Digestive System

Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown oI Iood into smaller components that are easily absorbed into
a blood stream. Digestion is a Iorm oI catabolism: a breakdown oI large Iood molecules to smaller ones.

The whole digestive system is around 9 meters long. In a healthy human adult this process can take between 24 and
72 hours.

The digestive system begins in the mouth. Food is broken down by the process oI chewing and by the chemical
action oI salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down Iood into smaller
molecules).

Following are the organs involved in the digestive system:

1. outh
2. Salivary Clands
3. Esophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
Duodenum, 1ejunum, ileum
. Large Intestine
7. Liver
8. Pancreas

1. outh:
The digestive system begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process oI chewing and by
the chemical action oI salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down Iood
into smaller molecules).

2. Salivary Clands:
The salivary glands are exocrine glands, glands with ducts that produce saliva. They also secrete amylase,
an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose. An enzyme is a substance that speeds up chemical reactions in the
body.

3. Esophagus:
The esophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 20-30 centimeters long, which starts at the pharynx at the
back oI the mouth and ends at the cardiac end oI the stomach. At the top oI the esophagus, is a Ilap oI tissue called
the epiglottis that closes during swallowing to prevent Iood Irom entering the trachea (windpipe). Swallowed Iood is
pushed into the esophagus, which connects the throat above with the stomach below. At the junction oI the
esophagus and stomach, there is a ring like muscle, called the lower esophageal sphincter. As Iood approaches the
closed sphincter, the sphincter relaxes and allows the Iood to pass through to the stomach. It takes only about seven
seconds Ior Iood to pass through the esophagus.

4. Stomach:
It is the major organ involved in digestion; Stomach is around 12 15 inches long and is 4 inches wide.
The stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. Stomach has two ends one is the cardiac end
and second one is the pyloric end. The pyloric end works like a valve and determine how long Iood will remain in
the stomach. Usually the Iood digests in the stomach Ior about 4 hours. Pyloric end is joined with duodenum
through pyloric valve. Stomach secretes protein digesting enzymes and strong acids to help in Iood digestion. The
stomach has three mechanical tasks. First, it stores the swallowed Iood and liquid. To do this, the muscle oI the
upper part oI the stomach relaxes to accept large volumes oI swallowed material. The second job is to mix up the
Iood, liquid, and digestive juice produced by the stomach. The lower part oI the stomach mixes these materials by
its muscle action. The third task oI the stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine.
Several Iactors aIIect emptying oI the stomach, including the kind oI Iood and the degree oI muscle action oI the
emptying stomach and the small intestine. Carbohydrates, Ior example, spend the least amount oI time in the
stomach, while protein stays in the stomach longer, and Iats the longest.





Sections of Stomach:
The stomach is divided into Iour sections, each oI which has diIIerent cells and Iunctions.

The sections are:

ardia: Where the contents oI the esophagus empty into the stomach.
:nd:s: Formed by the upper curvature oI the organ.
3 Body or orp:s: The main, central region.
4 Pylor:s: The lower section oI the organ that Iacilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine.

Layers of Stomach:
The stomach walls are made oI the Iollowing layers;

Sero:s oat: a thin layer that is the outermost wall oI the stomach.
M:sc:lar oat: a well-developed layer oI muscles used to mix ingested Iood,
3 S:-m:co:s oat: composed oI connective tissue that links the inner muscular layer to the mucosa
and contains the nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
4 M:co:s oat: is the extensively Iolded innermost layer, produce gastric juices containing 0.2 HCl
that Iurther help in digestion.

5. Small intestine:
The small intestine is the part oI the gastrointestinal tract Iollowing the stomach and Iollowed by the large
intestine, and is where much oI the digestion and absorption oI Iood takes place. Small intestine is about 8 Ieet long.
Food remains in small intestine Ior about 10 hours.

The small intestine is divided into three structural parts:
D:oden:m
ej:n:m
3 le:m

D:oden:m:
D:oden:m is the Iirst and the smallest part oI the small intestine & is about 10 inches long. It is linked
with pyloric end oI the stomach. In duodenum the Iood is Iurther mixed with diIIerent juices oI two digestive
organs. One oI these organs, the pancreas, produces a juice that contains a wide array oI enzymes to break down the
carbohydrate, Iat, and protein in Iood. Other enzymes that are active in the process come Irom glands in the wall oI
the intestine.
The second organ, the liver, produces bile. Bile is stored between meals in the gallbladder. At mealtime, it is
squeezed out oI the gallbladder, through the bile ducts, and into the intestine to mix with the Iat in Iood. The bile
acids dissolve Iat into the watery contents oI the intestine, much like detergents that dissolve grease Irom a Irying
pan. AIter Iat is dissolved, it is digested by enzymes Irom the pancreas and the lining oI the intestine.

ej:n:m:
The jej:n:m is the middle section oI the small intestine. The pH in the jejunum is usually between 7 and 9
(neutral or slightly alkaline). Jejunum helps in the absorption oI carbohydrates and proteins. The proteins have been
broken down in the stomach by enzymes called pepsin and acid into amino acids. The carbohydrates are broken
down in the duodenum by enzymes Irom the pancreas and liver into sugars.

3 le:m:
Ileum is the Iinal section oI the small intestine. It is the 3/5
th
oI the small intestine. The Iunction oI the
ileum is mainly to absorb vitamin B
12
and bile salts and whatever products oI digestion that were not absorbed by
the jejunum. The wall itselI is made up oI Iolds, each oI which has many tiny Iinger-like projections known as villi
on its surIace.

. Large Intestine:
Large intestine is about 5 Ieet long. It is wider than the small intestine. The large intestine is linked with
small intestine through ileo colic valve. Food remains in large intestine Ior about 24 hours.
Large Intestine has three parts

ec:m
olon
3 #ect:m


ec:m:
The cec:m is like a pouch, and is connected with the appendix. It is about 2.5 inches long. It is the smallest
part oI the large intestine. The cecum helps to receive the undigested Iood as well as liquids Irom the small intestine.
As the small intestine does not absorb liquid, that becomes the large intestine Iunction in digestion. One oI the
cecum Iunctions is absorption oI salts and electrolyte, mostly sodium and potassium, back into the body.

olon:
AIter cecum there comes colon, it is the longest part oI the large intestine. It is the main part oI the large
intestine, which passes Irom the cecum to the rectum and absorbs water and electrolytes Irom Iood that has remained
undigested. Its parts are called the ascending colon (The Iirst main part oI the large intestine, which passes upward
Irom the cecum on the right side oI the abdomen), transverse colon (The middle part oI the large intestine, passing
across the abdomen Irom right to leIt below the stomach), descending colon (The part oI the large intestine that
passes downward on the leIt side oI the abdomen toward the rectum), and sigmoid colonThe last part oI the large
intestine, leading into the rectum)

3 #ect:m:
The Iinal section oI the large intestine, terminating at the anus.
Or
The end oI the colon where stool is stored until it is time to have a bowel movement.

7. Liver:
The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. The liver is a reddish brown organ
with Iour lobes oI unequal size and shape. A human liver normally weighs 1.441.66 kg (3.23.7 lb), and is a soIt,
pinkish-brown, triangular organ. Liver is 20cm long and 15cm wide. It is both the largest internal organ (the skin
being the largest organ overall) and the largest gland in the human body. The liver lies to the right oI the stomach
and overlies the gallbladder. It is connected to two large blood vessels, one called the hepatic artery and one called
the portal vein. The hepatic artery carries blood Irom the aorta, whereas the portal vein carries blood containing
digested nutrients Irom the entire gastrointestinal tract and also Irom the spleen and pancreas. These blood vessels
subdivide into capillaries, which then lead to a lobule. Each lobule is made up oI millions oI hepatic cells which are
the basic metabolic cells.
Liver has a wide range oI Iunctions, including detoxiIication, protein synthesis (Protein biosynthesis is the
process in which cells build or manuIacture proteins), and production oI bio-chemicals necessary Ior digestion. The
liver is necessary Ior survival; there is currently no way to compensate Ior the absence oI liver Iunction long term,
although liver dialysis can be used short term.
This organ plays a major role in metabolism and has a number oI Iunctions in the body, including glycogen storage,
decomposition oI red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and detoxiIication. It produces bile,
an alkaline compound which aids in digestion via the emulsiIication oI lipids.

The liver is thought to be responsible Ior up to 500 separate Iunctions, usually in combination with other systems
and organs.

Synthesis:

The liver perIorms several roles in carbohydrate metabolism:

4 Gluconeogenesis (the synthesis oI glucose Irom certain amino acids, lactate or glycerol)
4 Glycogenolysis (the breakdown oI glycogen into glucose)
4 Glycogenesis (the Iormation oI glycogen Irom glucose)(muscle tissues can also do this)

The liver is responsible Ior the mainstay oI protein metabolism, synthesis as well as degradation

The liver also perIorms several roles in lipid metabolism:
4 olesterolsyntesis
4 ipogenesis, the production oI triglycerides (Iats).
4 A bulk oI the lipoproteins is synthesized in the liver.

In the Iirst trimester Ietus, the liver is the main site oI red blood cell production. By the 32nd week oI
gestation, the bone marrow has almost completely taken over that task.

The liver produces and excretes bile (a yellowish liquid) required Ior emulsiIying Iats. Some oI the bile
drains directly into the duodenum, and some is stored in the gallbladder.

The liver is a major site oI thrombopoietin production. Thrombopoietin is a glycoprotein hormone that
regulates the production oI platelets by the bone marrow.
Breakdown:

The breakdown oI insulin and other hormones

The liver breaks down or modiIies toxic substances (e.g., methylation) and most medicinal products in a
process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic
than its predecessor. PreIerably, the toxins are conjugated to avail excretion in bile or urine.

The liver converts ammonia to urea (urea cycle)

Other :nctions:

The liver stores a huge number oI substances, including glucose (in the Iorm oI glycogen), vitamin A (12
years' supply), vitamin D (14 months' supply), vitamin B12 (1-3 years' supply), iron, and copper.

The liver produces albumin, the major osmolar component oI blood serum.

The liver synthesizes angiotensinogen, a hormone that is responsible Ior raising the blood pressure when
activated by renin, an enzyme that is released when the kidney senses low blood pressure.

8. Pancreas:
A large gland behind the stomach that secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum. Embedded in the
pancreas are the islets oI Langerhans, which secrete into the blood the hormones insulin and glucagon

Or

The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system oI vertebrates. It is both an endocrine
gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as a digestive
organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist the absorption oI nutrients and the
digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to Iurther break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in
the chyme (The pulpy acidic Iluid that passes Irom the stomach to the small intestine, consisting oI gastric juices and
partly digested Iood).

The pancreas is a dual-Iunction gland, having Ieatures oI both endocrine and exocrine glands.
The part oI the pancreas with endocrine Iunction is made up oI approximately a million cell clusters called islets oI
Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They can be classiIied by their secretion: u cells secrete
glucagon (increase glucose in blood), cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), o cells secrete somatostatin
(regulates/stops u and cells), and PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide

The pancreas as an exocrine gland helps out the digestive system. It secretes pancreatic Iluid that contains
digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help to Iurther break down the carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids (Iats) in the chyme.

The pancreas has three main sections:

Head: area oI pancreas to right oI leIt border oI superior mesenteric vein.
Body: area oI pancreas between leIt border oI superior mesenteric vein and leIt border oI aorta.
Tail: area oI pancreas between leIt border oI aorta and hilum oI spleen.

The most common site oI primaries is the head oI the pancreas. The pancreas has two Iunctional components:
endocrine, to produce insulin and other hormones, and exocrine, to produce pancreatic juices Ior digestion. The
pancreas is in direct contact with the stomach, duodenum, spleen, and major vessels oI the abdomen.

Pancreas produces pancreatic juice which contains a variety oI enzymes;

Trypsinogen; An inactive substance secreted by the pancreas, Irom which the digestive enzyme trypsin is Iormed in the duodenum.
Chymotrypsinogen; Chymotrypsin is a digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins in the small intestine.
Elastase; An enzyme that can destroy the protein elastin.
Carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic lipase
Amylase; An enzyme, Iound chieIly in saliva and pancreatic Iluid, which converts starch and glycogen into
simple sugars
Trypsin; A digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins in the small intestine. It is secreted by the pancreas
in an inactive Iorm, trypsinogen
Lipase; A pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown oI Iats to Iatty acids and glycerol or other
alcohols.

Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature due to the high concentration oI bicarbonate ions. This is useIul in neutralizing
the acidic gastric acid, allowing Ior eIIective enzymic action.

Gland:
An organ in the human or animal body that secretes particular chemical substances Ior use in the body or
Ior discharge into the surroundings.

A-sorption and Transport of N:trients

ar-ohydrates:
The ietaryGuidelines1or2ericansrecommend that 45 to 65 percent oI total daily calories be Irom
carbohydrates. Foods rich in carbohydrates include bread, potatoes, dried peas and beans, rice, pasta, Iruits, and
vegetables. Many oI these Ioods contain both starch and Iiber.

The digestible carbohydratesstarch and sugarare broken into simpler molecules by enzymes in the
saliva, in juice produced by the pancreas, and in the lining oI the small intestine. Starch is digested in two steps.
First, an enzyme in the saliva and pancreatic juice breaks the starch into molecules called maltose. Then an enzyme
in the lining oI the small intestine splits the maltose into glucose molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.

Glucose is carried through the bloodstream to the liver, where it is stored or used to provide energy Ior the
work oI the body.

Sugars are digested in one step. An enzyme in the lining oI the small intestine digests sucrose, also known
as table sugar, into glucose and Iructose, which are absorbed through the intestine into the blood. Milk contains
another type oI sugar, lactose, which is changed into absorbable molecules by another enzyme in the intestinal
lining.
Fiber is undigestible and moves through the digestive tract without being broken down by enzymes. Many
Ioods contain both soluble and insoluble Iiber. Soluble Iiber dissolves easily in water and takes on a soIt, gel-like
texture in the intestines. Insoluble Iiber, on the other hand, passes essentially unchanged through the intestines.

Protein:
Foods such as meat, eggs, and beans consist oI giant molecules oI protein that must be digested by enzymes
beIore they can be used to build and repair body tissues. An enzyme in the juice oI the stomach starts the digestion
oI swallowed protein. Then in the small intestine, several enzymes Irom the pancreatic juice and the lining oI the
intestine complete the breakdown oI huge protein molecules into small molecules called amino acids. These small
molecules can be absorbed through the small intestine into the blood and then be carried to all parts oI the body to
build the walls and other parts oI cells.

ats:
Fat molecules are a rich source oI energy Ior the body. The Iirst step in digestion oI a Iat such as butter is to
dissolve it into the watery content oI the intestine. The bile acids produced by the liver dissolve Iat into tiny droplets
and allow pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to break the large Iat molecules into smaller ones. Some oI these small
molecules are Iatty acids and cholesterol. The bile acids combine with the Iatty acids and cholesterol and help these
molecules move into the cells oI the mucosa. In these cells the small molecules are Iormed back into large ones,
most oI which pass into vessels called lymphatics near the intestine. These small vessels carry the reIormed Iat to
the veins oI the chest, and the blood carries the Iat to storage depots in diIIerent parts oI the body.

Vitamins:
Another vital part oI Iood that is absorbed through the small intestine are vitamins. The two types oI
vitamins are classiIied by the Iluid in which they can be dissolved: water-soluble vitamins (all the B vitamins and
vitamin C) and Iat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K). Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and Iatty
tissue oI the body, whereas water-soluble vitamins are not easily stored and excess amounts are Ilushed out in the
urine.

Water and salt:
Most oI the material absorbed through the small intestine is water in which salt is dissolved. The salt and
water come Irom the Iood and liquid you swallow and the juices secreted by the many digestive glands.

How is the digestive process controlled?
Hormone #eg:lators
The major hormones that control the Iunctions oI the digestive system are produced and released by cells in
the mucosa oI the stomach and small intestine. These hormones are released into the blood oI the digestive tract,
travel back to the heart and through the arteries, and return to the digestive system where they stimulate digestive
juices and cause organ movement.

The main hormones that control digestion are gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK):

Gastrin causes the stomach to produce an acid Ior dissolving and digesting some Ioods. Gastrin is also necessary Ior
normal cell growth in the lining oI the stomach, small intestine, and colon.

Secretin causes the pancreas to send out a digestive juice that is rich in bicarbonate. The bicarbonate helps
neutralize the acidic stomach contents as they enter the small intestine. Secretin also stimulates the stomach to
produce pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein, and stimulates the liver to produce bile.

causes the pancreas to produce the enzymes oI pancreatic juice, and causes the gallbladder to empty. It also
promotes normal cell growth oI the pancreas.

Additional hormones in the digestive system regulate appetite:

Ghrelin is produced in the stomach and upper intestine in the absence oI Iood in the digestive system and stimulates
appetite.

Peptide YY is produced in the digestive tract in response to a meal in the system and inhibits appetite. Both oI
these hormones work on the brain to help regulate the intake oI Iood Ior energy.