Hydrology, Water Resources and Ecology in Headwaters (Proceedings of the HeadWaler'98 Conference held at Meran/Merano, Italy, April 1998).

IAHS Publ. no. 248, 1998.

225

A new approach for the estimation of extreme roughness in torrents by hydraulics and photogrammetry

HANSPETER HODEL
Swiss National Hydrological and Geological Survey, CH-3003 Berne, Switzerland

THOMAS P. KERSTEN
SwissPhoto Vermessung AG, Dorfstrasse 53, CH-8105 Watt, Switzerland

ISIDOR STORCHENEGGER
Faculty of Agricultural Science, Department of Land Reclamation and Environmental Protection, University of Rostock, Satower Strasse 48, D-18059 Rostock, Germany

Abstract In this paper we present a new approach to estimate extreme roughness in torrents based on the transformation of an irregular bed geometry of a torrent reach into a geometrically well determined "idealized" channel. An important parameter is the surface of the water, which was determined by a photogrammetric method using stereo photos on the Analytical Plotter WILD Aviolyt ACL Two torrent reaches were photographed with two synchronized Rollei 6006 metric cameras, which were installed above the torrent. The mean velocity and the discharge were simultaneously measured by the salt-dilution method. With this approach, the calculated Strickler coefficients are considerably lower than the values in the often used coefficient tables. NOTATION A As C kSl n P Q R S v Cross-sectional area of the stream (m2) Water surface area (m2) Chzy's velocity coefficient (m"2 s"1) Strickler's velocity coefficient (m1/3 s"1) Manning's roughness coefficient (s m 4 ' 3 ) Wetted perimeter (m) Discharge (m3 s 4 ) Hydraulic radius (m) Slope (-) Mean velocity (m s"1)

INTRODUCTION Hydraulic calculations in torrents or mountainous brooks are based on information about channel shape, roughness and hydraulic radius. Especially in torrents, these three parameters can vary widely and even on short reaches. It is mostly difficult to separate the influences of channel shape variations from those of the roughness

226

Hanspeter Hodel et al.

elements. That is why the determination of the wetted perimeter, the cross-sectional area and the hydraulic radius in torrents is only feasible with subjective speculations. No practicable method exists for the estimation of the complex geometry of torrent beds. In addition, hydrological investigations in small catchments in Switzerland showed that the mean velocity in steep headwaters of mountainous river basins is usually lower than in the main stream (Storchenegger, 1984; Hodel, 1993; Hodel & Storchenegger, 1994; Hodel et ai, 1991). To calculate the water level and velocity of torrents a lot of scientists or engineers employ flow formulas such as the Chzy equation: v = C(R Sf5 (1) This equation is theoretically based on considerations of momentum equilibrium (gravity, friction) of a turbulent uniform flow. The hydraulic radius (R = A F 1 ) is obviously affected by the channel shape and the discharge. Gravity is represented by the cross-sectional area; friction (shear stress) by the wetted perimeter and the Chzy coefficient. The Chzy coefficient is usually expressed by the following equations: C = ks,Rm C = nl R'116 (2) (3)

PROCEDURE The new procedure deals with the quantitative evaluation of torrent shapes and roughness coefficients using the Strickler equation. This approach for a representative calculation of the extreme roughness is based on averaging the irregular bed geometry into a geometrically well determined "idealized" channel. The objective is to express these average values numerically in terms of the hydraulic radius and the Strickler coefficient. This approach may easily be adapted to the Manning's law or to the Darcy Weisbach's friction factor. The new approach mainly consists of replacing: (a) Cross-sections by "horizontal" sections represented by the water surfaces on a short but representative reach as a system response to the actual discharge by averaging the size of water in motion by photogrammetric measurements (Storchenegger, 1988). (b) Current meter measurements by the dilution method with salt or fluorescent dyes with the measurement of the mean velocity over a torrent reach. (c) Velocity-area profile by the concentration graph of tracer to determine the discharge. (d) Estimation of the Strickler coefficient from the grain-size distribution curve (lineby-number analysis) by the evaluation of the system response, kSt = v(Rm S1'2)'1. The new approach takes the effects of expansions and contractions of crosssections on the velocity coefficients and the widely varying torrent bed extents by the evolution of "idealized" mean cross-sections into consideration.

Estimation of extreme roughness in torrents by hydraulics and photogrammetry

227

DATA Photogrammetric image data acquisition at selected torrent reaches Photographs of the water surface were taken at suitable test stretches of selected torrents with two Rollei metric 6006 cameras (50 mm lens) using very photosensitive 6 by 6 cm2 slide films (Kodak Ektachrom, 400 ASA), while the measurement of the mean velocity and the discharge was simultaneously performed by the salt-dilution method. For the photogrammetric image acquisition, a special manufactured suspension for the cameras was placed above the torrent. To facilitate the orientation of the acquired stereo pair for the subsequent photogrammetric analysis on the Analytical Plotter Wild AC1, signal-plates were positioned in the photographed area. The signalized points were used as pass points for the orientation of the photos. Therefore, the signals were solidly fixed on firm ground and their positions were determined by geodetic measurements with a precision of 2 mm in planimetry and 1.5 mm in height. During the measurement of the discharge and the mean velocity, two or three stereo photographs were simultaneously acquired releasing the shutter of the synchronized cameras through an infrared remote control. Thus, a clear-cut temporal assignment of the discharge measurements to the corresponding photos was guaranteed, which is essential for the further data analysis. In the southern Swiss Alps, in Canton Valais (between Simplon Pass and Simplon Village), two torrent reaches were selected, which fulfil the hydrological, geodetic and photogrammetric requirements as discussed in Hodel (1993). For the first test reach, the camera suspension (an aluminium ladder with two rolls) was installed on a steel rope stretched between two trees above the torrent (Fig. 1). Both cameras were rigidly fixed to the ladder. The distance between the two apparatus was selectable up to 3.8 m. The ladder could be placed on the requested position above the torrent by pulling the positioning rope. To avoid heavy swinging

Fastening rope

Stone

"Stone
Torrent

Fig. 1 Photogrammetric camera set-up at torrent reach 1.

228

Hanspeter Hodel et al.

of the cameras due to the wind, the ladder was fixed on the ground by using two ropes at each end. For the second torrent stretch, a steep and narrow valley facilitated the installation of the steel rope, which was fixed on the ground at both sides of the valley. Photogrammetric measurements of the water surface In total, 60 colour photos per camera were acquired at different discharge levels. For the photogrammetric data processing, 10 stereo photos were selected, which met the two standard criteria: sufficient number of pass points imaged in the model area and no strong contrasts of light and shadow in the object. The selected images were processed on the Analytical Plotter Wild Aviolyt ACL After the determination of the interior and absolute orientation of each stereo photo, the bank line could be measured point by point in 3-D object space. Finally, the jointed bank lines were plotted and the area of the surface was calculated. The determined surfaces of the water at different gauge levels are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Results of the photogrammetric determination of the water surface area As. Measurement Torrent reach (-) Discharge Q (1 s1) Water surface As (m2) ' 2 3 1 1 1 2 519 529 549 44.49 44.86 45.60 4 220 30.15 5 2 220 30.32 6 2 241 29.50 7 2 247 30.02 8 2 247 29.81 9 2 342 36.96

Results of data acquisition The results of the photogrammetric investigations show that the determination of the water surface area fulfils the hydrological demands, especially if the relative change of this area is of interest. The precision of the measurement of the bank lines depends on the interpretation and definition of the water boundaries. Sometimes it was difficult to define the dividing line between water and moistened stones. Furthermore, these difficulties were increased by covered and underexposed places in the model area. In future projects, the colouring of the water or the use of infrared films could facilitate the measurement of the bank lines in the stereo pairs.

Salt-dilution method The salt-dilution method is the most qualified hydrometric method for the measurement of the discharge and the mean velocity in torrents. It is based on the injection of a known salt quantity and the registration of the conductivity graph. The most important parameter typifying the solute transport, the dispersion coefficient, is also obtained by this method. This parameter is of increasing importance for pollution control and risk management.

Estimation of extreme roughness in torrents by hydraulics and photogrammetry RESULTS With this new approach for extreme roughness, the Strickler velocity coefficients in the investigated torrent reaches are between 5 and 11 m1/3 s"1. These results indicate that the effective Strickler coefficients for torrents are considerably lower than the values in the often used coefficient tables. The Strickler coefficients are summarized in Table 2. Further important goal is to automate this procedure in order to avoid endangering the observation staff during flood peak flows.
Table 2 Strickler coefficients ks, of two torrent reaches; calculated with the new approach. Torrent reach (-) 1 2 2 Discharge (m3 s"1) 0.520-0.550 0.210-0.220 0.340-0.390 Mean velocity (m s"1) 0.34-0.35 0.55-0.58 0.67-0.68 kSl coefficient (m1/3 s~') 5-6 9-10 10-11

229

CONCLUSIONS Although the number of observations is small, the aptitude of this procedure has been proved. The observations, performed with a small range of discharge values, lead to considerably lower Strickler coefficients than the values commonly used for torrents. The following points are recommended for the future application of this approach: (a) Colour films (resolution: ASA 400 or higher, better: infrared films) for the better discrimination of the water surface against the torrent channel. (b) Photographs should be taken as close to vertical as possible. (c) In order to get observations over a wide range of discharge, the dilution method and photography should be performed automatically (Grunow, 1986). Improving and completing this approach by consecutive use at several sites could result in a new type of gauge. This gauge would provide not only hydrographs accompanied by a rating curve of a confined range of calibration values, but also Strickler or Manning coefficients for a wider range of discharges, "idealized" mean cross-sections of different types of torrents and dispersion coefficients. These characteristics may be useful for: (a) Comparison of channel capacity and excessive floods. (b) Designing the effects of regulations and constrictions. (c) Examination of the hydrological hypothesis (C Rm = constant) along streams. (d) Determination of travel times of pollution slushes caused by accident or disaster. REFERENCES
Grunow, H. G. (1986) The automatic measuring of travel times and the estimation of velocities in torrents (in German). Vermessung, Kulturtechnik, Photogrammetrie 84, 641-645. Hodel, H.-P. (1993) Investigations of the geomorphology, the roughness, the friction frag and the flow processes in torrents (in German with an English summary). Doctoral Thesis no. 9830, ETH Zurich.

230

Hanspeter Hodel et al.

Hodel, H.-P. & Storchenegger, I. (1994) A new formula for mean velocity in torrents. In: Proc. 1994 ASCE National Conference on Hydraulic Engineering, Sessions on Hydraulics of Mountain Rivers (Buffalo, New York), 667-671. Hodel, H.-P., Kersten, Th. P. & Hirner, P. (1991) Estimation of discharge coefficients of torrents by hydrometry and photogrammetry (in German). Vermessung, Phowgrammetrie, Kulturtechnik 89, 80-87. Storchenegger, I. (1984) Parameters of models for rainfall-run-off separation concerning the influences of time and space (in German with an English summary). Doctoral Thesis no. 7479, ETH Zurich. Storchenegger, I. (1988) Design of "natural" channels based on field investigations (in German with an English summary). In: Int. Symp. INTERPRAEVENT1988 (Graz), 397-407.