1

Chapter 10 Electrical Properties

Preet M. Singh
(404) 894-6641
Preet.Singh@mse.gatech.edu
MSE 2001
Chapter 10 Electrical Properties
Electrical Conduction
Charge per carrier
Mobility
Energy bands and number of charge carriers
Conductors, semiconductors and insulators
Ionic conduction
Conducting polymers
Superconductivity
Semiconductors
Intrinsic and extrinsic conduction
Role of defects
Simple devices
Microelectronics

2
Electrical Conduction
V = IR
Ohms Law
Positive
potential
Negative
potential
A
R
L

| |
=
|
\ .
1
o

= Resistivity conductivity
Electrical conductivities for a variety of materials at room
temperature
Metals and alloys o[(O-cm)
-1
]
Al 3.8 x 10
5
Ag 6.3 x 10
5
Au 4.3 x 10
5
Co 1.6 x 10
5

Cr 7.8 x 10
4
Cu 6.0 x 10
5

Fe 1.0 x 10
5
Mg 2.2 x 10
5
Ni 1.5 x 10
5
Pd 9.2 x 10
4
Pb 4.8 x 10
4
Pt 9.4 x 10
4
Sn 9.1 x 10
4
Ta 8.0 x 10
4
Zn 1.7 x 10
5
Zr 2.5 x 10
4
Plain carbon steel (1020) 1.0 x 10
5
Stainless steel (304) 1.4 x 10
4
Gray cast iron 1.5 x 10
4

3
Electrical conductivities for a variety of
materials at room temperature


Ceramics o[(O-cm)
-1
]
ReO
3
5.0 x 10
5
CrO
2
3.3 x 10
4

SiC 1.0 x 10
-1

Fe
3
O
4
1.0 x 10
2
SiO
2
<10
-14
A1
2
O
3
<10
-14
Si
3
N
4
<10
-14
MgO <10
-14
Si 1.0 x 10
-4
Ge 2.3 x 10
-2



Electrical conductivities for a variety of
materials at room temperature

Polymer o[(O-cm)
-1
]
Nylon 10
-12
-10
-15
Polycarbonate 5 x 10
-17
Polyethylene < 10
-16
Polypropylene <10
-15
Polystyrene <10
-16
Polytetrafluoroethylene 10
-18
Polyvinylchloride 10
-12
-10
-16
Phenolformaldehyde 10
-13
Polyesters 10
-11
Silicones <10
-12

Aetal 10
-15

4
Conductivity Depends on
The number of mobile charge carriers per
unit volume (N with units of m
-3
)
Charge per Carrier, q (units of C)
The mobility of the charge,, with units
m
2
/(V-s)
o = Nq
Charge Carriers
Electrons (metals and some covalent bonds), q
Ions (ionic solids), then q = q
e
* Z

Z is the valence of the ion

5
Collisions
Charge Mobility,
Same as diffusion driven by charge gradient
Charge Mobility
E
v
or
,
mobility electron is Where
strength field electric to al proportion is
field applied to due on accelerati of magnitude Since
=
=

E v
or
E v
t a v Velocity Drift
6
Charge
Mobility
Thermal vibrations
Foreign atoms
Vacancies
0 (
c
c
T

0 (
c
c
d
N

The Influence of Alloying on Conductivity

7
The Influence of Cold Work on Conductivity
Increasing electronegativity,
increased tendency to add electrons
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

a
t
o
m
i
c

r
a
d
i
u
s

A
l
k
a
l
i

m
e
t
a
l
s

A
l
k
a
l
i
n
e

e
a
r
t
h


m
e
t
a
l
s

H
a
l
o
g
e
n
s

N
o
b
l
e


g
a
s
e
s

6
C
14
Si
32
Ge
sp
3
hybridized orbitals
8
E
n
e
r
g
y
,

e
V

Energy-level diagram for the orbital electrons in a
12
C atom.
Primary Bonds
Na
Na
+

r
Na
= 0.186nm
r
Cl
= 0.107nm
r
Na
= 0.098nm
+

r
Cl
= 0.181nm
-

Cl
Cl
-

I
o
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

a
f
f
i
n
i
t
y

Energy required: 5.14 eV Energy released: 4.02 eV
9
Metallic Bond
Ion cores of
2+ charge
Delocalized cloud
of valence electrons
Schematic of metallic bonds in solid magnesium
Atomic Structure
E
n
e
r
g
y

Principal quantum number, n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
s
p
s
p
s
p
s
p
s
p
s
p
s
d
d
d
d
d f
f
f
Schematic representation of
the relative energies of the
electrons for the various shells
and subshells.
10
Energy Bands in Solids
The permissible energy levels
are a function of separation
distance.
Discrete energy levels in the
isolated atoms spread into
bands in the solid.
Outermost atoms no longer
spatially localized to a particular
atom.
The energy bands become
wider as the amount of overlap
increases.
The higher the energy level, the
wider the corresponding energy
band.
The number of energy levels in
an energy band equals the
number of atoms in the solid
multiplied by the number of
discrete energy states in an
isolated atom.
Energy Bands in Solids
11
Energy Bands in Solids
Energy Bands in Solids
12
Electron Distributions in an Energy Band
N = 2 N = 0 N = 2
Sparsely filled Nearly filled Completely filled
Electron Distribution in a Sparsely Filled Energy Band
Original
empty Resulting hole
after jump
13
Electron Distribution in a Partially Filled Band as
a Function of Temperature
T = 0K T
1
> 0K T2 > T1
Fermi-Dirac Statistics
( )
( )
1
exp 1
f
f E
E E
kT
=
(

+ (
(

14
Effect of Temperature on the
Distribution of Electrons in a
Partially Filled Electron Band
Permissible by Fermi-Dirac
but not allowed since in
band gap N = 0
Energy Distribution for Solids with a Band Gap
15
Energy Distribution for Solids with a Band Gap
Permissible by
both Fermi-Dirac
and band structure
Charge carrier
Hole in
valence
band
Charge carrier
Energy Distribution for Solids with a Band Gap
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
kT
E
o e
g
N N
2
exp
Number of Electrons in Conduction Band
16
Energy Band Diagram for Three Classes of
Electrical Materials At 0K
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Electron Band Structure for Solid Sodium
17
Electron Band Structure for Solid Magnesium


Reference
Conductor
Temperature
(C)

o(
O-cm) o
e
(C
-1
)
Al 20 2.65 x 10
-6
0.0043
Ag 20 1.59 x 10
-6
0.0041
Au 20 2.35 x 10
-6
0.0040
Co 20 6.24 x 10
-6
0.0060
Cr 0 1.29 x 10
-5
0.0030
Cu 20 1.67 x 10
-6
0.0068
Fe 20 9.71 x 10
-6
0.0065
Mg 20 4.45 x 10
-6
0.0065
Ni 20 6.84 x 10
-6
0.0069
Pd 20 1.08 x 10
-5
0.0038
Pb 20 2.06 x 10
-5
0.0034
Pt 20 1.06 x 10
-5
0.0039
Sn 0 1.10 x 10
-5
0.0047
Ta 25 1.25 x 10
-5
0.0038
Zn 20 5.92 x 10
-6
0.0042
Zr 20 4.00 x 10
-5
0.0044
| | T T
e o
A + = o 1 ) (
Resistivity at Temp (T)

o
= Resistivity at a
Reference Temperature

o
e
= Temp. Coefficient of
Resistivity

AT = T-T
Reference
Effect of Temperature on Electrical Resistivities of selected conductors
18
Temperature Measurement by a Thermocouple
Semiconductors Intrinsic and Extrinsic Conductivities
19
Intrinsic Conductivity of Semiconductor
( )
h h e e e
N N q o + =
Conductivity of Semiconductors (when Ionic Conduction in Negligible)
( )
h e e e
q N o + = or
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
kT
E
o e
g
N N
2
exp
For band gap materials
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
kT
E
h e e o
g
q N
2
exp o
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
kT
E
o
g
2
exp o o
( )
h e e o o
q N o + = Where
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
T k
E
g
o
1
2
ln ln o o or
Intrinsic Conductivity of Semiconductor
20
Effect of Doping
Effect of Doping
21
Effect of Doping
Effect of Defects
22
Superconductivity
23
Homework Assignment
(Not to be turned-in)
2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19,
23, 24, 25, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43, 46, 47, 54,
& 57.