Contemporary China Center, Australian National University

Review: Mao Texts and the Mao of the 1950s Author(s): Frederick C. Teiwes Source: The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, No. 33 (Jan., 1995), pp. 127-149 Published by: Contemporary China Center, Australian National University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2950091 . Accessed: 24/10/2011 09:24
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Contemporary China Center, Australian National University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs.

http://www.jstor.org

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

Frederick Teiwes C.

The Writings Mao Zedong, 1949-1976,VolumeI, September of 1949December1955, editedby MichaelY. M. Kau and John Leung.M. E. K. 1986.xli,771pp., index.US$115.00 Sharpe, Armonk, bibliography, separate (hardcover). VolumeII, January 1956-December 1957, editedby JohnK. Leung and Michael Y. M. Kau. M. E. Sharpe,Armonk, 1992. xlviii,863pp.,biblioindex. graphy, US$115.00(hardcover). Jianguo yilai Mao Zedongwengao[Mao Zedong'sManuscripts Since the Founding theState], volumes of 8 (September 1949-December 1959),edited by Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi [Documents Research Office of theCCP Centre]. wenxian Zhongyang chubanshe, Beijing,1987-93. 5,380pp. RmbY6.20-8.50 volume per (paperback). The explosion sources of the of of marking 100th anniversary thebirth Mao a situation is botha blessing a curse that and Zedongreflects bynowfamiliar forstudents Mao and ChineseCommunist of of politics the provision invaluable newmaterials serious for but as historical enquiry in suchquantity totaxeventhemost researcher.' particular Of valuearenewtexts of energetic
*

thanks duetoWarren for invaluable are as Special Sun his with substance assistance the wellas the details this of review. Anita Chan, Cheek Jon Tim and Unger provided also helpful commentsanearlier on draft. In addition theflood writings to of concerning appearing Mao throughout six 1993, 'important books' in were announcedDecember 1993; Zhonggong see dangshi tongxun of History Newsletter], p.'. These no.23, include: first volumes Mao the two [CCPParty

128

OF THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS

in to begun appear expanding which already had and Mao's writings speeches, in produced collections both official the during 1980s.Theseinclude numbers compilations intheWestof 'new' Red Guard era thereform andthesurfacing Mao available with Together previously period.2 Revolution the from Cultural of aid these newsources greatly thepursuit therealMao. texts, to under review significantlyourunderstanding add The twocollections in and the Mao whodominated Party regime the1950s.One of ofthehistoric in The Writings Mao Zedong,was undertaken the of thesebook projects, in and substantial by cooperation scholars Germany Japan. with United States since the to It set out, at least initially, compileall of Mao's statements of English outside Chinain a single known of founding thePeople'sRepublic is Mao wengao, a Chineselanguage The translation. secondsetof volumes, official body by compiled themostauthoritative (neibu)collection internal access to the has which priority documents, Party for responsible publishing of a It dang'anguan).3 presents widearray Mao Central Archives (Zhongyang items from the unpublished morethan 2,800mostly numbering manuscripts the outnumber 750-odd items greatly rule. Theseselected first decadeofParty onlyto a overlap in of piecescovered TheWritings Mao.4Thetwocollections 16-plus centof the itemsin Mao wengao per withmerely modestextent, the for translations 1949-57.5 Significantly, Chinese in appearing theEnglish
to the are which eventually cover of Works Mao Zedong], wenji [Collected Zedong of 1893-1949 Mao Zedong [ChronologyMao Zedong, nianpu, entire 1921-76 period; on Works Mao Zedong of [Selected and 1893-1949]; Mao Zedong waijiaowensuan in items covered the not which contains newly published many Relations], Foreign under review. volumes translated formed basisof theimportant the collections Such Cultural Revolution Timothy Cheek, MacFarquhar, by SS), Great (hereafter edited Roderick LeapForward 1989).Foran Harvard Council EastAsianStudies, on Wu andEugene (Cambridge: see Red collections, Timothy with sources of together 'earlier' Guard analysis these Volumes Postof Available Trove 23 Newly of Mao:A Treasure 'The Cheek, "Genius" as by materials been have All of published photocopies the pp.311-44. 23 volumes these for Materials for Research Virginia) US$700. (Oakton, Center Chinese and Central Documents Research Office the Archives, Onthe ofthe relationship Central nos CCP Newsletter, on History', Research C. 'Interviews Party see Frederick Teiwes, 1 10&1 (1992), pp.6-7. and pagesof Mao is the The strictly relevant comparison between 751 items 1,563 in two of ofMaoZedong editors' documents notes) the volumes TheWritings (including in notes) of (including and pages documents items 4,062 2,227 WM) (hereafter andthe period. the 1-6ofMaowengao covering 1949-57 vols inMao is (about ofnewly available material Theproportion three-quarters) wengao less in some items included WM not not with since than 83-84 cent overlapping WM the per
nos Affairs, 19&20 (1988), Journal Chinese of 1949Mao ZedongTexts',TheAustralian Flowersto the Mao: FromtheHundred The collection, SecretSpeechesof Chairman

MAOTEXTSANDTHEMAOOF THE 1950s

129

collectiondoes not reflect official an politicalagenda,and the editorial commentary bothrichin detailand less explicitly is interpretive that than provided theAmerican by editors. In whatfollows willfirst I describe these twoimportant collections, note thevarying assumptions their of respective editors, assesstheutility and and limitsof thesesourcesin furthering understanding Mao and Party our of history.willthen I conclude with assessment Mao for crucial1956an of the 59 period, which dramatic saw in developments histhinking actions, and with profound consequences theChinese for nation. The TranslatedWritings Mao Zedong of Michael Kau and John Leung,their editors and other collaborating project contributors putan enormous have effort TheWritings Mao Zedong. In into of their successfulif still incomplete effortto establish unprecedented bibliographic coverage Mao's writings speeches well as to provide of as and translations a highstandard, editors of the of have scanned hugeamount a material identify to Mao's published statements: coveragecombines the official of publications theperiod whenhe spokeor wrote; sources from the Cultural Red and official Revolution, particularly Guard collections; post-Mao The thus the bulkoftheMao materials publications.6 collection includes great available priorto the appearance Mao wengao.7 includesspeeches, of It
have in numbers of been Chinese and of published other sources, alsoinview significant not available Red Guard texts the1958-59 for already period covered theWM by volumes, which mirroreddocuments are by inMaowengao. A more refined of is: sources breakdownitems sources contemporary -54 per by cent; 1 RedGuard material per -9 official Cultural Revolution sources lessthan per cent; the era (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1977)- 5 percent; reform Mao Zedong shuxin Letters Mao Zedong, of hereafter (Beijing:Renmin xuanji[Selected SX] the numerous letters Mao without editorial chubanshe, 1983),which compiled by distortions inthe official material found Selected Works 16percent; other post-Mao 1 lessthan percent; sources-4 percent; more onesource 11 and than foreign cent. per of Theoriginal ofincluding Maotexts been goal all has overtaken the by explosion new has on someselectivity already beenforced theeditors production documents; by as with not unavailable theeditors the to those schedules, items included alongwith earlier volumes to in of went press for projected publicationa volume supplementary texts oncethe chose series The chronological is completed. editors seemingly toignore Works Mao Zedong Newspaper of Renmin on. Work] (Beijing: chubanshe, 1983)in favour themore of Volume norhavethey interesting (note while SX 6) preparing I, included in II. items from sources Volume See WM, pp.xxviii, II, pp.xx, such I, xxx, 818-21. More serious been apparent has the failure scanthe Party to key history journal
wenxuan severalmid-1980s collections suchas Mao Zedongxinwen gongzuo [Selected SelectedWorks Mao Tsetung cent;theimmediate post-Maoofficial of (hereafter SW)

130

AFFAIRS OF JOURNAL CHINESE THEAUSTRALIAN

poemsand inscriptions, of records conversations, letters, directives, written areasof publicpolicytouched all virtually with messages, diplomatic formal by drafted messages(undoubtedly of upon. While the inclusion protocol in of thenumber entries the by and signed Mao) inflates but others checked access readers English provide the 45 by collection roughly percent, volumes with known oftheChairman's statements, the ofthemost important to many of The documents. Writings thanwritten rather speeches items mostcritical an with average coverage, chronological continuous provides Mao, moreover, lacking 1949-57 for period and per of sevenitems month no month theentire and an a are All an entry. in all, the editors producing superbcollection politics. of for resource all students Chinese invaluable of and with someproblems theselection dating texts, are, There however, of sourcenotesand comparisons all availableversions.8 careful very despite the in Thesearevaluable revealing sources. with Thisis inevitable Red Guard not editors, youthful by to Mao flesh-and-blood butsubject inaccuracies their of transcriptions on-the-spot in inherent using private the to mention vagaries Mao's speeches. These problemsare largely unavoidablegiven the are they both but at informationKau andLeung'sdisposal, on a fewoccasions Mao's concerns case inpoint important By the and avoidable serious. far most criticizing Daily forits June1956 editorial on attack thePeople's damning but collection actually dated'1956' inone Red Guard an 'rashadvance', item vital is of The 1958.9 error, course, politically sinceit byMao inJanuary made advance' the against 'anti-rash the concerns keyissue of whenMao turned as which, I shallshowin thisessay,the a policies, development (fanmaojin) fall 1957. An even moreimportant did evidencesuggests notoccurbefore was of beyondthecontrol the editors,'0 the but weakness, one seemingly for Red failure includeimportant Guarddocuments the February-April to 1957 period. These include the originalversionof the late February someof Mao's most the among People' speech,"alongwith 'Contradictions 12 period. Flowers from comments theHundred revealing
has in 1988, its since inauguration which, Documents], [The Dangde wenxian Party's byMao. statements some published significant 8 Thegreat taken further inthe item, texts of combiningdifferent ofa single shown is care they or, versions, where aretoodisparate, several among of theannotationdifferences versions. ofseparate the production full a 9 Thetext the'1956' document with January word word virtually for corresponds of See date. SS, to later points the clearly evidence while 1958Mao statement, contextual Winter Law Chinese andGovernment, of and p.395n; 'TheConfession WuLeng-hsi', 1969/70, p.72. 10 They not xxxi. WM, in to texts question: II,pp.xxix, access the did have in version 'cleansed' subsequent this between andthe of differences See the analysis the l Textof Mao Contradictions On theUnrevised 'Original MichaelSchoenhals,

MAOTEXTSANDTHEMAOOF THE 1950s

131

in official texts. Particularly Less defensible shortcomings handling are February-March important that collection's is the dating Mao's twocrucial of among People' the 1957speeches, theCorrect 'On Handling Contradictions of conference, distorts historical and his addressto the national propaganda official form wereheavily rereality sincebothof thesespeechesin their edited the Flowers was during post-mid-May the period: is,after Hundred that to out The correct dating 'Contradictions' for is perceived be getting ofhand. was in 19 June 1957,whenthis heavily edited version published thePeople's facedwith greater difficulties concerning Daily. Kau andLeungwereclearly the12 March sinceitdidnotappear print in until 1964and propaganda speech very recently, thefactthat but no little was known abouttherevisions until in and mention madeof theseven-year between was delivery publication gap is Alsodifficult understand to theextensive source noteis causefor disquiet.'3 of over the April-June 1957 the inclusion eightPeople's Daily editorials on that'manyscholars periodas beingMao's writings merely thegrounds demonstrated theMao wengao in have attributed [them] Mao'. As amply to the did rein policiesin thisand collection, Chairman keepa tight on editorial can doubt these editorials reflected particular other periods there be little and of from the input apart altering his views,butthere no evidence hisdirect is is of Giventhat wholepurpose theproject to the of tidle one oftheeditorials.14 collection Mao's works, is of dubiousvalue to of it compilea definitive outside China. include items on opinion simply thebasisofscholarly to notesand The editors The Writings Mao, in addition extensive of of of texts and thevariations annotations theproduction individual on among and Marxist linguistic them, provide valuable historical, biographical, to theoretical and and the explanations information, direct reader someof the is best secondary literature thepoints issue.This factual on at commentary is of Of overwhelmingly a highstandard.'5 moreconcern the interpretive
of amongthe People"',The Zedong's"On the Correct Handling Contradictions

Australian Journal Chinese no. 1986),pp.99-112. of Affairs, 16 (July 12

total doubles the Council volume (note2) nearly WMl's Altogether 1989 Harvard For ofMao'spreviously unavailable ofspring talks 1957. ananalysis drawing coverage from WM onthe documents could SS that have constructed the texts, been partially only Norms 2nd M. 1993), pp.xxiii-xxv. Party 1950-1965, ed.(Annonk: E. Sharpe, can See WM, pp.375-7. detailed A for speeches of revision process both II, summarythe befound Maowengao, in note 395. vol.6, pp.358-60, Cf.below, 22. draft See WM, pp.478, Mao vol.6, pp.506-7. did, however, H, 580-81; Maowengao, and at one included ormake to editorials the from period, includingleast not changes other
in WM;see Mao wengao, vol.6,pp.519-20, 529-34. C. and Purgesin China:Rectification theDeclineof and see Frederick Teiwes,Politics

3 4

15

is statement Mao's that the error Indeed, only truly egregious noted this by reviewerthe Revolution Tian sincetheCultural 'has secretary, Jiaying, notbeenactive publicly'

132

THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

commentary, presents unusually which an explicit statement thediscredited of 'two line struggle' view of post-1949 Chinesepolitics.Not only is Mao as pictured beset by opponents variouscritical at junctures and his very leadership 'almost in constantly contention', long-standing with conflict with Liu Shaoqi in particular repeatedly asserted, thewholenotion ongoing but of struggle between 'radical'Mao and his 'conservative' a opposition traced is backto theearly1950sandis said todevelop particularly 1956-57. from The editorsfurther perceivepoliticaldevelopments stemming as fromMao's theoretically consistent to commitment class struggle, whichallegedly led inevitably firstthe Great Leap Forwardand eventually Cultural to the I Revolution.16believe such an interpretationbe fundamentally to wrong: elite-level Party politics theMaoistperiod of be should moreaccurately seen as a processdominated an unchallenged by Chairman surrounded other by leaders attempting divinehis oftenobscureintentions, to adjusting their preferences his desires, to trying exploit ambiguities advancetheir to his to bureaucratic political and interests, squabbling and amongthemselves when Mao's actions exacerbated tensions created onesamong old or new them. Mao wengao- theClassified ChineseCollection The latterview of Mao-era politicsis supported the Mao wengao by collection. While not explicitly the addressing issue of Mao's power,the wholenature theproject toregard as an all-powerful of is him emperor. There is, indeed, strong a with similarity traditional of historiographical collections imperialnotes.'7It could even be arguedthatMao wengao reflects an unconscious to impulse gather a of whichthe together wide variety things imperial ruler touched, however brief inconsequential or items particular may be. Thusdocuments of consisting terse comments included are solely themost 'agree', 'thiscan be used', 'return Comrade to PengDehuai,I haveread this document'18 - and even the Chairman'smisuse of characters, and underlinings somewhat comicaluse of Englishphrasesare faithfully

(WM,I, p.448)when fact was one of thenotable in he suicides theeve of the on movement.
16

on specific texts (see, forexample, p.335,II, pp.17,393,435) provide more a I, view modulated which incorporates inMao'sviews, is a fair shifts of this summarythe basicposition. anextended For ofthe statement following alternative see interpretation, the introduction second tothe of Politics Purges. edition my and the during Reign the of Guangxu Emperor inthe Kept Forbidden Archives], vols 26 City (Taibei: Gugong bowuguan, 1973). 18 SeeMaowengao, vol.1, p.317; vol.5, 1;vol.7, p.1 p.69.
17 See, forexample,Gongzhongdang to Guangxuchao zouzhe [Memorials the Throne

See especially Introduction VolumeH.,pp.xxi-xxviii, the to xxxi-xli. Whilesome notes

MAO TEXrS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

133

ways:hisability in is authorityrevealed multiple Mao's awesome recorded.'9 Party and who to determine wouldattend whowouldplaykeyrolesat major levelgatherings, to circulated high overdocuments control his meetings, tight and his reviewof and changesmade to keyreports to thespeechesof his the from likesof response for his colleagues, demands an immediate ranking and role at all his that Zhou Enlai on matters captured interest, his leading in utterly is texts someone by The points.20 Mao pictured these turning crucial compliance. obtaining and of assertive hispower invariably command, all encompass of those collection in of The types items theMao wengao notably as categories well,most in The Writings Mao plussomeadditional of and majorpronouncements speech outlinesfor some of the Chairman's The speech to on comments and alterations Partydocuments. marginal are half of meetings thefirst of 1958,21 as a for for outlines, example themajor are becausethey crude, precisely speeches the than complete telling rulemore and and less rhetorical, hence to the point.Mao's alterations marginal and whatis especially emphasis can comments also revealhis particular areasis atleast of coverage policy The him agitating atkeypoints. substantive with more and collection considerably dense, of as wideas that thetranslated Unlike Kau andLeungvolumes, the weeks. available most for entries multiple and than rather speeches, all documents items themostsignificant arewritten itemsthathe personally Thatis, apartfrom to can be traced Mao himself. by werechecked him.In of records speeches including all wrote, documents compilations, the more reliable than Red Guard is thissensethecollection far But errors.22 in another inevitable by werenotvetted Mao andcontain which is material again Revolution of sense the generalvalidity such Cultural to put items theversions out of the confirmed through closesimilarity archival practice, One unfortunate groupsin the late 1960s.23 by 'revolutionary' SelectedWorks to of however, the tendency theeditors use theofficial is for an vouching there often implied is wheretheseexist,although versions and manuscript', in a significant suchtexts thenote'we havetheoriginal by
19 See ibid., 302. vol.8, pp.32, vol.7, p.196, 20 Forinstance, ibid., 671; vol.6, vol.5, pp.412-16, pp.469-76, 451-60; see vol.4, pp.435-6, 414-17. 355, 350-1, 356-7, pp.184-5, vol.8, 21 Ibid., 194-211. 108-25, 24-31, 16-18, pp.10, vol.7, 22 Mao's personal through repeated however, distortions own, ofits involvement produces the case the revisions. Perhaps moststriking concerns Apnl 1956 'Ten Great of in edited 1975as part was revisions again earlier which vanous Relationships', after of (not V the Volume ofSWunder directionDengXiaoping the of the project preparing was The by thought). re-editing approved Mao, and 'Gangof Four'as commonly in SW Maowengao vol.6, 105-6). pp. (see in version both and appeared this ultimately 23 Compare wengao, On overall reliability and I, Mao vol.3, pp.489-91; WM, pp.272-3. the 'The see Mao',pp.327-8. ofRedGuard sources, Cheek, "Genius"

134

THE AUSTRALLAN JOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

number cases fuller of versions presented whatare excerpted the are than in Selected Works other or sources.24 In whatsensecan it be asserted there no obviouspolitical that is line imposedin the editing theMao wengaocollection? contrast the of In to various pullsof theSelectedWorks, there no effort painta Mao of any is to colouration. radical moderate Both and in particular Chairmen found these are pages;as theeditors it,thecollection put includes 'correct, incorrect not and completely correct' views.It is thisas well as the factthatthecollection contains'classified'material in whichled to it beingrestricted theory to leadingcadresat thespecialdistrict army and division level,as well as to relevant scholars.25 The aim is clearly is to historicist, revealtherealMao. Yet selectivity involved; evenall items not from Selected A the Works included. biasdoes are exist, nottheusualone of imposing distorted but a political slanton Mao's words. Instead, there seemsto be an effort protect personal to the reputations ofthose concerned. With regard Mao himself, ofthestriking to one omissions is hisemotional July 23 1959attack PengDehuaiattheLushan on conference. hereis less Mao's policystance, Arguably whatis involved which amply is Mao wengaodocuments the demonstrated other by from period, thanthe irrationalitythisparticular of outburst. evenclearer an effort protect But is to theprestige those of whosuffered Mao's hands; at after the23 July all, speech Further was aimed at one of the greatmilitary heroesof the revolution. are references other to indications thissensitivity theremoval critical of of whichappearin theSelectedWorks' for leaders, annotations thesame item. the Even wherethehistorical record Mao was indeedcriticizing indicates in XX individuals question,26 orXXX is usedin a fewcasestohidethenames
24 This can have important substantive as implications, in the 1951 publicsecurity conference resolution byMaowhere WM the version p.192) based both on SW edited (1, andRedGuard has for in 10 of sources Mao calling executions 'about to20 percent' text the cases.In counter-revolutionary theMao wengao (vol.2, pp.295-6), however, with resolution various distinguishes among categones, the10 to 20 percentfigure in found applying to counter-revolutionaries theParty, only government, and army, certain organizations circles, sets far other and and the more modest general guidelines in cities. some In of0.1 percent rural and for areas 0.05percent the cases, however, WM presents versions particular for fuller of with texts; instance, comparepp.196-201, I,
Mao wengao, vol.2,pp.316-18.

See the'explanation' thestart eachvolume. practice, today's at In in of Chinathe collection bepurchased can even widely, byforeigners. 26 Compare wengao, Mao with and V, to vol.2, pp.578-9; SW, p.71, regard Mao'slate1951 on directive agricultural In as a of casethe cooperativizationcriticism L1uShaoqi. this of SW assertion suchcriticism see Politics at C. appears correct; Frederick Teiwes, Mao's Court: Gao GangandParty M. Factionalism the in Early 1950s(Armonk: E. in casesthe Maowengao Sharpe, 1990), pp.42-3. However, some approach enhance may

25

MAOTEXTSANDTHEMAOOF THE 1950s

135

on of the detail 'reversal verdicts' and by of peoplerebuked Mao,27 footnotes to The to subjected Mao's punishment. effort whohadbeen'wrongly' leaders that (a comrades-in-arms prestige of the Chairman's upholdthe prestige be to would,according the logic of theeditors, damagedby emphasizing than suggested by strongly more is with Mao's dissatisfaction them), nowhere one attacked of the of thenon-inclusion Mao's 12 August1953 speechthat in appeared Bo figures, Yibo, and which mostinfluential regime's post-Mao form.28 in Works a grosslydistorted theSelected is of A strong feature theMao wengaocompilation thestraightforward, note Only occasionallyis an interpretive included, factualannotations. withthe 1981 consistent in matters terms particular to invariably affirm This of as Resolution', in thedefense theold revolutionaries.29 'Historical Mao's empiricalapproachoffersa goldmineof specific information. by are documents notonlyaccompanied on terse frequently comments various of by but in the identifying documents question, normally a summary the notes Thus Mao wengaonot only detailed. extremely documents thatare often but Mao saidorwrote, also an important of new extensive texts what provides of nature Mao's the windowinto whathe read. As a result, interactive - with bureaucrats central with local officials, his topcolleagues, activities of on andcorrespondents is opento scrutiny a widerange issues.A sense views,flowsout of this of politicalprocess,as well as the Chairman's collection. include: fromthe Mao wengao textsand annotations Othernuggets issuedin the namesof other of evidenceof Mao's authorship documents the and appeals concerning a of leaders,specifically number 1958 orders signed by Peng Dehuai;30 Taiwan Straits crisis that were formally as elsewhere, in theidentification dataunavailable biographical/organizational secretaryCommittee deputy post of Lin Feng in the important of Central of in (fiu general mishuzhang) 1955,or thelisting theheadsof theeconomic of evidence Mao's intense the Leap;31 set regions up during Great cooperation
of the concerning degree Mao's truth facts' modifying from assumptions by 'seeking of vetting all for calling hispersonal dissatisfaction, hisMay 1953comment as in made was Inthis proposal actually Central Committee. casethe documents bythe issued have reflected it althoughmay p.230), vol.4, Politburo Mao wengao, (see toMao bythe procedures. with ofhis hiscolleagues' perceptions unhappiness existing 27 See Mao wengao,vol.1, these include people Ironically, may p.197. 505; pp.433, vol.7, mentions Mao. by because favourable of deleted RedGuard from collections 28 Onthedistortions speech, Teiwes, Politics Mao's Court,pp.9,69-70. at see ofthis
29

This in of an providing overview thepernod question. while Resolution' 'Histoncal volumes. in was practice dropped subsequent
30 31 See Mao wengao, 488-9. 468-70, vol.7,pp.454-61, See ibid.,vol.5,p.271;vol.7,pp.255-6.

the which reflect contain to 20 pagesof endnotes 15 The first three however, volumes,

136

THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

involvement theearly1950s in majorevents in such as thesuppression of counter-revolutionaries the Three and Five Anti Campaigns(but and not surprisingly to thesamedegree land concerning reform);32 indications and via theflowofdocuments thestatus, of activity possible and political stances (or Mao's perceptions thereof) various of highleaders.33 Finally, thesetexts provideimportant confirmation key politicaldevelopments of previously known onlythrough interviews. case in point theissueof downgrading A is the'Thought Mao Zedong', development of a taken an anti-Mao as commonly ployofthemid-1950s, nowconfirmed Mao's owninitiative but as dating from fall1952.34 in Notwithstanding vastarray new information Mao wengaoas the of wellas theimportant (especially Guard items Red records Mao's speeches) of in The Writings Mao that notincluded theParty of are in compilation, what can be knownthrough thesecollections definite has limits.For all their these richness, documents provide oftheevidence only part and required must be supplemented Partyhistories, by memoirsand interviews beforea satisfactory understandingevents be achieved. case in pointis the of can A critical agricultural cooperativization debateof 1955,another instance where the editors the translated of collection Mao versus adopttheconventional 'conservatives' in perspective. Critical is that documents TheWritings here the usedwithout other do ofMao, when a sources, notprovide basistochallenge that and texts hints what of perspective, eventheMao wengao onlygivefaint In actually transpired. fact, rather a Mao opposed conservative than leaders by in thefirst of 1955,Mao initially onlyfully half not endorsed consensus the a line,buteven adopted posture farto the 'right' to surprise main so as the advocate moderation, work of rural chief DengZihui.By May Mao beganto swingtowarda moreradicalposition, he was accommodated not but of with opposed bytheremainder theleadership thesole,brief of exception Deng Zihui.It is a story a dominant of his Mao cutting swathe the through

See ibid., 1-3 vols passim, from especially late1950. 33 It becomes possible perceive equalstatus Ye Jianying, to the of although headof only the with bureaucratically great South China Sub-Bureau, the leaders after higher region Liberation to (vol.2, p.70), pinpoint Xiaoping's inactivity toan injured Deng 1959 due
to leg frommid-June mid-December (vol.8, pp.294, 303, 616), and to observethe cunous resurfacing Lin Biao as a recipient Mao's documents of of from Aprilto June 1959: thatis, before Lushancnsis at a timewhenMao was clearlyveenngin a the

32

34 See ibid., 3,p.563, vol 623-4. the For argumentthe on basis interviews, of vol.4, pp.192,
see Frederick Teiwes, C. and The 'PengDehuai Mao Zedong', Australian Journal of
Chinese no.16(July Affairs, 1986),p.87.

moderate direction (vol.8, 238, pp 241,243,250, 252,288,302).

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

137

of from be whichcannot demonstrated either these but leadership, a story statements.35 of collections theChairman's The 1950sMao Zedong can What,based on thesetwocollections, be said of theMao of the 1950s his apartfrom awesomepower?The Mao of theseyearscomes acrossas in of something a centrist policydebatesup untillate 1957, albeitwith most notablyin the post-April1955 occasional radical enthusiasms, but was by tensions, His campaign. thinking marked inner cooperativization and the between excessesofboththe'right' a he to overall tried steer course key he occasions was tothe'left'ofother evenifon someimportant the'left', leaders. of features Mao's of picture other a also provide fuller The collections and theorist Marxist as of himself a significant Mao's conception leadership: in distinction thisarea;his no despite particular theory with hispreoccupation by colleagues his of catching leading shifts view, rapid and marked sometimes generally leavingcolleaguesand offilcials ambiguity, his surprise; frequent and a purposes; forceful demanding as confused to his ideas and political againstother harshstrictures involving posturewhen aroused,sometimes and an by leaders but almost always mitigated signs of forgiveness; for failures, responsibility policy personal to unwillingness acceptmeaningful ahistorical through such the whileshifting blameand personalizing failures of All aspects Mao's of of judgments theallegedshortcomingsothers. ofthese the in clearly theperiodfrom particularly stylecan be witnessed leadership of two the of in Congress theautumn 1956through first years the Party Eighth in and Mao's politics modeofleadership the To Great Leap Forward. illustrate three years. on my 1950sI shallfocus remarks these the advancedby Kau and Leung pictures Eighth The interpretation that a of dominance, gathering 'borethe as Congress theheight conservative economic policies from cautious the view,apart of stamp Liu Shaoqi'. In this of assessment the issuewas thetheoretical the of the program, key fanmaojin in resolution passedbytheCongress. situation expressed thepolitical current assertion was allegedly theresolution's The epitome the'Liuist'approach of . and the between proletariat thebourgeoisie. . hasbeen 'the that contradiction to ... . resolved, . . classexploitation hason thewholebeenbrought basically
35 C. to Introduction Fredenck of analysis thiscase, see theEditors' For a comprehensive in Cooperativization China, of Sun Telwes and Warren (eds), ThePolitics Agncultural M. and the 'HighTide' of 1955 (Armonk E Sharpe,1993),pp.5-27. Mao, Deng Zihui, juece yu The keysourceon whichthisanalysisis based,Bo Ylbo's Ruoganzhongda vol.1 (Beijing: and Decisions Events], Major de huigu on Certain [Reflections shijian with 1991),ch.15,together itssubsequent chubanshe, dangxiao zhongyang Zhonggong do which notexistin of number Mao statements for vol.2(1993), is notable a significant known source anyother

138

THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

an end, . .. [and]themaincontradiction (zhuyao in is maodun) ourcountry alreadythat. . . between advanced the socialist system and thebackward productive forcesof society'.This formulation distorted Cultural was by Revolution sourcesas advocating 'dyingaway of class struggle' the and, according suchsources, inserted thepolitical to was into resolution thelast at in moment, some versionsvirtually smuggled so thatMao had no in, to that opportunityvetoit.Kau andLeungspeculate theChairman went along of fortactical in of reasons, presumably light thestrength theconservative that spring 1957 he beganto opposeopenlythe opposition. Theyassert by and a resolution's implications thefuture for course therevolution launched of in this the Party rectificationan effort overturn dominant to position. Finally, editorsclaim that when Mao explicitly rejectedthe EighthCongress formulation the CentralCommittee's at ThirdPlenuma year later and declared contradiction the between proletariat bourgeoisie be the the and to main contradiction the same occasion as overturning fanmaojin the on policies, was providing theoretical for Great he the basis the Leap Forward.36 in Theevidence Mao's speeches of included TheWritings Mao Zedong of itself, Mao wengaodocuments other the and recent Partyhistory sources on a Mao's control what of went at theCongress presents far different picture. of and other is clearly demonstrated his vetting speeches,reports by the politicalresolution.37 Most tellingare Mao's documents, including the of comments and corrections repeated during drafting Liu's political Mao notonly a of report, report fully echoingtheanalysis theresolution. involved of endorsed report praised efforts Liu andothers the and the clearly in the drafting himself. process,but he also made many amendments text is Particularly relevant Mao's addition the sectionof the prepared to of which notedthatdespitethe decisivevictory socialisttransformation to continued 'classes stillhavenotdiedout' andremnant bourgeois ideology in that the exist.HereMao inserted hisownhandthecomment 'after remnant in the of and dies ideology thebourgeoisie petty bourgeiosie out, contradiction of of and of ... society theforces production therelations production will existforever'.38 Severalthings apparent are as a here. First, hasbeenclearfor longtime,39 demonstrates theconsensus it that viewof theEighth Congress included belief classesandclass struggle notentirely a that were of things the
36

WM,II, pp.xxiv-xxv, 158, 692-3. For detailson theEighth Congressresolution, see RoderickMacFarquhar, The Originsof the CulturalRevolution Contradictions 1: the Among People 1956-1957(New York:ColumbiaUniversity Press,1974),pp.101, 119-21 on theeve of theCongressnotincluded Mao wengaowhichshow his control in of at matters themeeting; personnel Dang de wenxian, (1991),pp.5-10. no.3

37 Mao wengao, 210-12.See also Mao's speeches vol.6,pp 165-9.187-8,192-4,199-200,

38

Mao wengao, on vol.6,pp.136-64(quotation p.137).

39 See the in discussion MacFarquhar, Origins, pp 160-4. The 1,

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

139

on shouldremain the ideologies reactionary to efforts combat pastand that it agenda. More significantly, shows thatMao fullysharedthe Party's centred to shift a newsetoftasks must concern that outlook priority dominant construction. on national In fact,Mao upheldthisnew courseover the entire1956-57period, of at declaration the beginning 1956 of a with his optimistic starting of due situation' to thebasic victory changein the political 'fundamental cooperativization agricultural in socialismover capitalism the successful was construction to class struggle economic from Whiletheshift campaign.40 this clear throughout period,it took some timeto arriveat a theoretical 1957,'in Aprillastyear. . . [I] for formulation it. As Mao putit in spring we ... spokeof tenrelationships At thetime hadnotyethada chanceto say the to drawn a close.It was notuntil ... has the that class struggle basically 4' we that wereable to speakon thispointfirmly'. Congress Party] [Eighth in the recognized change fundamentally position the Although newtheoretical in assessment, this political a it patterns, also reflected pragmatic ownership cowed,or as Mao would had in opponents society beensufficiently case that there In trouble.42 short, and 'wereobedient' notcausing putit subsequently, of over the basic thrust the top leadership within was littlecontention class downgrading struggle.43 by was soon required consensus Congress to An adjustment theEighth in and in developments Polandand Hungary by echoesof discontent China leadership of Thusin late 1956 and thestart 1957,Mao and theParty itself. the class struggle, need for toneconcerning harsher adopteda somewhat to efforts combat bourgeoisideology,and the dangers of protracted that economic but withoutalteringthe basic framework revisionism, was tone, however, maintask.The newharsher was construction theParty's control, especiallyover to officials tighten seized upon by lower-level
40 See WM,I, pp.724-5,11, p.18.
41 42 Ibid.,II, p.465. p.689. See ibid., claims about lastRevolution leadingto Cultural a apparently contradiction, matter to puzzlemaylie in The resolution. answer that the concerning political minute activity and the Chairman's a Mao's comments yearlater, during Kang Sheng's interjection to we response- Kang Sheng: 'When we wroteup thatstatement, gave thought it did write [we it thinkingoverrepeatedly it write or notat all. After we whether should dated'1957', textual this beenreleased'.(Ibid, p.812. Although itemis simply already the Cf Plenum. SS, p.211.) Clearly the itdatesfrom Third that indicates clearly analysis issue political was formulation nota major the surrounding precise confusion last-minute that the within leadership was uncertainty theoretical an butsimply reflected ongoing shared Mao. by fully
up] . . .' Mao: '. . . We were going to change it at the time, but [the document] had

of 43 Thereweresomereservations, the concerning preciseformulation themain though,

140

OF THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS

for as Mao had identified critical economic whosecooperation intellectuals that 1957 By development. mid-February Mao determined this and cultural speech with and too far, starting his 'Contradictions' up tightening had gone to over effort44 thenextcoupleof months 'lobbying' an he launched intense by Congress of the and reassert canyevenfurther basicorientation theEighth of contradictions the developing conceptof the primacy non-antagonistic in rectification to intellectuals participate Party the among peopleandinviting when Tellingly, Movement. Flowers during Hundred the criticisms byoffering out had in the Congress pointed theendof observing March1957that Eighth and is 'Now thesituation evenclearer, on class struggle, went tosaythat Mao therefore thereis a need to tell the wholePartyin detail:Don't use old newproblems '.45 ... methods dealwith to of creptintoMao's message,withreminders the though, Ambiguity, the concerning and statements need for ideologicalstruggle continuing WhileKau andLeungsee suchqualifications aspects intellectuals. of negative as and the as Mao rethinking position upgrading role of class struggle, his The more had was the above,theopposite what Chairman in mind. illustrated of as are cautionary notesin Mao's statements bestexplained manifestations part of the EighthCongress basic Partyideologywhich had remained for to and formulation, as an attempt lay downbalancedparameters dealing flowed from inherent the In withintellectuals. thissense,Mao's ambiguity yet Flowersexperiment, at the same timeMao's of novelty the Hundred on verging petulance unreasonableness and lack idiosyncratic ofclarity indeed and for generally. figures officials madelifedifficult important amongofficials make clear the deep anxiety Red Guard collections to the the to by created Mao's effort encourage intellectuals criticize Party.
44 a case forshifting Party Mao articulated powerful See WM,II, p.436. In thiseffort Whiletheneed as beenbasically completed. concerns class struggle having away from the was he for ideological struggle acknowledged, emphasized newagendaof continuing In nature'. all thisthe and against economicand cultural development 'thenew battle to whichwereunsuited the'old methods' Chairman against using inveighed repeatedly that 'In that society large]today play[i.e., He [at anddevelopment declared production cadresto 'pack up and enjoined performed', forcefully class struggle] no longer is being all that[rather stuff' (WM, H, pp.397,399, 438, and SS, meaningless class struggle] speech, Mao p.282) As indicatedby his obvious pride in his 'Contradictions' troops saw as theorist hadtoprodhishidebound who undoubtedly himself an innovative a into newera was opposed by Liu thatMao's effort to argument the effect Despite scholarly at outsidethe core Shaoqi and otherleaders,this 'lobbying'was directed officials either a leadership and other sourcessuggest central leadership. Newlyavailabletexts to in united behind acquiescing Mao's policiesand joiningin theeffort overcome or and at doubts confusion lowerlevels.See WM, pp.397,399,438; andSS, p.282. I, 45 WM,I, p.465.See also SS, pp.278-85.

MAOTEXTSANDTHEMAOOF THE 1950s

141

as lower ranking officials, wellas some depict documents available The newly out Mao's to attempting figure at positions the Centre, with significant of to trying guidehimin thedirection their and,whilesometimes meaning over to hesitating actin thefaceofuncertainty hisprecise policypreferences, was pressedfor position.Yet on severaloccasionswhen the Chairman 'to as wishing, he observed, fathom by or guidance fora directive officials leaderwaved sanguine the policyat thebottom', overly whatis theCentre's matters to and gaveno clearguidance, toldthem consider asidesuchrequests, for themselves.46 of on attack theleadership thePeople's was Moreominous Mao's harsh to Daily in early April for allegedlyrefusing publicize his views on In Committee. fact, the and 'Scontradictions' opposing policiesof theCentral were facedwitha complexsituation. offlcials propaganda the responsible Mao's speeches from or bannedpublicity any quotations regulations Party of a required process procedures official text an before official was published; text the of and revision approval suchspeeches; original of 'Contradictions' that unclearand plain contradictory threecomplete was so disorganized, had and beforeit was presentable; Mao himself were required rewritings after shortly delivery, revision it without not his declared intention to publish version. an of at mockhorror theconsequences issuing unamended expressing and outburst, the propaganda Mao's ferocious All this did not prevent line.47 fell immediately into apparatus of in WhileMao's mainefforts thespring 1957 werein line withthe began to he Congress, also paradoxically of policyorientation the Eighth of formulation the resolution's with expresshis dissatisfaction thepolitical this however, rethinking before mid-May, In maincontradiction. theperiod it on of upgrading class struggle; thecontrary, did not mean a theoretical of conceptualizationthebasiclineof satisfactory for concern a more involved the Congress. The Eighth Congress version had declared the main and socialist system thebackward 'the to contradictionbe between advanced of position the the Thisreflected basicMarxist forces society'. of productive fashionwhichdid not take of superiority socialismin a simpleminded socialist established of shortcomingsa newly of cognizance thetheinevitable the In context wholenotion which notyetbeenperfected.48this had structure and modification, in earlyAprilMao flatly required of an advancedsystem social a between progressive ofa contradiction to 'It stated: is incorrect speak

46 SS,pp.240, 267-9. above, 12. note Cf. 261,

47 Servicein Mao's Cheek,Deng Tuo and Intellectual WM,I, pp.515-16;and Timothy ch.4. forthcomingt), Press, Oxford University China(Oxford: WM, in June version 'Contradictions', I, pp.318-19. of appeared therevised point

48 See WM,II, p.438; and SS, pp.150,167, 175,325. The mostcoherent of statement this

142

THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

of of with right policy, approach 1956continuing up tothestart thefanmaojin 1957concerned The ofsummer theThird Plenum September. anti-rightism in of Mao's implicit and economics linking thetwo politics not'rightist' despite Mao in of in thefall.Meanwhile, thecontext thenewpolitical priorities, made in reversals positions hadadvocated thespring he of he somebreathtaking of the opinions, yet hadearlier praised non-Party for handling critical press its He on he nowdenounced forindiscriminately it attacks theParty. publishing for also sanctioned attackson hapless 'bourgeoisrightists' advocating cases proposals suchas to review counter-revolutionary and to abolishParty in committees educationalinstitutions: proposalswhich were not too did shameless dissimilar hisownearlier to While changes suggestions.52 these notinconvenience Chairman's the or cadresgenerally, they colleagues Party in for werebitter medicine less well placed participants the eventsof the months. preceding involved re-evaluation thesignificance a of The attacks theRightists on in to of class struggle. This was already apparent Mao's amendments the
49 50
51

was apparentin economic production. . .'.51 At the same time,continuity

remained system backward and forces production'.49 Mao's concern of But with with interaction therelations forces production, theneedto the of and of forces could develop perfect relations production thatproductive the of so as was and class struggle, moresmoothly, notwith which, has beenshown, of a deemed largely thing thepast. in starting Things changed dramatically politically theoretically both and now judged to have reached mid-May,with intellectuals' criticisms launched fierce a the unacceptable levels.WithMao taking lead, theParty in June. starting early attack itscritics on through Anti-Rightist the Campaign of withthequestion now becamea moreprominent Class struggle theme, was political. 'whowillwin'assertedly yetdecided. impetus narrowly not The that Mao observed hisown1956comment thesocialist that Significantly, later because the revolution been basicallysolved had been inappropriate had The it to the bourgeois rightists therelaxation entailed attack Party.50 aim used criticism restore and of theAnti-Rightist was to stemintellectual Campaign of objective rectifying Party control, without nullifying elements thespring of of Party state and structures. therevised Thus version Mao's 'Contradictions' in the stilladdressed official shortcomings requiring speechpublished June and reform. held to theEighth It Congress view of themaincontradiction the and statedthe Party'sbasic taskwas to 'safeguard develop, forcesof

at WM, II, p 523. Dated 'April 1957', Mao made thesecomments the Hangzhou most heldin thefirst weekofApril; conference likely p ibid., 516 SS, p.491.See also WM, p.705. II, WM,ll,pp318,321 and Purges, See WM,II, pp.322,521, 524, 591-601,and Teiwes,Politics pp.195,20911.

52

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

143

and aboutthe long-term 'Contradictions' speech,as in addingstatements and the betweenthe proletariat natureof the class struggle tortuous came at the elaboration theoretical But the most significant bourgeoisie. of the the in HereMao notedthat transformation Qingdaoconference July. on in economicsystem 1956 was not enough,and thatthe struggle the had to must fronts be pursued theend.What emerged and political ideological struggle he in both the cities and countryside, claimed,was a two-road that a and socialism, struggle would take a long time capitalism between of could be achieved.No explicitmention the main beforefinalvictory has historian Party but was contradiction madein thisanalysis, as a leading that the reached position the in the had concluded, reality Chairman already and the was contradiction between proletariat thebourgeoisie.53 priority 1957 of The ThirdPlenum September-October was one of theseminal the It of in points thehistory thePeople'sRepublic. notonlyendorsed turning as and of contradiction theproletariat thebourgeoisie themaincontradiction, had program economic that fanmaojin determined the butmoresignificantly the the error beganto weavetogether policiesand create and been a serious Leap was clearly The Leap Forward. Great which to theGreat led momentum in 1957 pressures summer and of of theproduct a number political economic way thathad been under abouttheeconomy rethinking as well as of some role to Mao hadexpected playa leading in whom since1956.Theintellectuals the unreliable; had politically development proven economicand cultural line had had the Congress relaxation accompanying Eighth political general from withdrawals such ramifications, as peasant socialandeconomic adverse remained sluggish, and performance and strikes; economic cooperatives urban year. below-par its having secondconsecutive in withagriculture particular the Since Mao's April 1956 speech on the 'Ten Great Relationships' to in effort adapttheSovietmodel had leadership beenengaged a significant industrial including and to Chineseconditions, a seriesof new programs were industrial on projects and for support agriculture emphasis smaller-scale tentative but rashadvance', these of within framework 'opposing the adopted GreatLeap as were soon to be transformed partsof a grander measures the In strategy. all thisthe widelyheld desirewithin elite foreconomic

53

suiye Quzhefazhande niande Zhongguo: 1949-1989 and Cong Jin, WM,I, pp.653-65; Henanrenmin vol.2(HenanThe Yearsof Circuitous Development], [China1949-1989: after shortly issuehad beenraisedprivately chubanshe, 1989),pp.74-5.The theoretical Tian in whenMao's secretary, Jiaying, thestart theAnti-Rightist of Campaign June, with the drawingon his awarenessof the Chairman'sdissatisfaction undoubtedly of proposedto Mao thatthe Eighth resolution even beforethe turn events, political Mao's agreement This was viewof themaincontradiction incorrect. secured Congress that by withit butalso hisjudgment givenits approval the thatthere wereproblems for being. it to Congress was unsuitable raisethematter thetime

144

OF THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS

with withMao's emerging impatience development undoubtedly dovetailed theexisting slowgrowth.54 Mao. Plenum fundamentally from came Themajor departures theThird at positionsand politically They involvedsome curiouslogic, ambiguous ominousif still restrained and judgments, theyonly evolved duringthe Shortly consternationthose attendance. of in plenum itself theconsiderable to before plenum, the Mao had approved directive a scalingdownthesize of policieshadbeenin force cooperatives.55 Moreover, fanmaojineconomic the yet to withMao's consent prior theplenum,56 he now started place the to on rapid pace blamefor them others. theChairman's on And insistence a more which ofeconomic apparent thetailendoftheplenum at growth became only concluded on 9 October.The originalagenda had focused on Party economic strategy, definite and rectification rural and policy, notoverall but in in indeed, signsof theLeap onlyemerged Mao's finalpronouncement; efforts the calledfor DengXiaoping great summarizing plenum 7 October, on of In only in agriculture made no mention industry.57 his concluding and economic a articulated speechtwodayslater Mao stilldidnotpresent clearly on strategy despite his broad insistence the absolute necessityfor a and culture industry, agriculture, commerce, comprehensive coordinating plan made a Mao forcefully was speed, point education. key, The however, greater one of by declaring: 'Thereare at leasttwomethods doingthings, producing But and and ones'.58 ultimately slower poorer results theother and faster better werethe advocacy a faster of growth of rate moresignificant thepolicy than comments. political overtones theChairman's of
54 of C and See WM,II, pp.43-66, Frederick Teiwes,'Establishment Consolidation the and New Regime',The Cambridge Cambridge History China,Volume 14 (Cambridge: of University Press,1987),pp.140-2. in and Organization See Mao wengao, and Ideology vol.6,pp.572-3; FranzSchurmann, Communist China(Berkeley. of University California Press,1966),pp.455-6. a See in particular remarks theNovember his at 1956 Second Plenumwhen,durnng stated that'rightism' overthe discussion 'left'and 'right' of the tendencies, Chairman was speed of development okay;Bo Yibo, Ruoganzhongda juece, vol.1,p.556. While somefaint hints reservations Plenum, they did of before Third the theChairman provide see I, leaders largely and concerned agriculture; WM, werenoteasilyperceived other by of for, pp.228,239, 293, 662. For an overview Mao's support and subtlereservations C. concerning, 'opposingrashadvance',see Frederick Teiwes, 'Leaders,Institutions, and the Originsof the GreatLeap Forward', PacificAffairs, vol.66, no.2 (Summer 1993),pp.244-53 See WM,II, pp 696-723;and Zhonggong dangshi jiaoxue cankaoziliao [CCP History Teaching ReferenceMaterials],vol.22 (n.p.. Zhongguojiefangjunguofangdaxue May 1986),pp.312-14 dangshi. zhenggong jiaoyanshi, dangjian vol.6,p.594. SW,V, p.490.Cf. Mao wengao,

55 56

57

58

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

145

in had occurred 1956, and Mao chargedthata 'rightist' deviation development, committees the complained theforty that articles agricultural on better, and more for promoting progress, and the slogan 'more,faster, to economically' which had all beenin voguein theearly1956 effort 'leap in forward' production beenblownaway.Mao went to argue had on that the of 'consciouseffort relax' in thesecondhalfof 1956 saw theslackening to in and class struggle resulted attacks thebourgeoisie richpeasants.59 and by acceptance he Later, conveniently overlooking ownprevious his offanmaojin, his wouldclaimthat Third the Plenum restored position.60 had Mao's moreradicalmoodwas also indicated theissue of themain by of issueparadoxically less but suggested than contradiction, theunfolding this in a total with Eighth the view.He initially raised matter a the break Congress eve discussion with'central comrades' 19 September on 1957,thevery ofthe (zongde plenum.On thisoccasionhe spoke of the 'overallcontradiction' transitional between working the class andthe maodun) overtheentire period to The bourgeoisie, and also referred this as the 'main contradiction'. left of his Chairman's officials uncomprehending exposition reportedly many whathe had said and the meaning and confused thedisparity by between and such Party'sofficial positionas laid down at the EighthCongress, comrades' wouldagain officials the central expressed hopethat'responsible After 'ardent discussion' broadviewpoints two emerged, explainthematter. the contradiction betweenthe one following Mao's drift and declaring the and upholding proletariat thebourgeoisie main and contradiction, theother the theEighth on that Congress resolution thegrounds although Anti-Rightist into the it not struggle themaintaskfor moment, should be expanded the was of main contradiction given the ongoingshortcomings the new socialist to Mao returned themeeting to on system. Having thematter theagenda, put settle matter histalks 7 and9 October.61 the in of established proletariat/bourgeoisie the WhileMao's twospeeches firmly a involved curious his contradiction themaincontradiction, viewsactually as mix of theoretical in and guarded political perspectives resulted somewhat which action. Mao did notcompletely the Congress resolution, reject Eighth

59

the to While thisstopped short linking fanmaojin of the program the 'rightist attack', senseof a correct beenwrongly derailed was clearin theChairman's approach having items.The and he began to talk in terms restoring blown-aside of the comments, with the mixed of to had 'rightism' a cautious approach economic policy beenarbitranly of miscalculation real 'rightism' excessive criticism of caused by Mao's sprnng intellectual support theParty for History Collection], (1989),p.8. no.2 WM,I, pp.697,704-6;andDangshiwenhui [Party Bo Yibo, Ruogan zhongdajuece, vol2, pp.624-7.Mao's 19 September talk is an of text in WM example an important notincluded either orMao wengao.

60 61

146

OF THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS

'harmless'and 'well-intentioned'. he characterized 'not incorrect',62 as to and Significantly,noted ithadbeenof 'benefit' theParty compatible he that was The real with tasksof rectification production. resolution's fault the and clearly;it is its inadequate expression: 'It's just thatit was notexpressed to Particularly revealing his decision was characterized a semantic by error'. within of the entirely keep the revisedformulation the maincontradiction Why? Becauseit would'possibly Party notpublish in thenewspapers. and it the is, contradictions among people. . .', that dilute [ourattention themany to] itwouldundermine objectives thespring.63 of the ambitious politicians pickedup Mao's Yet radically inclined simply or Hua andthen Shanghai In Party secretary Jiang signals. particular, Zhejiang's in to formulation reports leaderKe Qingshi used theproletariat/bourgeoisie in a Hua's report midParty meetings. WhenMao received copyof Jiang 'extremely Zhou Enlai and Decemberhe was reportedly happy',ordered Hu secretaries Qiaomu others readitby thenext his to day,assigned leading in to and and Tian Jiaying revisethereport, had it published thePeople's issue'.64 the note highlighting 'main contradiction Daily withan editorial havehada neutral the should Whilein strict theoretical terms newformulation of sincetheconclusion and had effect economic on policy, nothing changed in for in theThird pressure a greatly Plenum, facta majorincrease political had increased ofgrowth occurred. rate when Mao conference 1958 Thispressure peakedat theJanuary Nanning transformed issuefrom matter economic the a of policyintoone of political inner In for time Party outburst, thefirst ina major principle. an extraordinary of forum seriously he criticized nametwomembers thePolitiburo Standing by Li officials Committee, Zhou Enlai and ChenYun,as well as keyeconomic officials the further ordered assembled Xiannian Bo Yibo. The Chairman and linkedthe policyof neveragain to use thefanmaojin concept, explicitly and on the attacks theParty, rashadvance'to stimulating rightists' 'opposing this stood'only50 that of asserted those guilty promoting error threateningly During thismeeting Mao also had a copyof the metres from rightists'. the to June1956 People's Daily editorial 'rashadvance'brought him criticizing
62

Congress In the SW version his 9 Octoberspeech,Mao did statethattheEighth of uses was but formulation themaincontradiction 'incorrect', theRed Guardversion of themilder that or complete sound'.CompareWM,II, judgment it was 'notsufficiently pp.705and721. boththe Mao was trying encompass to WM,H, pp.689-90, 692, 721, 811-12.In fact, in of manner whichthe wherehe criticized unsatisfactory the perspective thespring and resolution of and of characterized contradiction forces relations production his the summer view emphasizing two-road the and socialism, struggle betweencapitalism that but speechwas notin error it had to be supplemented arguing his 'Contradictions' at byhisstatement Qingdao. Ibid.,p.691. Bo Yibo,Ruogan and vol.6,pp.671-3. zhongda juece, vol.2,pp.629-31; Mao wengao,

63

64

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

147

at no that the and,notwithstandingfact he hadexpressed reservationsthetime, of directed me'. Theresult at 'this sharply is note nowaddedthemarginal that the assembledparticipants, through all this was to send shockwaves at by in culminating self-criticismsZhou,Chenandtheothers theMay 1958 the and creating dynamics Party Congress, Second Session of the Eighth the that declared without Mao the drove Leap toextremes. subsequently which Leap.65 havebeenno Great there conference would Nanning Mao stillobserved within leadership the pressure this In creating intense Thus the was concerned. at restraint, least so far as the top leadership that conference his aim was at Chairnandeclared theMarch1958 Chengdu at notto 'purgepeople' (zhengren),and indeednoneof thosehe attacked concerning despitesome rhetoric Moreover, positions.66 lost their Nanning natureof the and the antagonistic revisionism classes, class struggle, Mao's main and betweenthe proletariat the bourgeoisie,67 contradiction was His and production construction. basicprojection lay preoccupations with half in were revolutions completed thefirst and that thepolitical ideological as and revolution, in midshift technical to should of oftheyearthecentre work And nature'. eveninthefirst is that yearhe concluded 'ourmainstruggle with Mao dwelledupon. Most was not something half of 1958 class struggle he where of meetings theperiod the for major outlines are revealing hisspeech as superstition' a such as 'eradicating to attention measures gives repeated alludedto was whileclass struggle rarely rapid meansof stimulating growth, by as and neverpresented a majortopicforconsideration theparticipants.68 the a may rhetoric haveplayed keyrolein creating atmosphere Class struggle to central Mao's fortheGreatLeap, butas of early1958 it was no longer the facing Party. or concerns thetasks the The same can be said concerning relatedquestionof the main report Liu surrounding Shaoqi's political as by contradiction revealed events which This Congress. report, Party inMaytotheSecondSessionoftheEighth articulated and formulation strongly the affirmed newproletariat/bourgeoisie been Leap,hadnevertheless regarded line thenewgeneral basedon theGreat of on as by somelocal leaders too soft thestruggle thetworoads.Yet again, that was demonstrate this nota case of documents as in 1956,theMao wengao Mao's view.In reflected fully that but Liu's 'conservatism' instead thereport maintaskthe oftheParty's Mao Liu's report, addedto a discussion revising
65 66 1. pp. Quzhefazhande, 11-12, 123-3 and vol.7,pp.32-6; CongJin, See Mao wengao, withParty did however, level officials suffer, Mao wengao,vol.7, p.108. Provincial the from expulsion including measures disciplinary receiving leadersin 11 provinces the Partyat the May Second Session. The notes in ibid., pp.201, 209-10, clarify by splits'at thismeeting indicating by references Mao to 'Party confusing previously localofficials. to referred that primanly these they and ibid., pp.119-20,199-201; SS, pp.385-6. example, See, for Mao wengao, vol.7,pp.25,51-2,194,196,199,203; SS, p.437;andabove,note21.

67 68

148

THE AUSTRALIANJOURNAL CHINESE AFFAIRS OF

need to 'mobilizeall positive factors, [and]correctly handlecontradictions priorities actualwork of werecouched theterms spring in of 1957,evenifin reality toohadbeenradically this transformedtheGreat by Leap Forward.69 In theperiod from mid-1958 to theLushanplenum summer up in 1959 classes, class struggle and the main contradiction largely disappear from Mao's statements, in half particularlythefirst of 1959.In hismost substantive remarks theseissuesduring period, theNovember on this at 1958 Wuchang the conference, Chairman noted that'thequestion theabolition classes of of deserves somethought'; was notyetabolished political it in but thinking, 'I think has to leave thisquestion .. in suspense'.70 one . Whenclass struggle again becamean important in Mao's discourse Lushan,it was not term at basedon anycareful assessment contradictions of insociety was a reaction but to PengDehuai'scritique theGreat of Leap which Mao, wrongly, as an took attack himself. response, on In Mao notonlyrevived rhetoric class the of but a struggle launched harshattack a leadingcomrade on thatwentwell offered Nanning resulted Pengand others at in beyond anything and losing their posts. Although mistakes eventocausing 'great and admitting a disaster' in his extraordinary statements, Mao refused to accept meaningful responsibility instead but turned others.71 eveninthis on Yet novelcontext the Chairman continued to extend signals of comradely concern in correspondence andcomments with he concerning those had dismissed.72 By the now,however, posture increasingly was unconvincing. The Mao who emerges from review events an over-powering this of is but in figure, notone impressive either theoretical or competence political leadership. with his Despitehis preoccupation theory, repeated sharptums cameinresponse events, to events wereoften consequence hisown the of that misjudgments, ratherthan being shaped by any coherenttheoretical
among the people'. Despite the theoretical primacyof class struggle,the

perspective.To the extentthat a consistent themeunderpinned outlook his

69

Mao wengao,vol.7,pp.157-8.Mao had already this expressed view in earlyJanuary, whenaddressing questionof the two typesof contradictions. concludedthat the He 'Class contradiction the main [contradiction]; [butt]hequantitatively is ... greatest is the and [contradiction]between advanced thebackward'. p.386.Cf. Mao wengao, SS, vol.7,p.10. Following May Congress continuing the his as relative uncertainty to their importance revealedin his response Congress was to discussions thecomparative on merits the 1956 and current of formulations. Chairman The instructed closest his theoretical advisors reexamine issue,which'deserves to the and attention shouldnotbe ignored'. Mao wengao, vol.7, pp.283-4. Cf. Keith Forster,'Mao Zedong on Contradictions Socialism under Revisited', 1994paper ms. Cf. SS, pp.490-1. Mao wengao, vol.7,p.553. For overviews developments Lushan,see Teiwes,Politicsand Purges,pp.xxxiof at
xxxvi, liii-lvi,311-32, and 'Peng Dehuai', pp.89-91

70 71 72

See Mao wengao, vol.8,pp.437, 461,473-4,520-1.

MAO TEXTS AND THE MAO OF THE 1950s

149

perspective was it period, ironically not theclass struggle over the entire Plenum, at as on he which forced theParty the'maincontradiction'theThird that economicdevelopment had been the focus of the Eighth but rather than satisfactory the more in this The Congress. needtorefine focus a manner a of in was resolution hisconcern thespring 1957.It remained key Congress and that Campaign summer, it quickly the evenduring Anti-Rightist concern the despite Plenum, the guiseafter Third the dominated dayin a newutopian Alongtheway Mao's all too of new formulation the 'maincontradiction'. of assignment and reversals, hisarbitrary his lack frequent ofclarity, sweeping were in participated and approved he for blameto others decisions had fully live difficulty, with couldstill, leaders evident. theendofthedecadeother By Leap Forward causedby theGreat the but with Chairman, with disasters the the dramatically Chinese populace had even less scope for worsening surviving mistakes. his Sydney October 1994

BULLETIN

OF CONCERNED ASIAN SCHOLARS

OFFER! INTRODUCTORY $18 for Oneyear

Bueti

of If you care about thefuture Asia, read the

of Concerned A sin Scholars

and voice -an independent on modern contemthan years Asia, more twenty exposing porary for
socialchange and injustices exploring
-

that readable quarterly a 72-page,illustrated, interviews, reviews, unsolicited articles, welcomes translations,and photo essays, refereedby and in authors, international editors, specialists, readers
Free indexand guide to back issues for guidelines BCAS authors BCAS, 323991hSiree, Boulder,CO S0304-2112U S A Telephone (303) 449-7439

s22 Subscriptions 00