networks: With Packet switching, data packets can be carried together on the same link. They are differentiated by addressing information. Packet switching is the basis for all data networks today, including the Internet, public data networks such as Frame Relay, X.25, or ATM.

Switching is the way telephone networks operate. A circuit emulates the physical signals of a direct end-to-end cable. When computers are connected by a circuit switched network, they establish a direct data link over the circuit. This is used today for modem access to a data network. Modern circuit switches are based on byte multiplexing and are thus similar to packet switches, with the main difference that they perform non-statistical multiplexing (see later in this chapter). A network has Intermediate systems (ISs): those are systems that send data to next ISs or to the destination. Using interconnected ISs saves cable and bandwidth. ISs are known under various terms depending on the context: routers (TCP/IP, AppleTalk,), switches (X.25, Frame Relay, ATM, telephone), communication controllers (SNA), network nodes (APPN). The Internet's network layer has two principle components. It has a protocol that defines the fields in the IP datagram as well as how the end systems and routers act on these fields. This protocol is the celebrated IP protocol. There is only one IP protocol, and all Internet components that have a network layer must run the IP protocol. The Internet's network layer also contains routing

protocols that determine the routes that datagrams take between sources and destinations. The Internet has many routing protocols.

Protocol entity provides a set of services, eg. connect, send data multiplexing/demultiplexing construction/analysis of PDUs execution of procedures Protocol unit (PDU) header: control functions opaque data Procedures actions to perform protocol functions: e.g. lost packet Retransmission

Internet protocol stack Application: supporting network applications FTP, SMTP, HTTP, OSPF, RIP Transport: host-host data transfer TCP, UDP

Network: routing of datagrams from source to destination IP Link: data transfer between neighboring network elements PPP, Ethernet Physical: bits on the wire

Encapsulation

LAN Management: e.g. constructforwarding tables SNAP: Spanning Tree protocol LLC: multiplex different protocols IP, IPX, SNAP MAC: medium access 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.4 (Token Ring), 802.5 (Token Bus), 802.11 (Wi-Fi) Physical: bits on the wire

What are VLAN's? In a traditional LAN, workstations are connected to each other by means of a hub or a repeater. These devices propagate any incoming data throughout the network. However, if two people attempt to send information at the same time, a collision will occur and all the transmitted data will be lost. Once the collision has occurred, it will continue to be propagated throughout the network by hubs and repeaters. The original information will therefore need to be resent after waiting for the collision to be resolved, thereby incurring a significant wastage of time and resources. To prevent collisions from traveling through all the workstations in the network, a bridge or a switch can be used. These devices will not forward collisions, but will allow broadcasts (to every user in the network) and multicasts (to a pre-specified group of users) to pass through. A router may be used to prevent broadcasts and multicasts from traveling through the network. The workstations, hubs, and repeaters together form a LAN segment. A LAN segment is also known as a collision domain since collisions remain within the segment. The area within which broadcasts and multicasts are confined is called a broadcast domain or LAN. Thus a LAN can consist of one or more LAN segments. Defining broadcast and collision domains in a LAN depends on how the workstations, hubs, switches, and routers are physically connected together. This means that everyone on a LAN must be located in the same area

Network switch

A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (Layer 3) and above are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or multilayer switches

The network switch plays an integral part in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO) applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential gateway to access small office/home broadband services such as DSL or cable internet. In most of these cases, the end-user device

contains a router and components that interface to the particular physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for VoIP.

Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together. Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet. By maintaining configuration information in a piece of storage called the routing table, wired or wireless routers also have the ability to filter traffic, either incoming or outgoing, based on the IP addresses of senders and receivers. Some routers allow the home networker to update the routing table from a Web browser interface. Broadband routers combine the functions of a router with those of a network switch and a firewall in a single unit. A broadband router combines the features of a traditional network switch, a firewall, and a DHCP server. Broadband routers are designed for convenience in setting up home

networks, particularly for homes with high-speed cable modem or DSL Internet service. A broadband router supports file sharing, Internet connection sharing, and home LAN gaming. A broadband router follow the Ethernet standard for home networking. Traditional broadband routers required Ethernet cables be run between the router, the broadband modem, and each computer on the home LAN. The newer wireless routers also support broadband Internet access and the Ethernet standard without the need for cabling. BRIDGE A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments. Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it. An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame size - in making individual forwarding decisions. Bridges serve a similar function as switches, that also operate at Layer 2. Traditional bridges, though, support one network boundary, whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this reason. ridging networks are generally always interconnected local area networks since broadcasting every message to all possible destinations would flood a larger network with unnecessary traffic. For this reason, router networks such as the Internet use a scheme that assigns addresses to nodes so that a message or packet can be forwarded only in one general direction rather than forwarded in all directions. A bridge works at the data-link (physical network) level of a network, copying a data frame from one network to the next network along the communications path.

Netmask A netmask is a 32-bit mask used to divide an IP address into subnets and specify the networks available hosts. In a netmask, two bits are always automatically assigned. For

example, in 255.255.225.0, "0" is the assigned network address; and in 255.255.255.255, "255" is the assigned broadcast address. The 0 and 255 are always assigned and cannot be used. Below is an example of a netmask and an example of its binary conversion. Netmask: Binary: Netmask length 255. 11111111 8 255. 11111111 16 255. 11111111 24 255 11111111 32

Counting out the bits in the binary conversion allows you to determine the netmask length. In the above example you have an example of a 32-bit address. However, this address is a broadcast address and does not allow any hosts (computers or other network devices) to be connected to it. A commonly used netmask is a 24-bit netmask as seen below. Netmask: Binary: Netmask length 255. 11111111 8 255. 11111111 16 255. 11111111 24 0 00000000 --

Using a 24-bit netmask the network would be capable of 2,097,150 networks or 254 different hosts with an IP range of 192.0.1.x - 223.255.254.x. This is commonly plenty of addresses for one network.

Cisco Internetwork Operating System Cisco IOS (originally Internetwork Operating System) is the software used on the vast majority of Cisco Systems routers and current Cisco network switches. (Earlier switches ran CatOS.) IOS is a package of routing, switching, internetworking and telecommunications functions tightly integrated with a multitasking operating system. The IOS CLI provides a fixed set of multiple-word commands the set available is determined by the "mode" and the privilege level of the current user. "Global

configuration mode" provides commands to change the system's configuration, and "interface configuration mode" provides commands to change the configuration of a specific interface

A Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications on the physical network segment. MAC addresses are used for numerous network technologies and most IEEE 802 network technologies including Ethernet. Logically, MAC addresses are used in the Media Access Control protocol sub-layer of the OSI reference model. MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface card (NIC) and are stored in its hardware, the card's read-only memory, or some other firmware mechanism. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer's registered identification number and may be referred to as the burned-in address. It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware address (EHA), hardware address or physical address. A network node may have multiple NICs and will then have one unique MAC address per NIC.

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet

The Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) is a network protocol for encapsulating Pointto-Point Protocol (PPP) frames inside Ethernet frames. It is used mainly with DSL services where individual users connect to the DSL modem over Ethernet and in plain Metro Ethernet networks. It was developed by UUNET, Redback Networks and RouterWare (now Wind River Systems) [1] and is available as an informational RFC 2516. Ethernet networks are packet-based and have no concept of a connection or circuit and also lack basic security features to protect against IP and MAC conflicts and rogue DHCP servers. By using PPPoE, users can virtually "dial" from one machine to another over an Ethernet network, establish a point to point connection between them and then securely transport data packets over the connection. It is mainly used by telephone companies, since PPPoE is easily integrated with legacy dial-up AAA systems and fits perfectly into the ATM backbones. The protocol also permits very easy unbundling of DSLAMs where required by regulators, since the user would simply use a different login into PPP, then the ATM circuit would be routed to the user's ISP. Also pre-paid traffic bucket business models can be created with PPPoE more easily than with DHCP or multiplexing multiple users with different

speed tiers or QoS through 1 DSL modem or by creating a different login for each static IP purchased by customers.

PPPoE faces a difficult future. MPLS/IP backbones and IP-DSLAMs are considered the norm and the circuit switched family technologies (ATM/PDH) are being called legacy technologies[citation needed]. Pseudowire and VoIP can be used to deal with legacy customers and equipment. PPPoE has the highest overhead DSL delivery method.[2] The amount of overhead added by PPPoE depends on the packet size because PPPoE adds 8 bytes to each packet.[3] If packets are large, say 1492 bytes, the overhead is only 0.54 % ((1500-1492)/1492).