I|gure 1 Instructional methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify

the nature of the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While
particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may by found within a
variety of strategies.

hat is Direct Instruction?
%he Direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most commonly used. %his
strategy is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills. It also works well for
introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.
!ossible Methods
O $tructured Overview
O ecture
O plicit %eaching
O Drill & Practice
O ompare & ontrast
O Didactic Questions
O Demonstrations
O uided & $hared - reading, listening, viewing, thinking
hat is Structured Overview?
$tructured Overview is verbal, visual or written summary or outline of a topic. It can
occur at the beginning of a unit, module or new concept, or it may be used to help
relate a learned idea to the big picture. A $tructured Overview distills difficult or
comple idea into simple definitions or eplanation, and then shows how all the
information relates. It is the process of "organizing and arranging topics to make
them more meaningful.

hat is its purpose?

%he purpose of a $tructured Overview is to help students place new ideas in contet.
Because ideas are simplified, it is easier for students to see "the big picture. In
addition, connecting new ideas to information students already understand makes it
easier to retain.
ow can I do it?
%here are three main ways in which $tructured overview can be used. One is verbal
summary at the start of a new concept. %he teacher starts by highlighting the new
ideas to be learned in a few simple sentences. %hen the relationship between these
ideas and the ones the students already know is discussed. %he structured overview
takes the role of an advanced organizer. Another type of $tructured Overview is a
written summary. %he approach is the same as the verbal summary, but students
have a written record of the ideas. enerally a combination of verbal and written
$tructured Overview is more effective than either type alone. %he final method is a
visual $tructured Overview. Venn diagrams of concepts, semantic maps, semantic
organizers, webs, and charts are all methods visual $tructured Overview. When
accompanied by eplanation, visual overviews are often very effective at helping
student connect ideas.
ow can I adapt it?
A Visual $tructured Overview can be a very strong tool for students who are
struggling with the content of a subject. While it is used at the beginning or end of a
group of lessons with most students, it can be used more frequently if necessary.
$tudents who refer to a structured overview more frequently are better able to
articulate higher levels of learning than students who do not. When students struggle
with a subject, the repeated use of a visual $tructured Overview can have a strong
positive effect on learning outcomes.

Chain of Events
Chain oI Events is used to describe the stages oI an event, the actions oI character or the steps in a procedure.
Key questions: What is the Iirst step in the procedure or initiating event? What are the next stages or steps? How
does one event lead to one another? What is the Iinal outcome?




Chain oI Events Clustering Compare/Contrast
Continuum Cycle Family Tree
Fishbone
Interaction
Outline
Problem/Solution
Spider Map Storyboard Venn Diagram
Graphic Organizers
Semantic
Mapping
Ior
Concept
Formation
KWHL
Technique
Anticipation/Reaction
Guide
The
Concept
Mapping
Homepage

ishbone Mapping
A Fishbone Map is used to show the causal interaction oI a complex event (an election, a nuclear explosion) or
complex phenomenon (juvenile delinquency, learning disabilities).
Key Irame questions: What are the Iactors that cause X ? How do they interrelate? Are the Iactors that cause X the
same as those that cause X to persist?

Spider Map
The Spider Map is used to describe a central idea: a thing, a process, a concept, a proposition. The map may be used
to organize ideas or brainstorm ideas Ior a writing project.
Key Irame questions: What is the central idea? What are its attributes? What are its Iunctions?


Continuum
Continuum is used Ior time lines showing historical events, ages (grade levels in school), degrees oI something
(weight), shades oI meaning, or rating scales (achievement in school).
Key Irame questions: What is being scaled? What are the end points or extremes?
AnticipationJReaction Cuide
An AnticipationReaction uuiue is useu to assess a classs knowleuge befoie they begin a lesson.
Clustering
Clustering is a nonlinear activity that generates ideas, images and Ieelings around a stimulus word. As students
cluster, their thoughts tumble out, enlarging their word bank Ior writing and oIten enabling them to see patterns in
their ideas. Clustering may be a class or an individual activity.







Cycle
A depiction oI a Cycle attempts to show how a series oI events interacts to produce a set oI results again and again,
such as the liIe cycle or a cycle oI poor decisions.
Key Irame questions: What are the main events in the cycle? How do they interact and return to the beginning
again?

Interaction Outline
Interaction Outline is used to show the nature oI an interaction between persons or groups, such as the interaction
between Europeans settlers and American Indians.
Key Irame questions: Who are the persons or groups? What were their goals? Did they conIlict or cooperate? What
was the outcome Ior each person or group?

Storyboard
A storyboard is a graphic, sequential depiction oI a narrative. Students recall major events oI the story, then illustrate
the events in the squares provided.

Compare/Contrast
Comparison/Conrast is used to show similarities and diIIerences.
Key Irame questions: What are being compared? How are they similar? How are they diIIerent?



amily Tree
Family Tree shows how Iamily members are related.
Key Irame question: Who are my ancestors? How are they related on the Family Tree?

!roblem/Solution
Problem/Solution requires students to identiIy a problem and consider multiple solutions and possible results.


Venn Diagram
The Venn Diagram is made up oI two or more overlapping circles. It is oIten used in mathematics to show
relationships between sets. In language arts instruction, Venn Diagrams are useIul Ior examining similarities and
diIIerences in characters, stories, poems, etc.
It is Irequently used as a prewriting activity to enable students to organize thoughts or textual quotations prior to
writing a compare/contrast essay. This activity enables students to organize similarities and diIIerences visually .

Tecbnique
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whaL Lheyve learned
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abouL dlnosaurs
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hat is Lecture?
ecture is a valuable part of a teacher's instructional repertoire if it is not used when other
methods would be more effective. If the presenter is knowledgeable, perceptive, engaging,
and motivating, then lecture can stimulate reflection, challenge the imagination, and
develop curiosity and a sense of inquiry. riteria for the selection of the lecture method
should include the types of eperiences students will be afforded and the kinds of learning
outcomes epected. Because lecture is teacher-centred and student activity is mainly
passive, the attention span of students may be limited. Many students, because of learning
style preferences, may not readily assimilate lecture content. In addition, lectured content is
often rapidly forgotten.
hat is Explicit Teaching?
plicit teaching involves directing student attention toward specific learning in a highly
structured environment. It is teaching that is focused on producing specific learning
outcomes
%opics and contents are broken down into small parts and taught individually. It involves
eplanation, demonstration and practise. hildren are provided with guidance and
structured frameworks. %opics are taught in a logical order and directed by the teacher.
Another important characteristic of eplicit teaching involves modeling skills and behaviours
and modeling thinking. %his involves the teacher thinking out loud when working through
problems and demonstrating processes for students. %he attention of students is important
and listening and observation are key to success.
hat is its purpose?
plicit teaching is useful for introducing topics and specific skills. It provides guided
instruction in the basic understanding of required skills, which students canthen build on
through practice, collaboration, repetition, hands on activities and developmental play.
ow do I do it?
plicit instruction is a sequence of supports:
setting a purpose for learning
telling students what to do
showing them how to do it
guiding their hands-on application of the new learning.
plicit instruction begins with setting the stage for learning, followed by a
clear explanation of what to do (telling), followed by modeling of the process (showing),
followed by multiple opportunities for practice (guiding) until independence is attained.
plicit instruction moves systematically from etensive teacher input and little student
responsibility initially - to total student responsibility and minimal teacher involvement at
the conclusion of the learning cycle.


hat is Drill & !ractice?
As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is familiar to all educators. It "promotes the
acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice." It refers to small tasks such as
the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing of arithmetic facts and
may also be found in more sophiscated learning tasks or physical education games and
sports. Drill-and-practice, like memorization, involves repetition of specific skills, such as
addition and subtraction, or spelling. %o be meaningful to learners, the skills built through
drill-and-practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning.
hat is its purpose?
Drill and Practice activities help learners master materials at their own pace. Drills are
usually repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. ffective use of drill and practice
depends on the recognition of the type of skill being developed, and the use of appropriate
strategies to develop these competencies. %here is a place for drill and practice mainly for
the beginning learner or for students who are eperiencing learning problems. Its use,
however, should be kept to situations where the teacher is certain that it is the most
appropriate form of instruction.
ow can I do it?
Drill and practice software packages offer structured reinforcement of previously learned
concepts. %hey are based on question and answer interactions and should give the student
appropriate feedback. Drill and practice packages may use games to increase motivation.
%eachers who use computers to provide drill and practice in basic skills promote learning
because drill and practice increases student acquisition of basic skills. In a typical software
package of this type, the student is able to select an appropriate level of difficulty at which
questions about specific content materials are set. In most cases the student is motivated to
answer these questions quickly and accurately by the inclusion of a gaming scenario, as well
as colourful and animated graphics. ood drill and practice software provides feedback to
students, eplains how to get the correct answer, and contains a management system to
keep track of student progress.
ow can I adapt it?
%here has been a definite move away from paper-based drill and practice systems to
computer-based systems. Drill and practice eercises with appropriate software can
enhance the daily classroom eperience. iven the personalized, interactive nature of most
software, the computer can lend itself to providing etended, programmed practice. Used in
small doses, electronic learning eperiences can supplement any lesson effectively. ertain
software allow students to reinforce specific skills in a certain subject area. Although not as
easily integrated across the curriculum, drill and practice software can be useful. It usually
comes in one of two formats. %he first focuses on a specific subject area or a part of that
area. %he most common areas are reading and math. %he second type attempts to improve
skills in several areas of the curriculum. As with all other types of software, the teacher
needs to determine if technology is the best way to work with the subject matter being
dealt with.
ames provide child centered activities to apply problem solving strategies as well as an
opportunity to practice basic skills.
Basic $kills Practice ards can be designed to be used in many different formats. %hey can
be used with a game board, in a lotto format or as flashcards.
hat is Compare & Contrast?
ompare and ontrast is used to highlight similarities and differences between to things. It
is a process where the act of classification is practiced. It is effectively used in conjunction
with indirect instructional methods, but can also be used directly to teach vocabulary
signals, classification, nomenclature and key characteristics. It is often presented in either
written tet paragraphs or a chart. Its most common use is as a graphic organizer of
content.
hat is its purpose?
ompare and ontrast is used to help students distinguish between types of ideas or group
like ideas. It can be used to help students identify language cues, clarify thinking and define
ideas.
It can also be used to facilitate indirect instruction through concept formation or concept
attainment.
ow can I do it?
%he most common form of comparison and contrast is a chart. %he paper is divided down
the middle and the two columns have specific functions. %he comparison side is used to list
similarities between two things, and the differences are listed in the contrast column. %he
student typically completes the chart after a form of direct instruction such as reading,
listening or viewing. Following the completion of the chart, some form of debriefing is used
to help student make generalizations based on the items that fall into each category or
column. %his debriefing might be discussion, journaling, or any other form of reflective
thinking.
ow can I adapt it?
omparison and contrast is a useful method for improving reading skills and listening skills.
When students are struggling with finding meaning in either the spoken or written word, a
comparison and contrast for specific language tools is a powerful tool. $pecific words signal
comparative ideas in language. For eample in comparison, at the same time, or similarly
signal sameness and on the other hand, but, nevertheless yet, however, and in contrast
show that things are in opposition. $tudents can be given a list of words and then use them
as cues to pull ideas out a passage. %his is a decoding tool that can be adapted across grade
and subject.
hat are Didactic Questions?
Didactic questioning offers the teacher a way to structure the learning process (McNeil &
Wiles, 1990). Didactic questions tend to be convergent, factual, and often begin with
"what," "where," "when," and "how." %hey can be effectively used to diagnose recall and
comprehension skills, to draw on prior learning eperiences, to determine the etent to
which lesson objectives were achieved, to provide practice, and to aid retention of
information or processes. %eachers should remember that didactic questions can be
simplistic, can encourage guessing, and can discourage insightful answers or creativity.
However, effectiveness of this method can be increased by the appropriate addition of
"why" questions, and the occasional use of "what if" questions.
hat is its purpose?
Didactic and socratic questions are effective techniques that seek to draw the student into
the lecture as a participant.
hat is Indirect Instruction?
In contrast to the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centered,
although the two strategies can complement each other.
Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating,
drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students'
interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems.
In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of
facilitator, supporter, and resource person. %he teacher arranges the learning environment,
provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate, provides feedback to
students while they conduct the inquiry (Martin, 1983).
!ossible Methods
O Problem $olving
O ase $tudies
O #eading for Meaning
O Inquiry
O #eflective Discussion
O Writing to Inform
O oncept Formation
O oncept Mapping
O oncept Attainment
O loze Procedure
hat is !roblem Solving?
%here are two major types of problem solving - reflective and creative. #egardless of the
type of problem solving a class uses, problem solving focuses on knowing the issues,
considering all possible factor and finding a solution. Because all ideas are accepted initially,
problem solving allows for finding the best possible solution as opposed to the easiest
solution or the first solution proposed.
hat is its purpose?
%he process is used to help students think about a problem without applying their own pre-
conceived ideas. Defining what the problem looks like is separated from looking at the cause
of the problem to prevent premature judgment. $imilarly, clarifying what makes an
acceptable solution is defined before solutions are generated, preventing preconceptions
from driving solutions. $ome people argue that problem solving is the art of reasoning in its
purest form. In the classroom, problem solving is best used to help student understand
comple ethical dilemmas, think about the future or do some strategic planning.
ow can I do it?
Reflective Problem Solving follows a series of tasks. Once you have broken the students
into groups, the students define the problem, analyze the problem, establish the criteria for
evaluating solutions, propose solutions and take action.
Define the Problem: ist all the characteristics of the problem by focusing on the symptoms,
things affected, and resources or people related to defining the problem. In the end, pair
down the thinking to a clear definition of the problem to be solved.
nalyze the Problem: Use the evidence you collected in step one to decide why the problem
eists. %his step is separate from defining the problem because when the steps are done
together it is possible to prejudge the cause.
8tabli8h Criteria: $et a clear objective for the solution. If the problem is too hard, break
the objectives into two categories - musts and wants. Dont discuss solutions yet, just what
criteria a solution must meet.
Propo8e Solution8: Brainstorm as many different solutions as possible. $elect the one that
best meets the objectives you stated as a part of the criteria for a solution.
%ake action: Write a plan for what to do including all resources you will need to complete
the plan. If possible, implement the plan.
reative Problem Solving uses the same basic focus, but the process is less geared
towards solutions and more towards a focus on brainstorming. %he focus is on creating
ideas rather than solving a clear eisting problem. $ometimes the problem is pre-defined,
and the group must focus on understanding the definition rather than creating it.
rientation: $imilar to defining the problem, orientation also focuses on being sure the
group is prepared to work together. %he group might take the time to agree upon behaviors
or ways of saying things in addition to setting the contet and symptoms of the issues. %he
group generates a series of headings that group the topics they must address.
Preparation and naly8i8: Decide which headings are relevant or irrelevant. %he group
focuses on similarities and differences between ideas and works on grouping them into like
categories. %he group asks how and why a lot, and focuses on the root cause of the problem
in a way that is similar to analyzing the problem.
rain8torm: %he group generates as many potential solutions as possible. At this point, all
ideas are considered to be good ones.
ncubation: Before deciding which solution is the best, the group should leave the problem
for as much time as reasonable. Often several days or a week is ideal depending on the
ages of the students. eave enough time to develop distance but not long enough for
students to lose the gist of their earlier work.
Synthe8i8 and Verification: $tart by establishing the criteria for a good solution, then look at
all the brainstormed solutions and try to combine them to create the solution with the
greatest numbers of positives and the smallest numbers of negatives.
ow can I adapt it?
If you are working in a multi-grade room or on a project that involves a diverse group,
problem solving is a great process for achieving consensus. You can also use parts of the
process to help students challenge set thinking patterns.
hat are Concept Maps?
A concept map is a special form of a web diagram for eploring knowledge and gathering
and sharing information. oncept mapping is the strategy employed to develop a concept
map. A concept map consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and
links. %he links are labeled and denote direction with an arrow symbol. %he labeled links
eplain the relationship between the nodes. %he arrow describes the direction of the
relationship and reads like a sentence.

hat is its purpose?

oncepts maps can be used to:
O Develop an understanding of a body of knowledge.
O plore new information and relationships.
O Access prior knowledge.
O ather new knowledge and information.
O $hare knowledge and information generated.
O Design structures or processes such as written documents, constructions, web sites,
web search, multimedia presentations.
O Problem solve options.
ow can I do it?
$elect
4 Focus on a theme and then identify related key words or phrases.
#ank
4 #ank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract and inclusive to the
most concrete and specific.
luster
4 luster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction and those that
interrelate closely.
Arrange
4 Arrange concepts in to a diagrammatic representation.
ink and add proposition
4 ink concepts with linking lines and label each line with a proposition.
ritical Questions:
O What is the central word, concept, research question or problem around which to
build the map?
O What are the concepts, items, descriptive words or telling questions that you can
associate with the concept, topic, research question or problem?
$uggestions:
O Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a free association
approach by brainstorming nodes and then develop links and relationships.
O Use different colors and shapes for nodes & links to identify different types of
information.
O Use different colored nodes to identify prior and new information.
O Use a cloud node to identify a question.
O ather information to a question in the question node.
hat is Experiential Learning?
periential learning is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented. Personalized
reflection about an eperience and the formulation of plans to apply learning to other
contets are critical factors in effective eperiential learning. %he emphasis in eperiential
learning is on the process of learning and not on the product.
periential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are
necessary:
O eperiencing (an activity occurs);
O sharing or publishing (reactions and observations are shared);
O analyzing or processing (patterns and dynamics are determined);
O inferring or generalizing (principles are derived); and,
O applying (plans are made to use learning in new situations).




hat is Independent Study?
Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully
provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-
improvement. While independent study may be initiated by student or teacher, the focus
here will be on planned independent study by students under the guidance or supervision of
a classroom teacher. In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with
another individual or as part of a small group.
!ossible Methods
O ssays
O omputer Assisted Instruction
O ournals
O earning ogs
O #eports
O earning Activity Packages
O orrespondence essons
O earning ontracts
O Homework
O #esearch Projects
O Assigned Questions
O earning enters
hat is Interactive Instruction?
Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. $tudents
can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to organize their
thoughts, and to develop rational arguments.
%he interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods.
It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the
composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive
instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention
skills and abilities by both teacher and students.
%he success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily
dependent upon the epertise of the teacher in structuring and developing the dynamics of
the group.
!ossible Methods
O Debates
O #ole Playing
O Panels
O Brainstorming
O Peer Partner earning
O Discussion
O aboratory roups
O %hink, Pair, $hare
O ooperative earning
O igsaw
O Problem $olving
O $tructured ontroversy
O %utorial roups
O Interviewing
O onferencing