Fire theory

Terms and definitions

Fire Flame Red or yellow burning gas seen when something is on fire The process of combustion of inflammable materials producing heat and light and (often) smoke Refers to combination brilliant glow and large amount of heat during exothermic oxidation Flames are body of gas that releases heat and light Starts when fuel subjected to energy source Sustained by further release until combustible fuel is consumed

Combustion The process of catching fire and burning / chemical activity, usually in presence of oxygen, that produces light and heat Non-combustible material: neither burns nor gives off flammable vapours @ 750C Energy Different types o Kinetic o Potential o Heat o Mass First law thermodynamics: energy can not be created, nor can it be destroyed Energy transformed usually with exchange of heat

Basic principles
Transfer of heat Conduction (5%) = transfer through solids throughout contact of molecules Convection (75%) = transport due to movement Radiation (20%) = transport by energy waves Sparks can travel meters and start new fires

Flashover o Most dangerous time o Entire room into flame => flashover occurred o Caused by radiation feedback of heat Heat absorbed into upper walls and contents of room Heating up combustible gases and furnishings to auto-ignition temperature o Several major changes End effective search and rescue End using portable extinguishers End growth stage Change from content to structure fire Beginning collapse danger

Mechanism of a fire Oxidation o Slow: rust o Fast: fire o Very fast: deflagration o Immediate: explosion Gas fire o Molecules of gas collide o Higher temperature => higher energy o Chain reaction o Molecule splits in atoms and free radicals => react other combustible molecule => reacts with oxygen => oxidation liberates new atom or free radical => Liquids o Vapour will combine o Liquid fire = gas fire at surface of liquid o Temperature rises => more vapours come off Solid o Start as gas fire o PYROLYSIS Thermal decomposition Temperature high enough + enough oxygen => carbon will burn Formation of CO Spontaneous combustion o Material ignites without external source of heat o Heat generated by Oxygen in air Absorption moisture Processing Radioactive decay

Explosives Accelerated or divided chain reaction => explosion Mechanical o No chemical reaction o Ex: breaking of cylinder containing compressed gas Chemical o Fast exothermic chemical reaction o Ex: polymerisation Division in o Deflagration Most common Speed flames between 1 to 1000 m/s Pressure no more than some bars o Detonations Supersonic speed Between 1500 to 2000 m/s Shock wave of 15 to 20 bar BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion) o Tank with gas under pressure o Liquid + gaseous vapour o Rupture in tank => drop in pressure => overpressure from point of rupture o Violent boiling of liquid => large amounts of vapour o Also caused by external fire nearby storage heating op contents and pressure build-up

Fire risk Fire risk = probability of a fire * potential damage Probability o Construction and material o Content of area o Activities o Personnel o External risks o Possible growth potential depends on structure, ship design & compartmenting Potential damage o Duration fire o Highest temperatures o Amount combustible material o Characteristics combustible materials o Oxygen supply Combustible charge o Indication of amount of combustible material per surface or volume o Mass * caloric potential o Not direct indication for fire risk Possibility of ignition => frequency

 Fire growth speed => potential damage o Little influence on maximum temperature

Influence ventilation o Ventilation controlled fire Combustible charge large Air supply limited Ventilation increases => temperature rises => fire duration decreases o Fuel surface controlled fire Combustible charge limited Air supply large Ventilation increases => temperature decreases => no influence on duration o Temperature highest in transition between ventilation and fuel surface controlled fire

Development of a fire Ignition o Temperature rises rather slow o Development depend on Amount combustible material Ventilation Smoke Caloric potential Rate of heat development o Caused by different mechanisms Often thermal Electric discharge Electromagnetic radiation Ultrasonic vibrations Growth stage o Combustible materials incorporated one by one => chain reaction Fully developed stage o Starts with flashover o Whole room on fire o Temperature keeps rising Natural decay o Starts when temperature at 80% of maximum o All combustible materials given their heat o Temperature will drop

Vapour pressure Pressure of vapour in equilibrium with non-vapour phases Indication of liquids evaporation rate Non-linearly relation Boiling point = temperature where vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure The higher the vapour pressure, the lower the boiling point

Flammability Inflammability o Indication on possibility of ignition Flash point: enough vapour to allow ignition when mixed with air and ignition source present, ignition source removed => fire extinguishes Fire point: see flash point but fire will continue burning Self ignition temperature: ideal conditions, heated to initiate selfsustained combustion independent of any ignition source o NO correlation between flash point & self ignition temperature o Two basic types flash point measurement Open cup Closed cup Speed (depends on) o Concentration o Proportion different components o Dimensions and contact surface o Temperature (logarithmic scale)

Flammable / explosion limits Gases & vapours only flammable within certain limits LEL o Minimum concentration o Below: too lean UEL o Maximum concentration o Above: too rich Change with o Temperature (higher temperature => wider explosion limits) o Pressure o Purity substance o Presence inert gas will influence UEL Difference UEL & LEL gives flammable or explosive range Explosion diagram: see p. 22

Fire triangle fire tetrahedron Fuel, oxygen, source of ignition (heat/energy) Removal any side => extinguish fire Removal oxygen o Fire smother when oxygen level < 16% o Not possible for substances containing own oxygen o Means Foam CO2 Dry powder

Water mist and fog o Temporary effects o Inerting preventive measurement Removal heat o Rate larger than that produced by fire o Cooling boundary bulkheads reduces possibility igniting material outside affected compartment (fire cube!!) o Water best cooling agent o Effect 6 times greater when steam o Even more when fog o Cut off power supply when using water o Foam also good cooling agent o Heat absorbed by decomposition of dry powder or from CO2 => rather small Removal fuel o Not always possible o Liquid fire cause by leaking => supply closed o Drain burning tank o Shut down supply in gas fire o Combustible materials removed from fire and surrounding areas Breaking chain reaction o Heat should be removed too (re-ignition possible) o Means Dry powder Halon Aerosols

Smoke Dangerous aspect Consists of o Soot o Burned gasses o Unburned gasses Important negative consequences o Loss of orientation o Irritation airways o Production toxic and asphyxiating gasses o Heat o Flammable due to incomplete combustion o Development flashover & backdraft

Backdraft If oxygen used faster then added => fire dies out Unburned gasses remain Breaking window/ door opened => fresh air => explosive combustion

Fire classes
Class A: solid fires Class B: liquid fires Class C: gas fires Class D: metallic fires Class E: electrical fires (not in Europe) Class F: fat fires

Causes of fire
Introduction
Most fires result of acts of crew Carelessness, irresponsible behaviour & lack of knowledge => important causes

Careless smoking
Smoking in bed / smoking and alcohol Fall asleep when smoking in bed => smouldering fire started by touching tobacco to bedding => asphyxiation before discovery Drinking alcohol => careless => left cigarette can be forgotten => small fire easily developing when in contact with flammable material

Smoking in the engine & boiler rooms Large amounts of petroleum products Vaporise and mix with warm air Lighted match / glowing tobacco can ignite flammable mix Fires in oily rags

Smoking on board tankers Smoking inside Visitors dont know this => ask for their cigarettes

Smoking in cargo holds Break-bulk cargoes vulnerable to cargo-hold fires during loading Late discovery => much cargo involved

Spontaneous ignition
Often overlooked Example: oily rag => oxidises and produces heat => chain reaction Clean and tidy ship best prevention Pyrophorus substances capable of taking fire on exposure to air

Faulty electric circuits and equipment

Standard equipment not adapted to circumstances on board Easily corrode, break, heat up or give sparks Deteriorated material = same problems Improvised electrical connections & circuits can cause short circuits and overcharged fuses Heat of lighted electrical bulb can ignite combustible material by indirect contact

Hot work
Sparks & production of heat inevitable Most frequently made mistakes o Absence fire fighting equipment o Presence combustible materials in surrounding area o Dust or gas mixtures at working area o No or incompetent safeguard o Atmosphere not gas free o Gas cylinders not vertical o Damaged material Hot work permit: only aid, no guarantee

Galley
Open flames and high temperatures + garbage oils & grease & intense activity Extra attention to feep fat fryers, galley ducts (accumulated grease and dirt), towels (dry above stove), improvised electrical equipment GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

Engine room fires

Most common cause: oil leaking hitting hot spots All surfaces above 220: shielded or insulated GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

Ship repair and dry dock

Reparations including hot work Alarm systems / protective installations switched off Shore personnel with other safety standards Water supply limited

Cargo
Physical & chemical properties differ from ship to ship, voyage to voyage Extra problem: shore personnel Fumigation canisters should not be forgotten IMDG code Prevent overflow

Other causes of fire

Lightning impact Cathodic protection Collision Funnel sparks Static electricity

Prevention
Introduction
Combination measurements to prevent & elements to limit consequences Order of importance o Prevention (separation elements fire triangle) o Measures at management level (safety policy, permit to work) o Group protection (isolation, structural boundaries) o Individual protection (PPE) o First aid (sufficient & efficient fire extinguishing material) Design & construction phase very important Legislation o Comply o Only a minimum

Legislation
SOLAS Chapter II-2 (7 parts, 20 rules) FSS Code o Fire and Safety Systems Code o 15 chapters Chapter 1: General Chapter 2: International shore connection Chapter 3: Personnel protection Chapter 4: Fire extinguishers Chapter 5: Fixed gas fire-extinguishing systems Chapter 6: Fixed foam fire-extinguishing systems Chapter 7: Fixed pressure water-spraying and water-mist fire extinguishing systems Chapter 8: Automatic sprinkler, fire detection and fire alarm systems Chapter 9: Fixed fire detection and fire alarm systems Chapter 10: Sample extraction smoke detection system Chapter 11: Low location lighting system Chapter 12: Fixed emergency fire pumps Chapter 13: Arrangement of means of escape Chapter 14: Fixed deck foam systems Chapter 15: Inert gas systems STCW related item

SOLAS chapter II-2 reg 2

Safety objectives o Prevent occurrence fire and explosion o Reduce risk to life o Reduce risk of damage o Contain, control and suppress fire and explosion o Provide adequate & readily accessible means of escape Following functional requirements o Division ship o Separation accommodation spaces o Restricted use combustible materials o Detection in zone of origin o Containment and extinction in space of origin o Protection of means of escape and access for fire fighting o Ready availability of fire-extinguishing appliances o Minimization of possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour

Detection
Introduction
2 types o Automatic o Non-automatic (intervention human) Fulfil following requirements o Reliable o Sensitive (without false alarms) o Not sensitive for normal changes of temperature or light o Possibility to test o Easy maintenance SOLAS o Fixed fire detection & alarm in Periodically unattended machinery spaces Machinery spaces where Installation of automatic and remote control systems & equipment approved in lieu of continuous manning Main propulsion & associated machinery provided with various degrees of automatic or remote control & under continuous manned supervision from control room o Accommodation, service spaces & control stations protected by fixed fire detection & fire alarm system and/or automatic sprinkler, fire detection & fire alarm system as follows, depending on protection method adopted o Fire round after watch Odour Unused cabins open o General fire alarm activated from the bridge (no detecting system => alerting) Extra requirements on passenger ships

Automatic detection
Thermal detectors o Thermostatic o Thermo differential o Rate of rise Smoke detectors o Photoelectrical o Ionisation Flame detectors Electrochemical detectors

Thermal detectors Thermostatic detector o Melting or dilatation of solid, liquid or gas o Preset to fixed temperature (60 C 80 C ) o Often in combination with other types of detectors / extinguishing system o Some with noise: gas filled ball bursts at set temperature Thermo-differential detectors o React to change of temperature (between 2 rooms / 2 areas in same room) o Almost always used in combination with fixed heat detectors Rate of rise detectors o React to speed of temperature change o Bi-metals o Air volume in hemisphere Combination detectors

Smoke detectors Optical o Quicker in detecting smoke by smouldering fires o Light source, lens direct light into beam, photodiode or other sensor at angle to beam o No smoke: light passes in front of detector in straight line o Smoke: some light scattered by particles => directing at sensor o Often used in cargo spaces Ionisation o Quicker in detecting smoke by flaming fires o Two plates with voltage across, along with radioactive source of ionising radiation o Small amount of electrical current o Smoke enters chamber => disrupts current => drop in current detected o Amount radiation extremely small => only dangerous when inhaled

Flame detectors React to presence of flames Uses optical sensors

Electrochemical detectors Smothering fires most difficult to detect o CO formed o People die before raising alarm Electrochemical sensor = self powered micro fuel cell o Casing containing gel or electrolyte and 2 active electrodes o Top of casing has membrane permeated by gas sample o Oxidisation takes place at anode, reduction at cathode o Current created

o Gases which can be oxidized (like CO) sensed at anode o Gases which are reducible (like oxygen) sensed at cathode Detector location and number Legal requirements o SOLAS Detect fire in space of origin Provide alarm for safe escape and fire-fighting activity General requirements o FSS 2 sources of power supply Flame detectors only with smoke or heat detectors Smoke detectors stairways, corridors & escape routes working at 2 12,5 % smoke density Heat detectors 54C 78C or 1 C rise per minute (except in drying rooms) Testing possible at all times without renewal of any components Location important (min 0,5 m away from bulkheads) Max space between detectors also stipulated o Automatic detection system give visible & audible signal in local compartment o Location possible from the bridge (visible & audible) o Special signal to inform malfunctioning Fire characteristics o Temperature rise & smoke density depend on material burning & ventilation o Cargo space: develops slowly, linear temperature rise, thick smoke o Engine room: fast temperature rise o Accommodation: temperature rises slowly, large amount of smoke Detector sensitivity o Smothering fires: optical detectors faster o Flaming fires: ionic detectors faster Distance between detectors o Temperature decreases fast over 7 meter o Sensitivity very important within first 7 meter Distance under hatch-coaming o Cooling effect of coaming o Highest temperatures => 5 10 cm under coaming Environmental conditions o Reliability in different environmental conditions = important o Humidity & other corrosive elements adversely effect reliability of sensors Number of detectors o Positioning remains difficult issue o Often adapted after testing phase o Unexpected air circulation or ventilation conditions affect functioning of detector => might affect number of detectors

Non-automatic detection
Call points In accommodation, service spaces & control stations Manually operated call point Readily accessible in corridors of each deck so always within 20 m

Fire rounds Great use in detecting fire Fire risks observed & changed Every officer after watch ODOUR IS VERY IMPORTANT Extra help from CCTV or surveillance cameras

Containing
Fire cube
Each compartment 6 adjoining areas Each sides need to be controlled o Removing combustible materials from walls o Boundary cooling o Safeguard posted at every side

Structural strength: fire resistance

Stability Thermal isolation Passage of smoke and flames

Standard fire test Specimens of relevant bulkheads or decks exposed in test furnace to temperatures corresponding to standard time-temperature curve in accordance with test method specified in Fire Test Procedures Code

Class divisions A class (bulkheads & decks) o Constructed of steel or other equivalent material o Suitably stiffened o Insulated with approved non-combustible materials o Average temperature unexposed side never more than 140 C above original temperature o Temperature never more than 180 C above original temperature A-60: 60 minutes A-30: 30 minutes A-15: 15 minutes A-0: 0 minutes o Capable preventing passage of smoke and flame to end of one-hour standard fire test B class (bulkheads, decks, ceilings & linings) o Constructed of approved non-combustible materials except veneers o Insulated o Average temperature unexposed side never more than 140 C above original temperature o Temperature never more than 225 C above original temperature B-15: 15 minutes B-0: 0 minutes o Capable preventing passage of flame to end of first half hour of standard fire test C class o Constructed of non-combustible materials o Meet neither requirements relative to passage smoke & flame nor temperature rise o Combustible veneers permitted

Fighting
Introduction
Fire involves 4 elements o Fuel o Oxygen o Energy o Chain reaction Removing one element extinguishes fire o Removing fuel o Suffocation o Cooling fire o Interrupting chain reaction

Extinguishing agents
Water Working principle o Cool down o Produced vapour smothers fire o Boundary cooling with water o Injected as fog to form emulsion with oil to prevent oil from catching fire Advantages o Efficient o Readily available o Unlimited o Cheap o Non toxic Disadvantages o Water damage o Stability o Electric conductivity o Can give dangerous chemical reaction o Possible spreading class B fires o Decomposition at high temperature feeds fire Applications o Best medium to extinguish class A fire o Also for class B but can spread fire o Boundary cooling o Portable extinguishers Not often on board Almost always chemical added o Main fire line Provided with pumps, mains, hydrants & hoses Avoid possibility of freezing Suitable drainage provisions At least 2 fire pumps & 1 emergency fire pump Minimum capacity 25 m / h & supply 2 water jets Two pumps simultaneously => following minimum pressures > 6000 ton: 0,27 N / mm < 6000 ton : 0,25 N / mm Number & position so that at least 2 jets of water not emanating from same hydrant, one from single length of hose, reach any part of ship normally accessible for passengers / crew while navigating & any part of any cargo space when empty Fire hoses length at least 10 m, no more than Machinery spaces: 15 m Other spaces & open decks: 20 m Open decks on ships with max breadth > 30 m: 25 m Complete interchange ability of hose couplings and nozzles

Diameter sufficient for discharge of 140 m / h

o o

Nozzles approved dual purpose type Jet o Pressure can enlarge fire o Cooling effect limited o Smothering effect small o Used to spread out class A fire Spray o Easily cool down fire o Large amount of heat necessary to evaporate droplets o Large amount of vapour will smother the fire Fixed water spray installation To protect accommodation International shore connection Ensure connection different ships & ship shore At least one for every ship > 500 gross tonnage Standard dimensions Sprinkler installation Wet type (water readily available under pressure in the lines) Combined with automatic detecting system Ready for immediate operation Min 2 sources of power supply for pump & alarm and detecting system Resistant to corrosion & freezing In operation between 68 C & 79 C Steam installation Only on board tankers Completely closed from outside air Injected steam pushes oxygen away Only small drop in temperature => danger for re-ignition Extinguishing = rather slow Damage by moisture & heat large

Water mist Working principle o Cooling Removing heat because latent heat of vaporisation Droplets enough momentum => penetrate the gases => absorb heat from flame environment o Oxygen displacement Some water evaporates Expands Dilutes oxygen concentration by displacing air o Radiant heat dilution Suspended water vapour reduce radiant heat transfer between flame & unburned fuel Restrict fire growth & spread

Advantages o Fast o Safe for people, environment & property o Unlimited water supply o No decomposition possible o Minimal fire, smoke & water damage o Minimal space & weight requirements o Very efficient o No electric conductivity Disadvantages o More expensive than fixed CO2 installation o IMO restriction for volume difficulties to extinguish small fires in large spaces Applications o Replaces HALON o Fixed installation In machinery spaces & cargo pump rooms Gains territory => also accommodation, service spaces, galleys & laundries o Piercing nozzle High pressure water jet cuts small holes in door, wall, floor of word, steel, concrete Blows powerful mist into compartment Cooling down No opening of compartment => reduces risk of Backdraft

Foam Working principles o Cooling: 90 % water => vaporises o Covering: prevent transformation to gas phase / lower vapour pressure o Isolation: fuel separated from heat & oxygen

o Different classes

o High quality foam Attaches easily to form firm blanket Stable Flame suppressing Heat resistant Good flow Fuel intolerance o Two types class B flammable liquids Non polar Immiscible in water Examples: gasoline, heptane, crude oil Polar Mixable with water Examples: isopropanol, methyl ethyl ketone All foams designed to be used on non-polar solvents but only polar solvent / alcohol resistant concentrates effective on polar solvents Some examples o AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) Contains fluoro-chemical surfactants Control physical properties of water On hydrocarbon liquid o AFFF Polar Contains pseudo plastic material Forms polymeric layer only on polar solvents On water soluble products o Protein foam concentrate Based on proteins with added chemicals Exceptional stable, cohesive, heat resistant & cheap

Disadvantage: rather slow

Advantages o Low expansion foam Relatively cheap Easy maintenance o High expansion foam Cheap Easy application Stable Non toxic Non asphyxiating Escape through foam is possible

Disadvantages o Low expansion foam Instable Effectiveness deteriorates Solution may crystallise CO2 development may be dangerous in small enclosed area o High expansion foam Irritating for eyes and airways Electrical conductive Can cause important damage to equipment Soluble in some products (can also be advantage) Very light & can be blown away Applications o Portable extinguishers Minimum capacity of 9 litres Most extinguishers mechanical foam Foam forming product stored in separate container inside extinguisher Activating extinguisher => cylinder CO2 pierced Water mixed with foam & CO2 before leaving Expansion rate up to 1000 Chemical foam Turn extinguisher upside down before use Rare on board Specific type for class F fires Layer between burning grease and air Cool down the product => temperature below self ignition temperature o Main fire line Portable tank of min 20l + spare tank (FSS Chapt 4) Nozzle capable of producing effective foam for extinguishing oil fire at rate of at least 1,5 m/min (FSS Chapt 4) Inductor connected to main fire line => Venturi effect mixes water & product To add air => aspiration holes o Fixed installations High expansion Capable of filling greatest space to be protected at rate of 1m in depth per minute Quantity available min 5 times volume of greatest space to be protected Expansion rate smaller than 1000 Low expansion Discharging in 5 minutes a quantity of foam sufficient to cover to a depth of 150 mm the largest single area over which fuel is liable to spread Expansion rate smaller than 12

 Chemical powder

Seldom used

Working principle o Inhibition Exact mechanism not understood Remove chain reaction of fire tetrahedron o Smothering Layer between combustible and oxygen o NO COOLING EFFECT => RE-IGNITION POSSIBLE Advantages o Not toxic o Can be used neat electricity o Used inside & outside o Not dangerous to human life Disadvantages o Damage to electrical & electronic equipment o Can stick together when in contact with humidity o Some react with water => corrosive products o No cooling effect Applications o Mostly ABC powder, also BC powder and special D powder o Sodium, potassium / ammonium phosphate base o (semi) Portable extinguishers Often powder stowed in extinguishers Min capacity of 5 kg Bottle of driving gas activated by opening valve / pushing pin Distance of 3 to 4 m Directed to base of flames Class A: shots of powder Class B/C: continuous jet Shake extinguishers before use o Fixed installations Powder stowed in air-tight compartment CO2 stored in one or more cylinders connected to powder Lines made of rust proof steel & lead to discharge heads Same flow from every head After use, lines & heads can be flushed with air Control of system: manual / automatic Important: adequate detecting system => powder released in early stage

CO2 Working principle o Smothering CO2 = inert gas Lowers oxygen level o Small cooling & blowing effect CO2 snow released when product expands Leaves with positive pressure => pushes flames away Rather limited & negligible compared to smothering reaction Advantages o Easily available o Covers fire o No electric conductivity o High rate of discharge o No decomposition o No damage Disadvantages o Can cause thermal shock o Danger of asphyxiation o Expensive installation & use o Special area for storage of fixed installation o Less effective in open air o Possibility of re-ignition Applications o Portable extinguishers Combat of class B fires Easy & reliable Approach fire to 1m Before use, extinguisher must be tested Hand at insulated handle

o Fixed installation Different components CO2 cylinders Collecting line Switchboard Lines connecting installation with area to be protected Discharge valves Mechanically / pneumatically / electrically Area must be evacuated Sometimes perfume added to alert in case of leaking Installation requirements (FSS chapt 5) Gas available at least certain percentage of volume to be protected & 85% injected in less than 2 minutes o 30% cargo area o 40% machinery areas 2 separate controls provided before CO2 is released o Open valve of piping o Discharge gas from storage containers Sound alarm Installation must be protected for over pressure Never as a preventive measure!! o N2 installation Odourless, colourless & tasteless Heavier than air Only used in fixed installation Must be as effective as CO2 o Inert gas generator Not toxic Asphyxiating Seldom used for fire fighting Quantities needed higher than CO2 Applications more preventive Fire blanket Sand Prevent / combat beginning oil fire Contain overflow Made of non flammable material Readily available in galleys Smothering fire NO COOLING DOWN

HALONS HALogenated hydrocarbONS Forbidden as fire fighting agent because they attack ozone layer Lot of alternatives Inergen o Advantages No ozone depletion No evacuation needed Non toxic to human health Same density as normal atmosphere Electrically non conductive No fog created o Disadvantages Does not liquefy => more storage space needed No worldwide coverage for refilling Replacement of 40 50 % of space needed in a short time to be effective => creates large amount of pressure Need for special area for storage of fixed installation Less effective in open air Possibility for re-ignition Argonite Novec 1230

New fire fighting products

Personal equipment
General Components fire-fighters outfit (FSS code chapter 3) o Breathing apparatus o Protective clothing that protects from heat radiation & burns & outer surface is water-resistant o Boots of non conducting material o Rigid helmet o Electrical safety lamp, min 3 hours burning period o Safety line (min length 30m, fire proof, min strength 3,5 kN for 5 min) Every ship at least 2 complete outfits with BA Tankers 4 sets

Respiratory protection General o Particles in the air Solid compounds mixed with air Small particles most dangerous Damage to lungs / absorbed into blood chain Dust, mist & smoke o Gasses and vapours Act similar to air & easily integrate into atmosphere Long & short term health effects Deadly concentrations / asphyxiation Gasses formed at room temperature Vapours are vaporised products During cleaning, painting & using solvents o Oxygen deficiency At oxygen concentration < 19,5 % Levels of oxygen deficiency 17%: increased breathing volume & higher heartbeat 14 16%: increased breathing volume, accelerated heartbeat, poor muscular coordination, rapid fatigue & intermittent respiration 6 10%: nausea, vomiting, inability to perform & unconsciousness < 6%: spasmatic breathing, convulsive movements, death within minutes o Extreme temperatures Cause lung damage Self contained breathing apparatus o Volume min 1200l / enough to be capable of functioning at least 30 min o Theoretical consumption = 40l / min o Consumption very personal o Safety margin of 50 bars o Consists of Fully adjustable harness Compressed air cylinders Pressure reducing valve Pressure gauge Whistle warning unit (warning at 50 bars) Medium pressure hose Positive pressure facemask with instant demand valve Closed circuit breathing apparatus o Oxygen cylinder gives supply into breathing bag (mixed with exhaled air) o Filter to dry and clean exhaled air o Inhaled air feels very dry and warm o Autonomy up to 2 hours Fresh air supply

o Air supplied from outside toxic atmosphere o NOT allowed on board

Emergency escape breathing device o Obligatory since July 2002 o Minimum 2 sets in accommodation area o In machinery spaces: located directly for use at easily visible places o Number & location indicated on fire control plan o Minimum capacity of 10 minutes o ONLY FOR ESCAPE Mask with filter o Not used for fire fighting o Doesnt supply oxygen o Removes toxic components from the air o Filter capacity = limited Nominal protection factor o Indication of protection given by mask o The higher the NPF, the higher the protection o NPF = concentration toxic air outside the mask / concentration toxic air inside the mask o Examples Half mask with filter: 20 Full face mask with filter: 2 000 Mouth/nose clip with filter: 10 000 Full face mask overpressure: 50 000 Fresh air supply: 2 000

Fire control plan

On strategic places on the ship o Bridge o Control room o Every floor in accommodation Watertight container near gangway UPDATE THE PLAN

Evacuation
Legal requirements
In SOLAS chapt. II-2 Regulation 12: general emergency alarm system & public address system (available throughout accommodation, service spaces, control stations & open decks) shall be provided on every ship Regulation 13: more info about means of escape (safe, accessible without obstacles & clearly marked & illuminated) o Accommodation At least 2 means of escape No dead-end corridors longer than 7m EEBD available o Machinery space At least 2 means of escape with self closing doors EEBD available Special requirements for passenger & ro-ro passenger ships

Aids to evacuation
Emergency signs Continuous marking of escape routes with indications of direction Posted at eye height

Low location lightning Good visibility near the floor Directions given with low location lightning Photo luminescent material with pigment absorbing light & emitting over a period of time Pigment is rechargeable

Auditive signals Directional sound directors Necessary o Timing (< 1 000 Hz) o Intensity (> 3 000 Hz) o Direction in relation to the head (> 5 000 Hz)

Crowd and crisis management Special training requirements for personnel on certain types of ships Crowd reacts as follows o 10% rescues himself o 5% combats the emergency o 10% will help o 60% will wait for others to take initiatives o 12 14% will freeze and do nothing o 1 3% will panic heavily Items of crowd management training o Awareness of life-saving appliance and control plans including Knowledge of muster lists & emergency instructions Knowledge of emergency exits Restrictions on use of elevators o Ability to assist passengers Ability to give clear reassuring orders Control of passengers in corridors, staircases & passage ways Maintaining escape routes clear of obstructions Methods available for evacuation of disabled persons & persons needing special assistance Search of accommodation spaces o Mustering procedures Importance of keeping order Ability to use procedures for reducing & avoiding panic Ability to use passenger lists for evacuation counts Ability to ensure that passengers are suitably clothed & have donned lifejackets correctly

Organisation / strategy
Fire muster list
Similar to ship muster Optimise chances of successful combat Selection of members for parties done on basis of experience, physical condition, age & knowledge Each unit has specific duties o Support party Back up fire fighters with additional equipment Stop spreading of fire Preparing lifeboats & other life saving appliances o Bridge party Keep overall sight of situation Directing of internal & external communication Starting of fire pump o Engine room party Responsible for maintaining power supplies Ensuring main engine available Isolating affected electrical circuits & equipment Ensure all fire pumps are fully operational o Attack party Fight fire Asses situation & keep in contact with the bridge Location nearby hazards BA & protective clothing necessary Fight / contain Which apparatus Direction of attack o First aid team Collects stretchers, blankets, first aid kit & resuscitator Often join support team FLEXIBILITY

Elements of command and control

Locating the seat of the fire Can be very difficult Rely upon heat & flames!

Stopping heat and fire from spreading Ship conducts heat very well Boundary cooling = essential

 Boundary starvation (often time consuming) Containment If fire cannot be beaten back / access impossible Putting fire in fire cube

Ventilation Ventilation control is one of most difficult challenges Needs depend on stage of fire and way being fought Ways of ventilation o Position of vessel to take advantage of the wind o Vertical ventilation o Horizontal ventilation o Assisted ventilation

Stability Limit amount of water Manage effects of water used Keep scuppers clear

Guarding against re-ignition Particular with class A fires Watch of 24 hours in area after extinction Other areas should be searched for hidden pockets of fire

Fire drills
SOLAS Planned so that consideration given to regular practice in various emergencies Include o Reporting & preparing for duties o Starting fire pump, using at least 2 jets of water o Checking firemans outfit & other personal rescue equipment o Checking relevant communication equipment o Checking operation watertight doors, fire doors, fire dampers & main inlets & outlets of ventilation systems o Checking necessary arrangements for subsequent abandoning of ship Equipment used immediately brought back to fully operational condition On-board training not later than two weeks after crew member joins the ship Instructions in use of fire-extinguishing & life-saving appliances at same intervals Recorded in logbook

Pre-fire survey form

Contains information pertinent to fire response in any given space Combination of forms gives comprehensive reference overview of vessel Not compulsory on board

Flashover
Indicates transition between growth stage & fully developed stage Delay flashover in 3 ways o Venting Release build up of heat Slows down flashover Improving visibility in smoke-filled room o Not venting Starve fire of oxygen Slows down combustion rate Slows down build up of heat Done when delay in stretching a hose & all persons out of the burning room o Portable extinguisher Discharge can cool heat down Warning signs o Heat Mix heat & smoke => forces fire-fighter to crouch down o Rollover Sporadic flashes of flame mixed with smoke at ceiling level Caused by heated combustible gases in smoke Ignites into flashes of flame when mixed with oxygen Precedes flashover Smoke coming out of tops of doorways or window openings Attack o Using fire hoses o Point to ceiling above with short pulses water, slowly descending to base of fire

Backdraft
Limited ventilation => fire in compartment producing fire gasses containing significant proportions of partial combustion products and un-burnt pyrolysis products Sudden ignition when this accumulates and air is let in Some indicating signs o History of the fire (died from oxygen starvation) o Holes and doors (smoke pulsing out, whistling noise) o Door and handle are hot No prevention for backdraft

Backdraft can be delayed!

Entry
General technique o Min 2 people o Stay together o Use breathing apparatus handle as connection o Largest person first o First = leader o Good communication o In touch with fixed object o Memorise route & take same way back o Count doors o Count steps o Follow same hand throughout complete entry Reasons o Search a fire (close to the walls) o Search a victim (all areas inspected in systematic way)

Moving forward Back of the hand to screen wall Hand up & down Other hand screen for obstacles Weight on foot closest to the wall Other foot to check for ground stability & obstacles

Opening a door General o Check temperature door handle o Look for hinges to know opening direction Opening towards you o Door protect you o Kneel o Foot against door o Open few cm o Enter when all clear o Close door, if door handle exists Opening opposite side o Wall protect you o Kneel o Open few cm, remove hand o Enter when all clear o Close door, if door handle exists

Stairs More stable at sides than in middle Check every step for stability Downstairs => backwards

Searching for the floor Contact to fixed object as wall or wardrobe

Tactical guidelines by type of vessel

Bulk and break bulk vessels Spontaneous ignition Dust explosion Fire detection delayed due to size & configuration of the vessel If fire occurs, trying to limit the damage Actions o Boundary cooling o Determine best extinguishing procedure for cargo type o Fill wing tanks & double bottoms with seawater (displace vapours & improve stability) o Cooling streams over hatch covers o Flood or soak burning material but consider following issues Steam explosions Water reactive material Swelling or expanding of wet cargo o Close hold & proceed to nearest appropriate port for handling cargo o Monitor temperatures in adjacent compartments o Activate fixed fire suppression system if available Check proper discharge Allow adequate soaking time Monitor interior conditions & temperatures Often impossible to extinguish bulk fire (class A fires)

Container vessel Difficult access situation Multiple cargoes & dangerous goods Smoking containers treated as having large fire potential Actions o Identify cargo in affected & surrounding area o Isolate hold/cell, secure openings o Fixed fire suppression system o Fire boundaries & inert adjacent spaces o Proceed to nearest port Above hatches o Make access if possible o Manoeuvre vessel to advantage of fire teams o Cool containers on all 6 sides o Piercing nozzles dangerous if content is unknown

RO/RO, car carrier and ferry fires Vehicle fires Large open decks Ships stability = major consideration Cars themselves serious fire problem Hydraulic systems can change into 3 dimensional spray => slip hazard Small fires o Portable fire extinguisher to control fire in individual vehicles o Pre establish an escape path o Provide backup fire hose teams o Keep ventilation running o Alert for potential running fire o Disconnect batteries of burned vehicles o Use absorbents to control fuel, lubrication oil & transmission fluids spills o Approach from upwind o Stay clear of air bags & shock absorbers Medium fires o Easiest way to access burning vehicles (advancing dry hoses easier) o Keep ventilation running & monitor situation o Apply short bursts of agent & reassess o Consider use of fixed fire suppression systems Large fires o Confine the space o Shut of all ventilation & power supply o Evacuate passengers o Follow procedures for use of fixed fire suppression systems o Control stability!!

Passenger vessel fires Large life safety problem Large scale fires Most important responsibility = management of people / crowd control

Tanker fires Commonly class B Hazardous materials / toxic cargoes Specific procedures must be followed

Gas carrier fires Release of large vapour clouds