Overview

New Zealand
New Zealand
Aotearoa

Anthem: "God Defend New Zealand" "God Save the Queen"1

The hemisphere centred on

New Zealand

The hemisphere centred on New 1"God Save the Queen" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and vice-regal occasions. "New Zealand's National Anthems". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved 17 February 2008.. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved 17 February 2008.

Capital Largest city Official language(s) National language Ethnic groups

Wellington Auckland

4117S 17427E

Mori (4.2%)2 NZ Sign Language (0.6%) English (98%) 78% European/Other3 14.6% Mori 9.2% Asian 6.9% Pacific peoples New Zealander, Kiwi (colloquial) Parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy Monarch Governor-General Prime Minister 1st Parliament Dominion Statute of Westminster Elizabeth II Jerry Mateparae John Key from the United Kingdom4 25 May 1854 26 September 1907 11 December 1931 (adopted 25 November 1947) 13 December 1986 268,021 km2 (75th) 103,483 sq mi 1.65

Demonym Government

Independence -

Area -

Constitution Act 1986 Total Water (%)

2Language percentages add to more than 100% because some people speak more than one language. They exclude unusable responses and those who spoke no language (e.g. too young to talk). 3Ethnicity percentages add to more than 100% because some people identify with more than one ethnic group.Didham, Robert; Potter, Deb (April 2005). Understanding and Working with Ethnicity Data. Statistics New Zealand. ISBN 9780478315059. Archived from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 19 September 2010. 4There is a multitude of dates that could be considered to mark independence (see Independence of New Zealand). 5The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database, "The New Zealand Land Cover Database". New Zealand Land Cover Database 2. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment. 1 July 2009. . Retrieved 26 April 2011. is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 9249926033 19216) =

Population GDP (PPP) GDP (nominal) Gini (1997) HDI (2011) Currency Time zone Date formats Drives on the ISO 3166 code Internet TLD Calling code Summer (DST) Total Per capita Total Per capita September 2011 estimate 4,414,4006 (124th) 2006 census Density 4,027,9477 16.5/km2 (202nd) 42.7/sq mi 2010 estimate $117.807 billion8 (61st) $26,9669 (32nd) 2010 estimate $140.434 billion10 (51st) $32,14511 (24th) 36.212 (medium) 0.90813 (very high) (5th) New Zealand dollar (NZD) NZST14 (UTC+12) NZDT (UTC+13) (Sep to Apr) dd/mm/yyyy left NZ .nz15 +64

1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%. 6"National Population Estimates: September 2011 quarter". Statistics New Zealand. 14 November 2011. . Retrieved 15 November 2011. 7"QuickStats About New Zealand's Population and Dwellings: Population counts". 2006 Census. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. 8"New Zealand". International Monetary Fund. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. 9 10 11 12"Equality and inequality: Gini index". Human Development Report 2009. United Nations Development Programme. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. 13"Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. . Retrieved 2011-11-02. 14The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand. 15The territories of Niue, the Cook Islands and Tokelau have their own cctlds, .nu, .ck and .tk respectively.

New Zealand (Aotearoa in Mori) is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island) and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some 1500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly 1000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Due to its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long isolation New Zealand developed a distinctive fauna dominated by birds, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing underfoot. Polynesians settled New Zealand in 12501300 AD and developed a distinctive Mori culture, and Europeans first made contact in 1642 AD. The introduction of potatoes and muskets triggered upheaval among Mori early during the 19th century, which led to the inter-tribal Musket Wars. In 1840 the British and Mori signed a treaty making New Zealand a colony of the British Empire. Immigrant numbers increased sharply and conflicts escalated into the New Zealand Wars, which resulted in much Mori land being confiscated in the mid North Island. Economic depressions were followed by periods of political reform, with women gaining the vote during the 1890s, and a welfare state being established from the 1930s. After World War II, New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty, although the United States later suspended the treaty after New Zealand banned nuclear weapons. New Zealanders enjoyed one of the highest standards of living in the world in the 1950s, but the 1970s saw a deep recession, worsened by oil shocks and the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community. The country underwent major economic changes during the 1980s, which transformed it from a protectionist to a liberalised free-trade economy. Markets for New Zealand's agricultural exports have diversified greatly since the 1970s, with once-dominant exports of wool being overtaken by dairy products, meat, and recently wine. The majority of New Zealand's population is of European descent; the indigenous Mori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and non-Mori Polynesians. Mori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, with English predominant. Much of New Zealand's culture is derived from Mori and early British settlers. Early European art was dominated by landscapes and to a lesser extent portraits of Mori. A recent resurgence of Mori culture has seen their traditional arts of carving, weaving and tattooing become more mainstream. Many artists now combine Mori and Western techniques to create unique art forms. The country's culture has also been broadened by globalisation and increased immigration from the Pacific Islands and Asia. New Zealand's diverse landscape provides many opportunities for outdoor pursuits and has provided the backdrop for a number of big budget movies.

New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes; these have less autonomy than the country's long defunct provinces did. Nationally, executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. Queen Elizabeth II is the country's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General. The Queen's Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau (a dependent territory); the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing but in free association); and the Ross Dependency, New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation, Commonwealth of Nations, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and the United Nations.

Etymology
Detail from a 1657 map coastline of "Nova Zeelandia" showing the western

Aotearoa (often translated as "land of 16 the long white cloud") is the current Mori name for New Zealand, and is also used in New Zealand English. It is unknown whether Mori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.17 Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America.18 In 1645 Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.1920 British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.21

16King 2003, p. 41. 17Hay, Maclagan & Gordon 2008, p. 72. 18Wilson, John (March 2009). "European discovery of New Zealand Tasman's achievement". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 24 January 2011. 19Wilson, John (September 2007). "Tasmans achievement". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 16 February 2008. 20Mackay, Duncan (1986). "The Search For The Southern Land". In Fraser, B. The New Zealand Book Of Events. Auckland: Reed Methuen. pp. 5254. 21Zeeland is spelt "Zealand" in English and the Dutch regional language of Zeelandic. New Zealand's name is not derived from the Danish island Zealand.

Mori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-aMui (the fish of Mui) for the North Island and Te Wai Pounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.22 Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).23 In 1830 maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.24 The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, but there are now plans to do so.25 The board is also considering suitable Mori names,26 with Te Ika-a-Mui and Te Wai Pounamu the most likely choices according to the chairman of the Mori Language Commission.27

History
The Mori people are most that emigrated from Taiwan travelled east through to the of 70265 years a new wave discovery and settlement of likely descended from people to Melanesia and then Society Islands. After a pause of exploration led to the New Zealand.28

New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation29 and mitochondrial DNA variability within Mori populations30 suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,3132 concluding a long series of voyages through the southern
22Mein Smith 2005, p. 6. 23Brunner, Thomas (1851). The Great Journey: an expedition to explore the interior of the Middle Island, New Zealand, 1846-8. Royal Geographic Society. . 24McKinnon, Malcolm (November 2009). "Place names Naming the country and the main islands". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 24 January 2011. 25"Confusion over NZ islands' names". BBC News. 22 April 2009. . 26May Eriksen, Alanah (25 April 2009). "Name quest unveils historic titles". The New Zealand Herald. . 27Davison, Isaac (22 April 2009). "North and South Islands officially nameless". The New Zealand Herald. . 28Wilmshurst, Janet M.; Hunt, Terry L.; Lipo, Carl P.; Anderson, Atholl J. (2011). "High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (5): 1815 1820. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015876108. 29McGlone, M. (1999). "Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand". Quaternary International 59: 50. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(98)00067-6. 30Murray-McIntosh, Rosalind P.; Scrimshaw, Brian J.; Hatfield, Peter J.; Penny, David (1998). "Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95 (15): 904752. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047. 31 32Wilmshurst, J. M.; Anderson, A. J.; Higham, T. F. G.; Worthy, T. H. (2008). "Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105: 7676. Bibcode 2008PNAS..105.7676W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801507105.

Pacific islands.33 Over the centuries that followed these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Mori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hap (subtribes) which would cooperate, compete and sometimes fight with each other. At some point a group of Mori migrated to the Chatham Islands (which they named Rkohu) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.3435 The Moriori population was decimated between 1835 and 1862, largely due to Mori invasion and enslavement, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.36 The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.37 In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Mori was hit by canister shot.38 Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.39 Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, food, artefacts, water, and on occasion sex.40 The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Mori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.41 The resulting inter-tribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing between 30,00040,000 Mori.42 From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Mori population.43 The Mori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.44
The Waitangi sheet from the Treaty of Waitangi

33Moodley, Y.; Linz, B.; Yamaoka, Y.; Windsor, H. M.; Breurec, S.; Wu, J. -Y.; Maady, A.; Bernhoft, S. et al. (2009). "The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective". Science 323 (5913): 527. Bibcode 2009Sci...323..527M. doi:10.1126/science.1166083. PMC 2827536. PMID 19164753. 34Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Mori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas. The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123135. 35Davis, Denise (September 2007). "The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 36Davis, Denise; Solomon, Mui (March 2009). "'Moriori The impact of new arrivals'". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 23 March 2011. 37Mein Smith 2005, p. 23. 38Salmond, Anne. Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Maori and Europeans 16421772. Auckland: Penguin Books. p. 82. ISBN 0670832987. 39 40King 2003, p. 122. 41Fitzpatrick, John (2004). "Food, warfare and the impact of Atlantic capitalism in Aotearo/New Zealand". Australasian Political Studies Association Conference: APSA 2004 Conference Papers. . 42Brailsford, Barry (1972). Arrows of Plague. Wellington: Hick Smith and Sons. p. 35. ISBN 0456010602. 43Wagstrom, Thor (2005). "Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts". In Brock, Peggy. Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 71 and 73. ISBN 9789004138995. 44Lange, Raeburn (1999). May the people live: a history of Mori health development 1900 1920. Auckland University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9781869402143.

The British government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 183245 and in 1835, following an announcement of impending French sovereignty, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.46 Ongoing unrest and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the British Crown and negotiate a treaty with the Mori.47 The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 48 February 1840. In response to the commercially run New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington49 and French settlers "purchasing" land 50 in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating.51 With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.52

45Rutherford, James (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Busby, James". In McLintock, Alexander. from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 46 47McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Sir George Gipps". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 48Wilson, John (March 2009). "Government and nation The origins of nationhood". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 49McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Settlement from 1840 to 1852". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 50Foster, Bernard (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Akaroa, French Settlement At". In McLintock, Alexander. from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 51Simpson, K (September 2010). "Hobson, William Biography". In McLintock, Alexander. from the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 52Phillips, Jock (April 2010). "British immigration and the New Zealand Company". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011.

New Zealand, originally part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Crown colony in 1841.53 The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the 1st New Zealand Parliament met in 1854.54 In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy. (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)55 Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait.56 Wellington was chosen due to its harbour and central location, with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Mori land.57 In 1893 the country became the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote58 and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.59

53"Crown colony era the Governor-General". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. March 2009. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 54Wilson, John (March 2009). "Government and nation The constitution". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 2 February 2011. 55 56Temple, Philip (1980). Wellington Yesterday. John McIndoe. ISBN 0-86868-012-5. 57"New Zealand's 19th-century wars overview". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. April 2009. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 58Wilson., John (March 2009). "History Liberal to Labour". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 2 February 2011. 59Boxall, Peter; Haynes, Peter (1997). "Strategy and Trade Union Effectiveness in a Neo-liberal Environment" (PDF). British Journal of Industrial Relations 35 (4): 567591. doi:10.1111/14678543.00069. .

In 1907 New Zealand declared itself a Dominion within the British Empire and in 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, making New Zealand a Commonwealth realm.60 New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting alongside the British Empire in the first and second World Wars61 and suffering through the Great Depression.62 The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.63 New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II64 and Mori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.65 A Mori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Mori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi.66 In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.67 The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Mori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.

Politics
John Key, the New Zealand Prime Minister

60 61"War and Society". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 62Easton, Brian (April 2010). "Economic history Interwar years and the great depression". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 63Derby, Mark (May 2010). "Strikes and labour disputes Wars, depression and first Labour government". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 1 February 2011. 64Easton, Brian (November 2010). "Economic history Great boom, 19351966". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 1 February 2011. 65Keane, Basil (November 2010). "Te Mori i te ohanga Mori in the economy Urbanisation". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 66Royal, Te Ahukaram (March 2009). "Mori Urbanisation and renaissance". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 1 February 2011. 67

Government
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy,68 although its constitution is not codified.69 Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state.70 The Queen is represented by the GovernorGeneral,71 whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister.72 The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers (such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of Cabinet ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials)73 and in rare situations, the reserve powers (the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law).74 The powers of the Queen and the GovernorGeneral are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet.7576

Elizabeth II

Sir Jerry Mateparae

68"Queen and New Zealand". The British Monarchy. . Retrieved 28 April 2010. 69"Factsheet New Zealand Political Forces". The Economist. 15 February 2005. . Retrieved 4 August 2009. 70"New Zealand Legislation: Royal Titles Act 1974". New Zealand Government. February 1974. . Retrieved 8 January 2011. 71"The Governor General of New Zealand". Official website of the Governor General. . Retrieved 8 January 2011. 72"The Queen's role in New Zealand". The British Monarchy. . Retrieved 28 April 2010. 73Harris, Bruce (2009). "Replacement of the Royal Prerogative in New Zealand". New Zealand Universities Law Review 23: 285314. . 74"The Reserve Powers". Governor General. . Retrieved 8 January 2011. 75 76"How Parliament works: What is Parliament?". New Zealand Parliament. 28 June 2010. . Retrieved 8 January 2011.

The Parliament of New Zealand holds legislative power and consists of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor-General) and the House of Representatives.77 It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.78 The supremacy of the House over the Sovereign was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.79 The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.80 If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured. The GovernorGeneral appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.81 Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policymaking body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.82 By convention, members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet.83 Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government.84 This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.85 The Privy Council in London was the country's final court of appeal until 2004, when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand. The judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice,86 includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.87
New Zealand government Buildings (right), in "Beehive" and the Parliament Wellington

77 78 79 80 81"How Parliament works: People in Parliament". New Zealand Parliament. August 2006. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 82Wilson, John (November 2010). "Government and nation System of government". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 83"Cabinet Manual: Cabinet". Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. 2008. . Retrieved 2 March 2011. 84 85"The Judiciary". Ministry of Justice. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 86"The Current Chief Justice". Courts of New Zealand. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 87

Almost all parliamentary general elections between 1853 and 1996 were held under the first past the post voting system.88 The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.89 Since 1996, a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) has been used.90 Under the MMP system each person has two votes; one is for the 65 electoral seats (including seven reserved for Mori), and the other is for a party. The remaining 55 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats. Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land (Head of State, Governor-General, Prime Minister, Speaker and Chief Justice) were occupied simultaneously by women.91

Foreign relations and the military

Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.92 The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties, with the first successful commercial treaty being with Japan in 1928. Despite this independence New Zealand readily followed Britain in declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939 with then Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."93
Mori Battalion haka in Egypt, 1941

88"First past the post the road to MMP". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2009. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 89 90 91Collins, Simon (May 2005). "Women run the country but it doesn't show in pay packets". The New Zealand Herald. . 92McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "External Relations". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 93"Michael Joseph Savage". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. . Retrieved 29 January 2011.

In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,94 while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.95 The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,96 the failure of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,97 disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.9899 Despite the USA's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.100 Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.101 Currently over 500,000 New Zealanders live in Australia and 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand.102

94Patman, Robert (2005). "Globalisation, Sovereignty, and the Transformation of New Zealand Foreign Policy" (PDF). Working Paper 21/05. Centre for Strategic Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. p. 8. . Retrieved 12 March 2007. 95"Department Of External Affairs: Security Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America". Australian Government. September 1951. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 96"The Vietnam War". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. June 2008. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 97"Sinking the Rainbow Warrior nuclear-free New Zealand". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2008. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 98"Nuclear-free legislation nuclear-free New Zealand". New Zealand History Online. August 2008. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 99Lange, David (1990). Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way. New Zealand: Penguin Books. ISBN 0140145192. 100"Australia in brief". Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 101"New Zealand country brief". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 102

New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.103 Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year. A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.104 New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).105 New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations,106 the Commonwealth of Nations,107 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development108 and the Five Powers Defence Arrangements.109
Infantry from the 2nd in the Battle of the Somme, Battalion, Auckland Regiment September 1916.

The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand 110 Air Force. New Zealand's national defence needs are modest due to the unlikelihood of direct attack,111 although it does have a global presence. The country fought in both world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,112 El Alamein113 and Cassino.114 The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand's national identity115116 and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia.117
103Bertram, Geoff (April 2010). "South Pacific economic relations Aid, remittances and tourism". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 104Howes, Stephen (November 2010). "Making migration work: Lessons from New Zealand". Development Policy Centre. . Retrieved 23 March 2011. 105 106"Member States of the United Nations". United Nations. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 107"The Commonwealth in the Pacific". Commonwealth of Nations. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 108"Members and partners". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 109"New Zealand Embassy Washington, United States of America: Defence relations". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 110"Welcome to NZDF". New Zealand Defence Force. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 111Ayson, Robert (2007). "New Zealand Defence and Security Policy,19902005". In Alley, Roderic. New Zealand In World Affairs, Volume IV: 19902005. Wellington: Victoria University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780864735485. 112"The Battle for Crete". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May 2010. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 113"El Alamein The North African Campaign". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May-2009. . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 114Holmes, Richard (September 2010). "World War Two: The Battle of Monte Cassino". . Retrieved 9 January 2011. 115"Gallipoli stirred new sense of national identity says Clark". New Zealand Herald. April 2005. . 116Prideaux, Bruce (2007). Ryan, Chris. ed. Battlefield tourism: history, place and interpretation. Elsevier Science. p. 18. ISBN 978-0080453620. 117Burke, Arthur. "The Spirit of ANZAC". ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee. . Retrieved

According to Mary Edmond-Paul, "World War I had left scars on New Zealand society, with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war, more than 41,000 wounded, and others affected emotionally, out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million."118 New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate119 and the Battle of Britain air campaign.120121 During World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.122 In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Korean War, the Second Boer War,123 the Malayan Emergency,124 the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War. It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the IranIraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.125 New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War.

Local government and external territories

Realm of New Zealand

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of 126 autonomy. Due to financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were 127 abolished in 1876. As a result, New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities. The provinces are remembered in regional

11 January 2011. 118Mary Edmond-Paul (2008). Lighted windows: critical essays on Robin Hyde . Otago University Press. p.77. ISBN 1877372587 119"New Zealand and the Battle of River Plate". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. . Retrieved 29 January 2011. 120"Airmen from New Zealand who took part in the Battle of Britain". The Battle of Britain London Monument. . Retrieved 10 January 2011. 121"New Zealand's contribution The Battle of Britain". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2010. . Retrieved 10 January 2011. 122"Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs Background Note: New Zealand". US Department of State. August 2010. . Retrieved 10 January 2011. 123"South African War 18991902". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. February 2009. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 124"NZ and the Malayan Emergency". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2010. . Retrieved 11 January 2011. 125"New Zealand Defence Force Overseas Operations". New Zealand Defence Force. January 2008. Archived from the original on 25 January 2008. . Retrieved 17 February 2008. 126"New Zealand's Nine Provinces (185376)". Friends of the Hocken Collections. March 2000. . Retrieved 13 January 2011. 127McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Provincial Divergencies". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011.

public holidays128 and sporting rivalries.129 Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.130131 In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.132 The 249 municipalities133 that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.134 The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",135 while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.136 Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.137 The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.138

128"Public holidays". New Zealand Department of Labour. . Retrieved 2 April 2011. 129"Overview regional rugby". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2010. . Retrieved 13 January 2011. 130 131Dollery, Brian; Keogh, Ciaran; Crase, Lin (2007). "Alternatives to Amalgamation in Australian Local Government: Lessons from the New Zealand Experience". Sustaining Regions 6 (1): 50 69. . 132Sancton, Andrew (2000). Merger mania: the assault on local government. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0773521631. 133 134"Subnational population estimates at 30 June 2010 (boundaries at 1 November 2010)". Statistics New Zealand. 26 October 2010. . Retrieved 2 April 2011. 135 136Smelt, Roselynn; Jui Lin, Yong (2009). New Zealand. Cultures of the World (2nd ed.). New York: Marshall Cavendish. p. 33. ISBN 9780761434153. 137"Unitary Authority". Far North District Council. . Retrieved 29 January 2011. 138"Minutes of the Statutory Meeting of the Chatham Islands Council". Chatham Islands Council. October 2010. . Retrieved 29 January 2011.

The Realm of New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the commonwealth139140 and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue.141 The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.142143 The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).144145 The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.146 New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens. Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards.147

Environment
Geography
See also: Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
The snow-capped Southern Alps dominate the South Island, while the North Island's Northland Peninsula stretches towards the subtropics.

139"What is a Commonwealth Realm?". Royal Household. . Retrieved 6 October 2009. 140"New Zealands Constitution". The Governor-General of New Zealand. . Retrieved 13 January 2010. 141 142"System of Government". Government of Niue. . Retrieved 13 January 2010. 143"Government Structure, Personnel". Government of the Cook Islands. . Retrieved 13 January 1010. 144"Tourism, Travel, & Information Guide to the New Zealand Territory of Tokelau". Tokelau.com. . Retrieved 13 January 2010. 145"Government". Tokelau Government. . Retrieved 13 January 2010. 146"Scott Base". Antarctica New Zealand. . Retrieved 13 January 2010. 147"Am I a New Zealand Citizen?". New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs. . Retrieved 3 March 2011.

New Zealand is made up a number of smaller centre of the water North and South Islands Cook Strait, 22 at its narrowest point.148 South Islands, the five are Stewart Island, the Barrier Island (in the d'Urville Island (in the and Waiheke Island from central country's islands lie and 53S, and 176E.

of two main islands and islands, located near the hemisphere. The main are separated by the kilometres (14 mi) wide Besides the North and largest inhabited islands Chatham Islands, Great Hauraki Gulf),149 Marlborough Sounds)150 (about 22 km (14 mi) Auckland).151 The between latitudes 29 longitudes 165 and

New Zealand is long (over 1600 kilometres (990 mi) along its northnorth-east axis) and narrow (a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),152 with approximately 15134 km (9404 mi) of coastline153 and a total land area of 268021 square kilometres ( sq mi)154 Due to its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its Exclusive Economic Zone, one of the largest in the world, covers more than 15 times its land area.155

148McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "The Sea Floor". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 13 January 2011. 149"Hauraki Gulf islands". Auckland City Council. . Retrieved 13 January 2011. 150Hindmarsh (2006). "Discovering D'Urville". Heritage New Zealand. . Retrieved 13 January 2011. 151"Distance tables". Auckland Coastguard. . Retrieved 2 March 2011. 152McKenzie, D. W. (1987). Heinemann New Zealand atlas. Heinemann Publishers. ISBN 079000187X. 153"The World Factbook New Zealand". CIA. 15 November 2007. . Retrieved 30 November 2007. 154"Geography". Statistics New Zealand. 1999. . Retrieved 21 December 2009. 155(PDF) Offshore Options: Managing Environmental Effects in New Zealand's Exclusive Economic Zone. Wellington: Ministry for the Environment. 2005. ISBN 0-478-25916-6. .

The South Island is the largest land mass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.156 There are 18 peaks over 3000 metres (9800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki/Mount Cook at 3754 metres (12316 ft).157 Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island.158 The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.159 The highly active Taupo volcanic zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2797 metres (9177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo,160 nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.161
Abel Tasman National Park in the South Island

156Coates, Glen (2002). The rise and fall of the Southern Alps. Canterbury University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0908812930. 157Garden 2005, p. 52. 158Grant, David (March 2009). "Southland places Fiordlands coast". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 14 January 2011. 159"Central North Island volcanoes". Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 14 January 2011. 160Walrond, Carl (March 2009). "Natural environment Geography and geology". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 14 January 2010. 161"Taupo". GNS Science. . Retrieved 2 April 2011.

The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and IndoAustralian Plates.162 New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.163 About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches164 further north.165

162Lewis, Keith; Nodder, Scott; Carter, Lionel (March 2009). "Sea floor geology Active plate boundaries". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 163Wallis, G. P.; Trewick, S. A. (2009). "New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent". Molecular Ecology 18 (17): 35483580. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x. PMID 19674312. 164Wright, Dawn; Bloomer, Sherman; MacLeod, Christopher; Taylor, Brian; Goodliffe, Andrew (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series". Marine Geophysical Researches 21 (5): 489512. doi:10.1023/A:1026514914220. 165

Climate
New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 C (50 F) in the south to 16 C (61 F) in the north.166 Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 C (108.3 F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and 25.6 C (14.08 F) in Ranfurly, Otago.167 Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.168 Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Auckland the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.169 Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average in excess of 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,4001,600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive approximately 2,4002,500 hours.170

Biodiversity
The endemic flightless kiwi is a national icon.

166Mullan, Brett; Tait, Andrew; Thompson, Craig (March 2009). "Climate New Zealands climate". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 January 2011. 167"Summary of New Zealand climate extremes". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. 2004. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 168Walrond, Carl (March 2009). "Natural environment Climate". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 January 2011. 169"Mean monthly rainfall" (XLS). National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 170"Mean monthly sunshine hours" (XLS). National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. . Retrieved 4 February 2011.

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years171 and island biogeography is responsible for the country's unique species of flora and fauna. They have either evolved from Gondwanan wildlife or the few organisms that have managed to reach the shores flying, swimming or being carried across the sea.172 About 82 percent of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants173 are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single family.174175 The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.176 The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.177 Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.178 Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.179 Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land.180 The forests were dominated by birds, and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi, kakapo and takah evolving flightlessness.181 The arrival of humans, associated changes to habitat, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.182183

171Cooper, R.; Millener, P. (1993). "The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8: 429. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9. 172Lindsey, Terence; Morris, Rod (2000). Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife. HarperCollins (New Zealand) Limited. p. 14. ISBN 9781869503000. 173New Zealand has approximately 4,000 indigenous species of lichens and other non-vascular plants, and only 40 percent of these are endemic.Wassilieff, Maggy (March 2009). "Lichens Lichens in New Zealand". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 16 January 2011. 174"Frequently asked questions about New Zealand plants". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. May 2010. . Retrieved 15 January 2011. 175Rolfe, Peter; Sawyer, John (2006). New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. ISBN 0-473-11306-6. 176McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2010) [originally published in 1966]. "Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 January 2011. 177Mark, Alan (March 2009). "Grasslands Tussock grasslands". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 17 January 2010. 178"Commentary on Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region (A Review for Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Thailand and Western Samoa)". Forestry Department. 1997. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 179McGlone, M.S. (1989). "The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes". New Zealand Journal of Ecology 12(S): 115129. . 180Taylor, R. and Smith, I. (1997). The state of New Zealands environment 1997. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington. 181"New Zealand ecology: Flightless birds". TerraNature. . Retrieved 17 January 2011. 182Holdaway, Richard (March 2009). "Extinctions New Zealand extinctions since human arrival". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 183Kirby, Alex (January 2005). "Huge eagles 'dominated NZ skies'". BBC News. .

Burnt forest near Levin,

cleared for farming in 1909

Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuataras, skinks and geckos),184 frogs, spiders (katipo), insects (weta) and 185186 snails. Some, such as the wrens and tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils. Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized 187188 land mammal at least 16 million years old. Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.189 Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.190 More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.191 Since human arrival almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, four plant species, and one bat.192 Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.193 However New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas.194195196197

184"Tuatara". Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 17 January 2011. 185Ryan, Paddy (March 2009). "Snails and slugs Flax snails, giant snails and veined slugs". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 186"Native Animals". Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 17 January 2011. 187"Tiny Bones Rewrite Textbooks, first New Zealand land mammal fossil". University of New South Wales. 31 May 2007. Archived from the original on 31 May 2007. . 188Worthy, Trevor H.; Tennyson, Alan J. D.; Archer, Michael; Musser, Anne M.; Hand, Suzanne J.; Jones, Craig; Douglas, Barry J.; McNamara, James A. et al. (2006). "Miocene mammal reveals a Mesozoic ghost lineage on insular New Zealand, southwest Pacific". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (51): 1941923. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605684103. 189"Marine Mammals". Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 17 January 2011. 190"Sea & shore birds". New Zealand Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. 191"Penguins". New Zealand Department of Conservation. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. 192 193 194Jones, Carl (2002). "Reptiles and Amphibians". Handbook of ecological restoration: Principles of Restoration. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN 0521791286. 195Towns, D.; Ballantine, W. (1993). "Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8: 452. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E. 196Rauzon, Mark (2008). "Island restoration: Exploring the past, anticipating the future". Marine Ornithology 35: 97107. . 197Diamond, Jared (1990). Towns, D; Daugherty, C; Atkinson, I. eds. New Zealand as an archipelago: An international perspective. Wellington: Conservation Sciences Publication No. 2. Department of Conservation. pp. 38. .

Economy
New Zealand has a modern, prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita of roughly US$28,250.198 The currency is the New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar"; it also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.199 New Zealand was ranked the 3rd "most developed" country in 2010 according to the United Nations Development Programme's Human Development Index,200 4th in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom published by The Heritage Foundation.201
Milford Sound, one of New tourist destinations202 Zealand's most famous

198PPP GDP estimates from different organisations vary. The International Monetary Fund's estimate is US$27,420. "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". International Monetary Fund. October 2010. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. The CIA World Factbook estimate is $28,000. "GDP per capita (PPP)". The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. The World Bank's estimate is US$29,352. "GDP per capita (current US$)". World Bank. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 199"Currencies of the territories listed in the BS exchange rate lists". Bank of Slovenia. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 200"Human Development Index and components" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. . Retrieved 3 March 2011. 201"2011 Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal. . Retrieved 15 January 2011. 202"NZ tops Travellers' Choice Awards". Stuff Travel. May 2008. . Retrieved 30 April 2010.

Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.203 With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.204 High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.205 In 1973 New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community206 and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression.207 Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest percapita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.208 Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.209210

203"Historical evolution and trade patterns". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 1966. . Retrieved 10 February 2011. 204Stringleman, Hugh; Peden, Robert (October 2009). "Sheep farming Growth of the frozen meat trade, 18822001". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 6 May 2010. 205Baker, John (February 2010) [originally published in 1966]. "Some Indicators of Comparative Living Standards". In McLintock, Alexander. from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 330 April 2010. Table pdf downloadable from [0] 206Wilson, John (March 2009). "History The later 20th century". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 2 February 2011. 207Nixon, Chris; Yeabsley, John (April 2010). "Overseas trade policy Difficult times the 1970s and early 1980s". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 208Evans, N.. "Up From Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review 46 (16): 4751. 209Easton, Brian (November 2010). "Economic history Government and market liberalisation". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 1 February 2011. 210Hazledine, Tim (1998) (PDF). Taking New Zealand Seriously: The Economics of Decency. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 1869502833. .

Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992,211 following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).212 The global financial crisis that followed however had a major impact on New Zealand with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,213214 and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.215 The unemployment rate for youth was 17.4% in the June 2011 quarter.216 New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s217 that still continue today.218 Nearly one quarter of highly-skilled workers live overseas, most in Australia and Britain, the most from any developed nation.219 In recent years, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries.220221

211"Unemployment". 2010 Social report. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 212Bingham, Eugene (7 April 2008). "The miracle of full employment". The New Zealand Herald. . Retrieved 17 September 2008. 213"New Zealand Takes a Pause in Cutting Rates". The New York Times. 10 June 2009. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 214"New Zealand's slump longest ever". BBC News. 26 June 2009. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 215Bascand, Geoff (February 2011). "Household Labour Force Survey: December 2010 quarter Media Release". Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 216" Employment and Unemployment June 2011 Quarter". NZ Department of Labour. 217Davenport, Sally (2004). "Panic and panacea: brain drain and science and technology human capital policy". Research Policy 33 (4): 617630. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.006. . 218O'Hare, Sean (September 2010). "New Zealand brain-drain worst in world". The Telegraph (United Kingdom). . 219Collins, Simon (March 2005). "Quarter of NZ's brightest are gone". New Zealand Herald. . 220Winkelmann, Rainer (2000). "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s". The International Migration Review (The Center for Migration Studies of New York) 33 (1): 3358. doi:10.2307/2676011. JSTOR 2676011. Journal subscription required 221Bain 2006, p. 44.

Trade
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,222 particularly in agricultural products.223 Exports account for a high 24 percent of its output,224 making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Its principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing, forestry and mining, which make up about half of the country's exports.225 Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom.226 On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.227228 The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.229 Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy, contributing $15.0 billion to New Zealands total GDP and supporting 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010.230 International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010231 and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.232
Wool has historically been exports. one of New Zealand's major

Wool was New Zealands major agricultural export during the late 19th century.233 Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,234 but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities235 and wool is no longer profitable 236 for many farmers. In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows 237 doubling between 1990 and 2007, to become New Zealand's largest export
222Groser, Tim (March, 2009). "Speech to ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Agreement Seminars". New Zealand Government. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 223"Improving Access to Markets:Agriculture". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 224 225"New Zealand Economic and Financial Overview 2010: Industrial Structure and Principal Economic Sectors". New Zealand Treasury. April 2010. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 226 227O'Sullivan, Fran (April 2008). "Trade agreement just the start Clark". The New Zealand Herald. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 228"China and New Zealand sign free trade deal". The New York Times. April 2008. . 229 230"Key Tourism Statistics" (PDF). Ministry of Tourism. April 2010. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 231"International-Visitor-Arrivals Commentary". Tourismresearch. . Retrieved 20 January 2011. 232 233 234 235Easton, Brian (March 2009). "Economy Agricultural production". . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 236Stringleman, Hugh; Peden, Robert (March 2009). "Sheep farming Changes from the 20th century". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 237Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (November 2009). "Dairying and dairy products Dairying in the 2000s". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011.

earner.238 In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports,239 and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.240 Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,241 overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.242243

238Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (March 2009). "Dairying and dairy products Dairy exports". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 239"Global New Zealand International Trade, Investment, and Travel Profile: Year ended June 2009 Key Points". Statistics New Zealand. June 2009. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 240Stringleman, Hugh; Scrimgeour, Frank (March 2009). "Dairying and dairy products Manufacturing and marketing in the 2000s". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 241Dalley, Bronwyn (March 2009). "Wine The wine boom, 1980s and beyond". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 242"Wine in New Zealand". The Economist. March 2008. . 243"Agricultural and forestry exports from New Zealand: Primary sector export values for the year ending June 2010". New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. 14 January 2011. . Retrieved 8 April 2011.

Infrastructure
In 2008, oil, gas and coal generated approximately 69 percent of New Zealand's gross energy supply and 31% was generated from renewable energy, primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power.244 New Zealand's transport network includes 93805 kilometres (58288 mi) of roads, worth 23 billion dollars,245 and 4128 kilometres (2565 mi) of railway lines.246 Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.247 The railways were privatised in 1993, then re-purchased by the government in 2004 and vested into a state owned enterprise.248 Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.249 Most international visitors arrive via air250 and New Zealand has seven international airports, although currently only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.251 The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1989 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.252 Telecom still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased.253

Demography
New Zealand's historical population (black) and projected growth (red)

The population of New Zealand is approximately 4.4 million.254 New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.255 New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer
244"Energy Data File 2009". Ministry for Economic Development. July 2009. . 245"Frequently Asked Questions". New Zealand Transport Agency. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 246"CIA The World Factbook New Zealand". . Retrieved 18 September 2009. 247Humphris, Adrian (April 2010). "Public transport Passenger trends". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 248Atkinson, Neill (November 2010). "Railways Rail transformed". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 249Atkinson, Neill (April 2010). "Railways Freight transport". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 250"International Visitors" (PDF). Ministry of Economic Development. June 2009. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 251"10. Airports". Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit. Ministry of Economic Development. December 2005. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 252"Overview of the New Zealand Telecommunications Market 19871997". Ministry of Economic Development. November 2005. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 253Budde, Paul. "New Zealand Telecommunications Major Players". Budde Comm. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. 254"Estimated resident population of New Zealand". Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 January 2011. The population clock updates every 10 minutes. 255"Subnational population estimates at 30 June 2009". Statistics New Zealand. 30 June 2007. . Retrieved 30 April 2010.

Quality of Life Survey256 The life expectancy of a in 2008 was 82.4 years years for males.257 Life forecast to increase years in 2050 and infant decline.258 In 2050 the reach 5.3 million, the 36 years to 43 years and 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 New Zealand child born for females, and 78.4 expectancy at birth is from 80 years to 85 mortality is expected to population is forecast to median age to rise from the percentage of people percent.259

Ethnicity and immigration

In the 2006 census, 67.6 percent identified ethnically as European and 14.6 percent as Mori.260 Other major ethnic groups include Asian (9.2 percent) and Pacific peoples (6.9 percent), while 11.1 percent identified themselves simply as a "New Zealander" (or similar) and 1 percent identified with other ethnicities.261262 This contrasts with 1961, when the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Mori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.263 While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally264 and by locals.265 The Mori loanword Pkeh usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this appellation,266267 and some Mori use it to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.268
256"Mercer 2010 Quality of Living survey highlights Global". Mercer. May 2010. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 257"Commentary". Births and Deaths: December 2009 quarter. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 April 2010. 258Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (PDF). World Population Prospects. 2008 revision. United Nations. . Retrieved 29 August 2009. 259 260"Ethnic groups in New Zealand". 2006 Census QuickStats National highlights. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 18 January 2011. 261"Cultural diversity". 2006 Census QuickStats National highlights. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 262When completing the census people could select more than one ethnic group (for instance, 53 percent of Mori identified solely as Mori, while the remainder also identified with one or more other ethnicities). "Mori Ethnic Population / Te Momo Iwi Mori". QuickStats About Mori, Census 2006. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 263"Ethnic mix changing rapidly". New Zealand Herald. October 2010. . 264Dalby, Simon (1993). "The Kiwi disease: geopolitical discourse in Aotearoa/New Zealand and the South Pacific". Political Geography 12: 437988. doi:10.1016/0962-6298(93)90012-V. 265Callister, Paul (2004). "Seeking an Ethnic Identity: Is "New Zealander" a Valid Ethnic Category?". New Zealand Population Review 30 (1&2): 522. . 266Misa, Tapu (8 March 2006). "Ethnic Census status tells the whole truth". New Zealand Herald. . 267"Draft Report of a Review of the Official Ethnicity Statistical Standard: Proposals to Address the New Zealander Response Issue" (PDF). Statistics New Zealand. April 2009. . Retrieved 18 January 2011. 268Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Mori News. . Retrieved 20 February

New Zealand's fastest Asian. Here, lion dancers Lantern Festival.

growing ethnic groups are perform at the Auckland

The Mori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia due to restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies.269 There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,270 Italian, and German immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.271 Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 200910, an annual target of 45,00050,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Servicemore than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.272 Twenty-three percent of New Zealand's population were born overseas, most of whom live in the Auckland region.273 While most have still come from the United Kingdom and Ireland (29 percent), immigration from East Asia (mostly mainland China, but with substantial numbers also from Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and Hong Kong) is rapidly increasing the number of people from those countries.274 The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.275

2008. 269Socidad Peruana de Medicina Intensiva (SOPEMI) (2000). Trends in international migration: continuous reporting system on migration. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. pp. 276278. 270Walrond, Carl (21 September 2007). "Dalmatians". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 271"New Zealand Peoples". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 272"International Migration Outlook New Zealand 2009/10". New Zealand Department of Labour. 2010. p. 2. ISSN 1179-5085. . Retrieved 16 April 2011. 273"QuickStats About Culture and Identity: Birthplace and people born overseas". Statistics New Zealand. March 2006. . Retrieved 19 January 2011. 274For the percentages: "QuickStats About Culture and Identity Birthplace and people born overseas". 2006 Census. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. For further detail within East Asia: "Culture and identity Birthplace". 2006 Census Population and dwellings tables. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 275Butcher, Andrew; McGrath, Terry (2004). "International Students in New Zealand: Needs and Responses". International Education Journal 5 (4). .

Language
English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 98 percent of the population.276 New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.277 After the Second World War, Mori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Mori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.278 It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,279280 being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,281 and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population.282 There are now Mori language immersion schools and two Mori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Mori.283 Many places have officially been given dual Maori and English names in recent years. Samoan is one of the most widely spoken languages in New Zealand (2.3 percent),284 followed by French, Hindi, Yue and Northern Chinese.285286287 New Zealand Sign Language is used by approximately 28,000 people and was made New Zealand's second official language in 2006.288
A Ratana church

276"QuickStats About Culture and Identity: Languages spoken". Statistics New Zealand. March 2006. . Retrieved 20 February 2008. 277Hay, Maclagan & Gordon 2008, p. 14. 278Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders Bicultural New Zealand". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 279"Mori Language Week Te Wiki o Te Reo Maori". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved February 2008. 280Squires, Nick (May 2005). "British influence ebbs as New Zealand takes to talking Mori". The Telegraph (Great Britain). . 281"Waitangi Tribunal claim Mori Language Week". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. . Retrieved 19 January 2011. 282 283"Mori Television Launches 100 percent Mori Language Channel". Mori Television. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 284Of the 85,428 people that replied they spoke Samoan in the 2006 Census, 57,828 lived in the Auckland region. 285 286"2006 Census Data QuickStats About Culture and Identity Tables" (XLS). 2006 Census. Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. In tables 28 (Religious Affiliation) and 19 (Languages Spoken by Ethnic Group) 287Languages listed here are those spoken by over 40,000 New Zealanders. 288New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 No 18 (as at 30 June 2008), Public Act New Zealand Legislation. Legislation.govt.nz (2008-06-30). Retrieved on 2011-11-29.

Education and
Primary and secondary for children aged 6 to attending from the age school years and is free. New Zealand has 99 percent,290 and over aged 15 to 29 hold a qualification.291292 There government-owned universities, colleges of specialist colleges, and private training adult population bachelor's degree or have some form of as their highest 22.4 percent have no

religion
schooling is compulsory 16, with the majority of 5.289 There are 13 attending public schools an adult literacy rate of half of the population tertiary are five types of tertiary institutions: education, polytechnics, wnanga,293 and also establishments.294 In the 14.2 percent have a higher, 30.4 percent secondary qualification qualification and formal qualification.295

289Dench, Olivia (July 2010). "Education Statistics of New Zealand: 2009". Education Counts. . Retrieved 19 January 2011. 290 291 292Tertiary education in New Zealand is used to describe all aspects of post-school education and training. Its ranges from informal non-assessed community courses in schools through to undergraduate degrees and advanced, research-based postgraduate degrees. 293"Education Act 1989 No 80 (as at 01 February 2011), Public Act. Part 14: Establishment and disestablishment of tertiary institutions, Section 62: Establishment of institutions". Education Act 1989 No 80. New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office/Te Tari Tohutohu Premata. 1 February 2011. . Retrieved 15 August 2011. 294"Studying in New Zealand: Tertiary education". New Zealand Qualifications Authority. . Retrieved 15 August 2011. 295"Educational attainment of the population" (xls). Education Counts. 2006. . Retrieved 21 February 2008.

Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand. In the 2006 Census, 55.6 percent of the population identified themselves as Christians, while another 34.7 percent indicated that they had no religion (up from 29.6 percent in 2001) and around 4 percent affiliated with other religions.296297 The main Christian denominations are Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, Presbyterianism and Methodism. There are also significant numbers of Christians who identify themselves with Pentecostal, Baptist, and Latter-day Saint churches and the New Zealand-based Ratana church has adherents among Mori. According to census figures, other significant minority religions include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.298299

Culture
Late twentieth-century house-post sea creatures depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two

296"QuickStats About Culture and Identity: Religious affiliation". Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 20 January 2011. 297Another 6 percent objected to stating their religion. Statistics NZ do not report a total percentage for "Other" religions. Depending on how many people claimed both Christian and other religions, this could range from 3 to 5 percent. These percentages are based on the usually resident population, excluding another 7 percent of people who did not provide usable information. 298 299"Quick Stats About culture and Identity 2006 Census" (PDF). Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 28 September 2007.

Early Mori adapted the tropically-based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the community's approval.300 The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Mori culture,301302 particularly with the introduction of Christianity.303 However, Mori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Mori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.304 More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Mori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.
Cook Islands dancers at Auckland's Pasifika festival

The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem 305 solvers. Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.306 At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.307 From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Mori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Mori into British New Zealanders.308 In the 1960s, as higher education became more available and cities expanded309 urban culture began to dominate.310 Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities, much of New Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural themes.

300Kennedy 2007, p. 398. 301Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English Importance and influence". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 302"Conclusions British and Irish immigration". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. March 2007. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 303Stenhouse, John (November 2010). "Religion and society Mori religion". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 304"Mori Social Structures". Ministry of Justice. March 2001. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 305Kennedy 2007, p. 400. 306Kennedy 2007, p. 399. 307Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders Post-war New Zealanders". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 308 309Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders Ordinary blokes and extraordinary sheilas". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 310Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "Rural mythologies The cult of the pioneer". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011.

Art
As part of the resurgence of Mori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Mori artists are increasing in number and influence.311 Most Mori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.312 Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.313 The pre-eminent Mori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.314

311Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Visual arts and crafts". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 312McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Elements of Carving". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 313McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Surface Patterns". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 314McKay, Bill (2004). "Mori architecture: transforming western notions of architecture". Fabrications: the Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand 14 (1&2): 112. .

Mori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.315 Mori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.316 Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.317 Portraits of Mori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as "noble savages", exotic beauties or friendly natives.318 The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism.319 During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Mori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.320 New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.321322
Portrait of Hinepare of Ngti Lindauer, showing chin woven cloak Kahungunu by Gottfried moko, pounamu hei-tiki and

315McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Painted Designs". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 316McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Tattooing". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 317"Beginnings history of NZ painting". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. December 2010. . Retrieved 17 February 2011. 318 319"A new New Zealand art history of NZ painting". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. . Retrieved 16 February 2011. 320"Contemporary Maori art". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. . Retrieved 16 February 2011. 321 322Rauer, Julie. "Paradise Lost: Contemporary Pacific Art At The Asia Society". Asia Society and Museum. . Retrieved 17 February 2011.

Mori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.323 Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.324 Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.325 Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.326327 However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.328

323McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Textile Designs". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 324Keane, Basil (March 2009). "Pounamu jade or greenstone Implements and adornment". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 17 February 2011. 325Wilson, John (March 2009). "Society Food, drink and dress". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 17 February 2011. 326Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Design and fashion". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 327"Fashion in New Zealand New Zealand's fashion industry". The Economist. 28 February 2008. . Retrieved 6 August 2009. 328

Literature
Mori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.329 Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.330 Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.331 Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.332

329Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Writing and publishing". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 330"The making of New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2010. . Retrieved 22 January 2011. 331"New directions in the 1930s New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2008. . Retrieved 12 February 2011. 332"The war and beyond New Zealand literature". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. November 2007. . Retrieved 12 February 2011.

Entertainment
New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.333 Mori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South-East Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.334 Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments335 or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.336 Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.337338 Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.339 The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the USA.340 Some artists release Mori language songs and the Mori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.341

333Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Music". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 334McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Maori Music". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 335McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Musical Instruments". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 16 February 2011. 336McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Instruments Used for Non-musical Purposes". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 16 February 2011. 337McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Music: General History". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. 338McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Music: Brass Bands". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. 339McLintock, Alexander, ed (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Music: Pipe Bands". from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 14 April 2011. 340 341Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Performing arts". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011.

Radio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960, while the number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s.342 In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.343 New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,344 have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand.345 The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Between 2003 and 2008, Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty.346

Sports
Statue of mountaineer Sir towards Aoraki / Mount Cook Edmund Hillary gazing

Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have English origins.347 Golf, netball, tennis and cricket are the four top participatory sports, soccer is the most popular among young people and rugby union attracts the most spectators.348 Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an 349 early role in instilling a national identity, although the sport's influence has since declined.350 Horse racing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.351 Mori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka (traditional Mori challenge) before
342Swarbrick, Nancy (June 2010). "Creative life Film and broadcasting". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 343 344Cieply, Michael; Rose, Jeremy (October 2010). "New Zealand Bends and Hobbit Stays". New York Times. . 345"Production Guide: Locations". Film New Zealand. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. 346"Only peace protects freedoms in post-9/11 world". Reporters Without Borders. 22 October 2008. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 347Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English Popular culture". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 January 2022. 348Phillips, Jock (February 2011). "Sports and leisure Organised sports". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 23 March 2011. 349Crawford, Scott (January 1999). "Rugby and the Forging of National Identity". In Nauright, John. Sport, Power And Society In New Zealand: Historical And Contemporary Perspectives. ASSH Studies In Sports History. . 350Fougere, Geoff (1989). "Sport, culture and identity: the case of rugby football". In Novitz, David; Willmott, Bill. Culture and identity in New Zealand. pp. 110122. ISBN 0477014224. . 351"Rugby, racing and beer". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. August 2010. . Retrieved 22 January 2011.

international matches.352 New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, netball, cricket, rugby league, and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. The country has performed well on a medals-topopulation ratio at Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games.353354 New Zealand's national rugby union team is often regarded as the best in the world, and are the reigning World Cup holders. New Zealand are also the reigning rugby league world champions. New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism355 and strong mountaineering tradition.356 Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports and surfing are also popular.357 The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.358

References
Bibliography Bain, Carolyn (2006). New Zealand. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1741045355. Garden, Donald (2005). Stoll, Mark. ed. Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: an environmental history. Nature and Human Societies. ABCCLIO/Greenwood. ISBN 9781576078686. Kennedy, Jeffrey (2007). "Leadership and Culture in New Zealand". In Chhokar, Jagdeep; Brodbeck, Felix; House, Robert. Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies. US: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8058-5997-3. Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008). Dialects of English: New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748625291. King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. New Zealand: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143018674. Mein Smith, Philippa (2005). A Concise History of New Zealand. Australia: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521542286.

352Derby, Mark (December 2010). "MoriPkeh relations Sports and race". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 4 February 2011. 353 354"ABS medal tally: Australia finishes third". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 30 August 2004. . Retrieved 17 February 2008. 355Bain 2006, p. 69. 356"World mourns Sir Edmund Hillary". The Age (Australia). January 2008. . 357"Sport and Recreation Participation Levels". Sport and Recreation New Zealand. 2009. . Retrieved 30 April 2010. 358Yousef, Robyn (January 2011). "Waka ama: Keeping it in the family". New Zealand Herald. .

Further reading
Bateman, David, ed (2005). Bateman New Zealand Encyclopedia (6th ed.). ISBN 1869536010. Sinclair, Keith; revised by Dalziel, Raewyn (2000). A History of New Zealand. ISBN 9780140298758. Statistics New Zealand. New Zealand Official Yearbook (annual). ISBN 1869537769 (2010).

External links
Government New Zealand Government portal Ministry for Culture and Heritage includes information on flag, anthems and coat of arms Statistics New Zealand Travel New Zealand travel guide from Wikitravel Tourism New Zealand Other Te Ara, The Encyclopedia of New Zealand NZHistory.net.nz New Zealand history website New Zealand, directory from UCB Libraries GovPubs New Zealand weather

Etymology

Aotearoa
Aotearoa (pronounced Mori: [ataa], commonly English pronunciation: /at ro./ ( listen) by English speakers) is the most widely known and accepted Mori name for New Zealand. It is used by both Mori and non-Mori, and is becoming increasingly widespread in the bilingual names of national organisations, such as the National Library of New Zealand / Te Puna Mtauranga o Aotearoa.359

Translation
The original derivation of Aotearoa is not known for certain. The word can be broken up as: ao = cloud, tea = white and roa = long, and it is therefore usually glossed as "the land of the long white cloud". In some traditional stories, Aotearoa was the name of the canoe of the explorer Kupe, and he named the land after it. Kupe's wife (in some versions, his daughter) was watching the horizon and called "He ao! He ao!" ("a cloud! a cloud!"). Other versions say the canoe was guided by a long white cloud in the course of the day and by a long bright cloud at night. On arrival, the sign of land to Kupes crew was the long cloud hanging over it. The cloud caught Kupes attention and he said Surely is a point of land. Because of the cloud which greeted them, Kupe named the land Aotearoa.360 Aotearoa can also be broken up as: aotea-roa. Aotea is the name of one of the Mori migration canoes. The first land sighted was accordingly named Aotea (Cloud), now Great Barrier Island. When a much larger landmass was found beyond Aotea, it was called Aotea-roa (Long Aotea).361

359Since the 1990s it has been the custom to sing New Zealand's national anthem in both Mori and English "God Defend New Zealand", which has exposed the term Aotearoa to a wider audience 360A.H.McLintock, ed. "Aotearoa". Encyclopedia of New Zealand (1966). . 361There are several other explanations of the origin of the word Aotearoa, of varying plausibility. Those that apply more to the South Island, relating to high snowy mountain ranges, or to the long Southern twilight, must be regarded with suspicion, given that Mori only used Aotearoa to refer to the North Island. One explanation derives the name from seafaring. The first sign of land from a boat is often cloud in the sky above the island. The North Island's mountain ranges sometimes generate standing waves of long lenticular clouds. Another explanation relates to the mountains of the North Island Volcanic Plateau. In some years, the mountains are snowcapped for limited periods. The supposition here is that Polynesian travellers, unused to snow, might well have seen these snowy peaks as a long white cloud. A third hypothesis surmises that Polynesian seafarers came from the tropics where night comes rapidly, with little twilight. New Zealand, in temperate latitudes, would have provided long periods of evening twilight, and also long summer days. Thus Aotearoa, would then translate as "long light sky".

Usage
The use of Aotearoa to refer to the whole of New Zealand is a post-colonial usage. In pre-colonial times, Mori did not have a commonly-used name for the whole New Zealand archipelago. Until the 20th century, 'Aotearoa' was used to refer to the North Island only. As an example from the late 19th century, the first issue of Huia Tangata Kotahi, a Mori language newspaper, dated 8 February 1893, contains the dedication on page 1: 'He perehi tenei mo nga iwi Mori, katoa, o Aotearoa, mete Waipounamu' (This is a publication for the all Mori tribes of Aotearoa and the South Island), where 'Aotearoa' can only mean the North Island.362 One of the earliest references to Aotearoa as referring to the whole of New Zealand is William Pember Reeves' history of New Zealand The Long White Cloud Ao-tea-roa published in 1898 363 Historians (e.g., Michael King) have suggested that the use of Aotearoa to mean 'New Zealand' was initiated by Pkeh (non-Mori). He theorises that it originated from mistakes in the February 1916 School Journal and was propagated in a similar manner to the myths surrounding the Moriori. In light of Reeves' earlier usage this theory is now discredited. Influenced by this Englishlanguage usage, Aotearoa is now the term used in Mori. Another well-known and presumably widely used name for the North Island is Te Ika a Mui (The fish of Mui). The South Island was called Te Wai Pounamu (The waters of greenstone) or Te Whi Pounamu (The place of greenstone).364 In early European maps of New Zealand, such as those of Captain James Cook, garbled versions of these names are used to refer to the two islands (often spelt Aheinomauwe and Tovypoenammoo). After the adoption of the name New Zealand by Europeans, the name used by Mori to denote the country as a whole was Niu Tireni,365 a transliteration of New Zealand. When Abel Tasman reached New Zealand in 1642, he named it Staten Landt, believing it to be part of the land Jacob Le Maire had discovered in 1616 off the coast of Argentina. Staten Landt appeared on Tasman's first maps of New Zealand, but this was changed by Dutch cartographers to Nova Zelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland, some time after Hendrik Brouwer proved the South American land to be an island in 1643. The Latin Nova Zelandia became Nieuw Zeeland in Dutch. Captain James Cook subsequently called the islands New Zealand. It seems logical that he simply applied English usage to the Dutch naming, but it has also been suggested he was possibly confusing Zeeland with the Danish island of Zealand.
362Huia Tangata Kotahi can be viewed online at Niupepa: Mori Newspapers 363The long White Cloud Ao-tea-roa can be viewed online at Project Gutenberg 364As a counterpart to Te Ika a Mui, the South Island is sometimes referred to as Te Waka o Mui (The Canoe of Mui), or Te Waka o Aoraki (The Canoe of Aoraki), depending on one's tribal connections. Most of the South Island is settled by the descendants of Aoraki, after whom the country's highest mountain is named (according to legend, he was turned into the mountain), but the northern end was settled by tribes who favour the Mui version. 365The spelling varies, for example, the variant Nu Tirani appears in the Mori version of the Treaty of Waitangi. Whatever the spelling, this name is now rarely used as Mori no longer favour the use of transliterations from English.

Music
Aotearoa gained some prominence when it was used by New Zealand band Split Enz in the lyrics to their song "Six Months In A Leaky Boat". "Aotearoa/Land of the Long White Cloud" was the name of a song from New Zealand singer Jenny Morris' seminal 1989 album, Shiver. The Land of the Long White Cloud "Aotearoa" is a piece composed by Philip Sparke for brass band or wind band. Aotearoa is an overture composed by Douglas Lilburn. "Two Aotearoa Sketches for Bassoon and Piano" are two pieces composed by bassoonist Michael Burns.

References
Huia Tangata Kotahi. 1. 1893-02-08. Retrieved 2007-04-02.

New Zealand place names

Most New Zealand place-names are derived from Mori and British sources. Both groups used names to commemorate notable people, events, places from their homeland, their ships or to described the surrounding area. The Mori did not have a collective name for New Zealand before European arrival, but postcolonisation the name Aotearoa (commonly translated as 'long white cloud') was used to refer to the whole country. Dutch cartographers named the islands Nova Zeelandia and British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand. The two main islands are known simply as the North and South Islands, although those names have never been formalised. Many of the early Mori names were replaced by Europeans during the late 18th and early 19th century. Government amendments in 1894 and the establishment of the New Zealand Geographic Board in the mid 1940s led to the encouragement of original Mori names, although incorrect spellings and pronunciations persisted. Many names now have alternative or dual English and Maori names or, in a few rare cases, dual Mori names or dual English names. Most names have never been made official and if they are mentioned in authoritative publications they are considered recorded names. Colloquial names in New Zealand result from an ironic view of the places entertainment value, plays on advertising mottos, or are shortened versions of the full name. Some places tried to capitalise on the success of the Lord of the Rings films by linking themselves to the movies.

Country and main islands

1657 map showing western

coastline of "Nova Zeelandia"

No known pre-contact Mori name for New Zealand as a whole survives, although Mori had several names for the North and South Island; including Te Ika a Mui (the fish of Mui) for the North Island and Te Wai Pounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.366 Until the early 20th century, Mori also referred to the North Island as Aotearoa,367 (commonly translated as 'long white cloud'); in modern Mori usage this has become the name for the whole country.368 The first European visitor to New Zealand, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, named the islands Staten Landt, believing it formed part of the land which Jacob Le Maire had seen off the coast of Tierra del Fuego.369 Hendrik Brouwer proved the supposedly South American land an island in 1643, and Dutch cartographers subsequently renamed Tasman's discovery to Nova Zeelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland.370371 The Latin Nova Zeelandia became Nieuw Zeeland in Dutch and British explorer James Cook subsequently called the archipelago New Zealand, using the anglicised form of the Dutch name.

366Mein Smith 2005, p. 6. 367King 2003, p. 41. 368Hay, Maclagan, Gordon, p. 72. 369Wilson, John (March 2009). "European discovery of New Zealand - Abel Tasman". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 24 January 2011. 370Wilson, John (September 2007). "Tasmans achievement". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 16 February 2008. 371Mackay, Duncan (1986). "The Search For The Southern Land". In Fraser, B. The New Zealand Book Of Events. Auckland: Reed Methuen. pp. 5254.

The 1840 Letters Patent established New Zealand as a British colony and claimed the "principal islands" of New Zealand, identified by their commonlyknown names at the time: the Northern Island (the North Island), the Middle Island (the South Island) and Stewart's Island or "South Island".372373 The letters patent attempted to rename the islands to New Ulster, New Munster and New Leinster after the provinces in Ireland.374 New Ulster, New Munster and New Leinster were also used for the initial provinces of New Zealand, but the names did not endure. In the 1830s the South Island was used as an alternative to Middle Island and by 1907 it became the common name. The North and South Island names arose through common usage rather than official decleration375 and in 2009 it was revealed that they had never been formalised.376377

Mori names
Captain James Cook's map of mixture of Mori names and New Zealand, showing a names Cook coined himself

Many Mori place historical or significance. Their apparent using literal were passed down tradition.378379 Before names commemorated incidents, described or were derived from names or myths. After locations became known European words or contractions of the

names possess either mythological meaning is not always translations and they through oral European arrival place notable or historical features of the location traditional Hawaiki European arrival many as Mori versions of poorly pronounced original Mori names.380

372Paterson, Donald (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "New Leinster, New Munster, and New Ulster". In McLintock, Alexander. from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 373Brunner, Thomas (1851). The Great Journey: an expedition to explore the interior of the Middle Island, New Zealand, 1846-8. Royal Geographic Society. . 374 375McKinnon, Malcolm (November 2009). "Place names - Naming the country and the main islands". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 24 January 2011. 376Davison, Isaac (22 April 2009). "North and South Islands officially nameless". New Zealand Herald. . 377"Confusion over NZ islands' names". BBC News. 22 April 2009. . 378Dollimore, Edward (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. "Maori Place Names". In McLintock, Alexander. from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 7 January 2011. 379"FIG 2010 Conference Paper: Place Naming Legislation in New Zealand". Land Information New Zealand. April 2010. . Retrieved 19 March 2011. 380

Early Mori explorers Kupe, Ngahue, and Toi, named many of New Zealand's coastal features. Like later European explorers, they named things after themselves, their family-members and events that occurred at the newlydiscovered location. Kahumatamomoe named Manukau Harbour after a manukastake that he used to claim ownership of the area, and Kaipara Harbour after the para fern he ate there (kai means food).381 The Mori name for Wellington Harbour, Te Whanganui a Tara, derives from Tara, a grandson of Kupe and ancestor of several local iwi.382 Names from other islands visited during the "Great Migration" have been used to identify some New Zealand landmarks, for example Raratoka Island (from Rarotonga) and Tawhiti (from Tahiti). Whakatane, Rangitoto, Taupo, Urewera, Ngongotaha, and Tikitapu all commemorate incidents that occurred during the early arrivals, many of which are now forgotten.383 Maketu and Mount Moehau are two of the few remaining names connected to places in Hawaiki. The use of Polynesian mythology in names is more apparent, with Tne (the forest god) lending his name to Otane and Taneatua among others. Descriptive words are often used as part of a place name, with Ara (road), Maunga (mountain), Wai (water), Whanga (bay), Roto (lake) and nui (big) among some of the more widely used. Whanganui means "wide river-mouth" and Waikanae indicates good waters for catching kanae, or flathead mullet.384 European arrival exposed Mori to Christianity, leading to the settlements of Hiruharama, Petane and Hamaria being named after the biblical Jerusalem, Bethany and Samaria. The Ranana, Atene and Karaponia settlements are Mori transliterations of London, Athens and California.385 Moriori, descendants of Maori,386 migrated to islands off the eastern coast of New Zealand and named them Rkohu (Misty Sun). Sometime before 1835 Mori settled at Rkohu and confused the name of the settlement, Wharekauri, for the name of islands. It has been known as Wharekauri to Mori ever since.387

381Taonui, Rwiri (March 2009). "Ng waewae tapu Mori exploration - Te Arawa explorers". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 382Reid, Darren (dated March 2009). "Muapoko - Early history". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 383 384Taonui, Rwiri (March 2009). "Ng waewae tapu Mori exploration - Western North Island". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 385 386Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Mori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas. The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123135. 387Davis, Denise (September 2007). "The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 30 April 2010.

Post-colonial recognition
Early Europeans displaced most of the original Mori names with their own, although some persisted in the north and central regions of the North Island. The Royal Geographical Society of London was responsible for place names until 1894 when authority was given to the New Zealand Governor-General.388 Prime Minister Joseph Ward moved an amendment in 1894 that gave preference to Mori names for any new features and allowed misspelt names to be altered (although this did not always occur). In 1924 the Honorary Geographic Board of New Zealand was set up to advise on place names, and in 1946 the New Zealand Geographic Board (NZGB) was established and given power to change or implement Mori and English names.389 Anyone can propose a geographical name to the board, who consult local Mori and allow public submissions before determining if the name should be made official.390 Names can also be made official through an Act of Parliament and the NZGB is required to keep a keep a public list of all the official New Zealand geographical names.391392 The NZGB encourages the use of original Mori names and has given some places official double names. These can be expressed as alternative names where officially either name could be used (Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont) or dual names where both names should be used together (Matiu / Somes Island).393 In 1998, as a result of the settling of the Ngai Tahu Treaty claim, New Zealand's tallest mountain, officially became Aoraki / Mount Cook.394 There are also a few English dual names, with Wellington harbour also officially known as Port Nicholson.395 The New Zealand Geographic Board is currently looking for alternative Mori names to use alongside the North and South Island names.396 Te Ika-a-Mui and Te Wai Pounamu are seen as the most likely choices by the chairman of the Mori Language Commission.397

388 389 390"Process For New Zealand Official Geographic Names" (pdf). New Zealand Geographic Board (Ng Pou Taunahao Aotearoa). . Retrieved 19 March 2011. 391 392"Help finding names". Land Information New Zealand. . Retrieved 19 March 2011. 393McKinnon, Malcolm (November 2009). "Place names - Mori and Pkeh names". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 24 February 2011. 394Doug Graham. "NZ Government Executive Ngai Tahu Settlement". New Zealand Government Executive. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 395"Kairangi Name Proposals go to Public Consultation". Land Information New Zealand. August 2010. . Retrieved 1 April 2011. 396May Eriksen, Alanah (25 April 2009). "Name quest unveils historic titles". The New Zealand Herald. . 397Davison, Isaac (22 April 2009). "North and South Islands officially nameless". The New Zealand Herald. .

Mori groups have campaigned to correct inaccurately spelled or pronounced Mori language place-names. In 2000, the local iwi suggestion to rename the Wellington suburb of Hataitai to Whataitai, referring to a taniwha (sea-monster) that legend says lived in Wellington Harbour, was declined by the Geographic Board.398 More recently the New Zealand Geographical Board recommended renaming the town of Wanganui to Whanganui as the town was originally named after the Whanganui River and the word wanga is not in the Mori lexicon.399 The government decided in 2009 that both Whanganui and Wanganui would be accepted as alternative official names.400 The origin of Wanganui has been claimed to reflect the dialectal pronunciation of local Mori, who pronounce 'wh' (an "f"-like sound in other dialects) as [w] a glottalised "w".

European names
The Grey River, Mount Grey, Lynn all derive their name from Greytown, Greymouth and Grey Sir George Grey

Tasman named a few sailed along New Zealand's Murderers Bay did not last, van Diemen (the wife of the Three Kings Islands are still more on his voyage, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Charlotte Sound, Mount Peninsula. Cape Kidnappers attempt to kidnap one of Dumont dUrville named through it. The explorers places, including Mount the Tasman Region, Cook dUrville Island. The Pegasus ships visited New 1791 and 1820 and were Peninsula, Chatham Port Pegasus. Stewart first officer aboard the Pegasus.401

geographic features as he west coast. Many such as while some like Cape Maria governor of Batavia) and in use. Cook named many including Bay of Islands, Cape Farewell, Queen Egmont and Banks commemorates a Mori Cook's crew members. French Pass after sailing lent their names to many Tasman, Tasman Glacier, Strait, Mount Cook and Coromandel, Chatham and Zealand's shores between used to name Coromandel Islands, Pegasus Bay and Island was named after the

398"Consultation on proposed names: Other Considerations". Land Information New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 399 400"Whanganui or Wanganui - it's up to you". The New Zealand Herald. 18 December 2009. . 401McKinnon, Malcolm (March 2009). "Place names - Early explorers". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 February 2011.

Most European names came during the 1840s to the 1910s and were given by surveyors who worked for colonising associations or provincial governments. Names acknowledged the colonising associations sponsors (Hutt Valley, Wakefield, Port Chalmers, Ashburton), ships (Bombay), government officials (Featherston, Rolleston, Invercargill), politicians (Foxton, Fox Glacier, Gisborne) and church leaders (Selwyn).402 Military heroes and famous battles were popular place names, with Auckland, Napier, Hastings, Havelock, Wellington, Picton, Marlborough, Nelson and Blenheim. British politicians and royalty lent their names to Russell, Palmerston, Cromwell, Queenstown and Alexandra, while Franz Josef is named after the Austrian emperor. Royal names are more popular for streets than towns or geographical features, although both Auckland and Wellington have Mount Victoria. Gore is named after governor Thomas Gore Browne and George Grey's name is used for Greytown, Greymouth, Grey Lynn and many natural features. Relatively few names are derived from United Kingdom towns, with Dunedin (Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh), New Plymouth and the Canterbury Province among the most notable.403 Many inland locations (including Helensville, Dargaville, Morrinsville, Bulls, Masterton and Levin) were named after the early settlers. Mackenzie Country takes its name from a sheep stealer and King Country references the region where the Mori king defied colonial government for many years. Mountains and passes were named after their discoverers (Haast, Lewis) or scientists (Newton, Lyell). Other names were descriptive, such as Woodville, Island Bay, Riverton, Whitecliffs and Bluff.404 A few derive their names from descriptions in languages other than English or Mori, for example: Miramar, which means "sea view" in Spanish; and Inchbonnie, which means "beautiful" (bonnie in Lallands) "island" (innis in Scottish Gaelic).

402McKinnon, Malcolm (November 2009). "Place names - Colonial naming". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 February 2011. 403McKinnon, Malcolm (March 2009). "Place names - The imperial connection". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 February 2011. 404McKinnon, Malcolm (March 2009). "Place names - Local naming". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 22 February 2011.

Regional patterns
Many Scottish names occur in Otago and Southland (the Lammerlaws, Invercargill, Wedderburn, Glenfalloch) and Scottish settlers also named Riccarton and the Avon River in Christchurch. Canterbury has an English flavour to its nomenclature with Christchurch and Oxford, but also contains Belfast and French names throughout the Akaroa area. Scandinavian migrants left their mark in the Seventy Mile Bush with Dannevirke and Norsewood405 and some of the suburbs and streets of Auckland and Wellington reflect Australian immigration (Footscray and Botany Downs). There is very little Asian influence in New Zealand place naming, with Khandallah in Wellington and Cashmere (Kashmir) in Christchurch, reflecting British imperial connections rather than Indian influence.406

Unofficial names
Most of New Zealands place names have never been officially approved by the NZGB. They either fall outside the boards jurisdiction (homesteads, light houses) or were common names before the board was established and have never been officially formalised. Unofficial recorded names are defined as "names that have appeared in at least two publicly available authoritative publications or databases".407 Recorded names include major cities (Wellington, Auckland, Hamilton, Christchurch), mountains (Mount Tasman, Mount Dampier), islands (Auckland Islands, Great Barrier Island) and many other geographical features.408

405 406McKinnon, Malcolm (March 2009). "Place names - Omissions and minor influences". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 23 February 2011. 407 408Recorded names were obtained by comparing names found in the New Zealand Place Names Database "New Zealand Place Names Database". Land Information New Zealand. . Retrieved 20 March 2011. but not recorded in the New Zealand Gazetteer of Official Geographic Names. "New Zealand Gazetteer of Official Geographic Names". Land Information New Zealand. . Retrieved 20 March 2011.

New Zealand and various parts of it have acquired a range of colloquial names over the years. Unofficial late nineteenth-century names for New Zealand included "Maoriland", and "God's Own Country".409410 The former occurred widely in the labour movement and an early labour newspaper was named the Maoriland Worker. Premier Richard John Seddon (in power 1893 - 1906) popularised "God's Own Country". Both names fell out of popularity in the twentieth century, although "God's Own Country" (or "Godzone") still occasionally appears.411 Latinate names for the country have included "Zealandia" and "Nova Zealandia".412 Many cities and towns have nicknames based on a prominent feature or one which promoters wish to emphasise. Christchurch is promoted as the "Garden City"413 and Auckland is commonly referred to as the "city of sails".414 Various councils have come up with mottos to advertise their cities, with Hamilton going from "Where It's Happening" to "More Than You Expect" in 2000415 and Dunedin using the "I am Dunedin" slogan from 2001 until 2010.416 Hamilton acquired the nickname "the Tron" after "Hamiltron: City of the Future" was suggested for a city slogan.417 Wellington is also known as the "windy city" due to its strong and unpredictable winds.418
Matamata's 'Welcome to Hobbiton' sign

409Phillips, Jock (March 2009). "The New Zealanders - Maorilanders". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 410"Bracken, Thomas (1843-1898)". Dictionary of Australian Biography. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 411Woodham, Kerre (Monday Feb 28, 2011). "Their spirit is strong". New Zealand Herald. . 412Orsman, H.W. (1997). The Dictionary of New Zealand English: a dictionary of New Zealandisms on historical principles. Auckland: Oxford University Press. pp. 931932. 413"Welcome to Christchurch, the Garden City". Christchurch City Council. . Retrieved 27 February 2011. 414McFadden, Suzanne (Aug 25, 2010). "Auckland: City of sails". New Zealand Herald. . 415Yandall, Paul (Mar 31, 2000). "Hamilton expects slogan dividends". New Zealand Herald. . 416"Dunedin looks for new slogan". Otago Daily Times. 11 Jan, 2010. . 417Phillips, Hazel (Nov 30, 2009). "Monday News Munchies: Hamiltron has the goods". National Business Review. . 418"All About Wellington". Statistics New Zealand. . Retrieved 27 February 2011.

Following the release of Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings movies, New Zealand has sometimes been called "Middle-earth" after the fictional setting of the films. Wellington, the centre of the films' production, was sometimes called Middleearth, and for about a week around the release of the first movie the local newspaper The Evening Post renamed itself to The Middle Earth Post. The town of Matamata, near the location of many of the Hobbiton scenes, unofficially renamed itself "Hobbiton".419 The flourishing of the film-industry in Wellington has led to the nickname "Wellywood", and a proposal to erect a "Hollywood" style sign near the airport was overturned due to public resistance and possible copyright infringements.420 A number of towns have acquired ironic nicknames comparing them to the "more exciting" city of Las Vegas; "Rotovegas" for Rotorua,421 "Ashvegas" for Ashburton and "Invervegas" for Invercargil.422 Other areas have nicknames or popular designations based on abbreviations or mangling of the Mori name. New Zealanders will sometimes refer to the Taranaki Region as "The Naki",423 Palmerston North as "Palmy", Gisborne as "Gizzie", Cardrona as "Cardie",424 Paraparaumu as "Paraparam", Waimakariri as "Waimak" and Paekakariki as "Piecock".425

Notes and references

Notes References Bibliography King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. New Zealand: Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143018674. Mein Smith, Philippa (2005). A Concise History of New Zealand. Australia: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521542286. Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008). Dialects of English: New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748625291.

419"Lord of the Rings: Magic for New Zealand Tourism?". National Geographic. Dec 19, 2001. . Retrieved 23 February 2011. 420"Airport backs down over 'Wellywood' sign". Southland Times (New Zealand). 31 Mar, 2010. . 421Barber, Lynn (27 May 2002). "Just the spot... for jumping off a cliff". Guardian Unlimited. . 422Hay, Maclagan and Gordon, p. 81. 423"TVNZ's Toni ties the knot in the 'Naki". New Zealand Herald. Dec 6, 2009. . 424McKinnon, Malcolm (March 2009). "Place names - Naming after 1920". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. . Retrieved 23 February 2011. 425Hay, Maclagan and Gordon, p. 72.

Further reading
Reed, Alexander Wyclif (2002) [1975]. Peter Dowling. ed. The Reed dictionary of New Zealand place names. Max Cryer (2002 ed.). Auckland: Reed. ISBN 0790007614.

External links
Place Names & Street Names - Information about the New Zealand Geographic board, databases of recorded and official names and other relevant information from Land Information New Zealand New Zealand Gazetteer of Official Geographic Names - Links to PDFs and Spreadsheets containing all of New Zealands official geographical names.

History of New Zealand

History of New Zealand
The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Mori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to discover New Zealand was Abel Janszoon Tasman on 13 December 1642.426 From the late 18th century, the country was regularly visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries, traders and adventurers. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Mori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire and giving Mori equal rights with British citizens. There was extensive European and some Asian settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealand's land passing from Mori to Pkeh (European) ownership, and most Mori subsequently became impoverished.

426Wilson, John. "European discovery of New Zealand Abel Tasman". Te Ara the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. New Zealand: Ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manat Taonga. . Retrieved 2010-01-16. "'On 13 December 1642 the Dutch sighted "a large land, uplifted high" probably the Southern Alps ...'"

From the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including women's suffrage and old age pensions. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and an extensive welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Mori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Mori began moving to the cities in large numbers. This led to the development of a Mori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the economy was largely deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies, such as decriminalisation of homosexuality, were put in place. Foreign policy, which had previously consisted mostly of following the United Kingdom or the United States, became more independent. Subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat.

Polynesian foundation
New Zealand was originally settled by Polynesians from Eastern Polynesia. The most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around 1280 CE. Previous dating of some Kiore (Polynesian rat) bones at 50 - 150 CE has now been shown to have been unreliable; new samples of bone (and now also of unequivocally rat-gnawed woody seed cases) match the 1280 CE date of the earliest archaeological sites and the beginning of sustained, anthropogenic deforestation.427 The descendants of these settlers became known as the Mori, forming a distinct culture of their own. Separate settlement of the tiny Chatham Islands in the east of New Zealand about 1500 CE produced the Moriori people; linguistic evidence indicates that the Moriori were mainland Mori who ventured eastward.428 The original settlers quickly exploited the abundant large game in New Zealand, such as moa, large flightless ratites that were pushed to extinction by about 1500. As moa and other large game became scarce or extinct, Mori culture underwent major change, with regional differences. In areas where it was possible to grow taro and kmara, horticulture became more important. In the south of the South Island, however elsewhere wild plants such as fernroot were often available for harvest and cabbage trees were harvested and cultivated for food. Warfare also increased in importance, reflecting increased competition for land and other resources. In this period, fortified p became more common, although there is debate about the actual frequency of warfare. As elsewhere in the Pacific, cannibalism was part of warfare. James Belich has written an overview of Mori history from the 11th to the 16th century.429

427Lowe, David J. (November 2008). "Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the impacts of volcanism on early Maori society: an update". Guidebook for Pre-conference North Island Field Trip A1 'Ashes and Issues': 142. ISBN 9780473144760. . Retrieved 2010-01-18. 428Clark, Ross (1994). Moriori and Mori: The Linguistic Evidence. Auckland, NZ: Auckland University Press. pp. 123135. 429Belich, James (1996). Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from the Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century. pp. 504. ISBN 0-1410-0639-0.

Leadership was based on a system of chieftainship, which was often but not always hereditary, although chiefs (male or female) needed to demonstrate leadership abilities to avoid being superseded by more dynamic individuals. The most important units of pre-European Mori society were the whnau or extended family, and the hap or group of whnau. After these came the iwi or tribe, consisting of groups of hap. Related hap would often trade goods and cooperate on major projects, but conflict between hap was also relatively common. Traditional Mori society preserved history orally through narratives, songs, and chants; skilled experts could recite the tribal genealogies (whakapapa) back for hundreds of years. Arts included whaikrero (oratory), song composition in multiple genres, dance forms including haka, as well as weaving, highly developed wood carving, and t moko (tattoo). Birds, fish and sea mammals were important sources of protein.430 Mori cultivated food plants which they had brought with them from Polynesia, including sweet potatoes (called kmara), taro, gourds and yams. They also cultivated the cabbage tree, a plant endemic to New Zealand, and exploited wild foods such as fern root, which provided a starchy paste.

Early contact period

Explorers and other visitors
First map of New Zealand, Cook. drawn by Captain James

430New Zealand has no native mammals, apart from some rare bats.

The first Europeans known to reach New Zealand were the crew of Dutch explorer Abel Tasman who arrived in his ships Heemskerck and Zeehaen. Tasman anchored at the northern end of the South Island in Golden Bay (he named it Murderers' Bay) in December 1642 and sailed northward to Tonga following a clash with local Mori. Tasman sketched sections of the two main islands' west coasts. Tasman called them Staten Landt, after the States-General of the Netherlands, and that name appeared on his first maps of the country. Dutch cartographers changed the name to Nova Zeelandia in Latin, from Nieuw Zeeland, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. It was subsequently Anglicised as New Zealand by British naval captain James Cook of HM Bark Endeavour who visited the islands more than 100 years after Tasman during 17691770. Cook returned to New Zealand on both of his subsequent voyages. Various claims have been made that New Zealand was reached by other non-Polynesian voyagers before Tasman, but these are not widely accepted. Peter Trickett, for example, argues in Beyond Capricorn that the Portuguese explorer Cristvo de Mendona reached New Zealand in the 1520s. From the 1790s, the waters around New Zealand were visited by British, French and American whaling, sealing and trading ships. Their crews traded European goods, including guns and metal tools, for Mori food, water, wood, flax and sex.431 Mori were reputed to be enthusiastic and canny traders. Although there were some conflicts, such as the killing of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne and the destruction of the Boyd, most contact between Mori and European was peaceful. From the 19th century missionaries began settling in New Zealand and attempting to convert Mori to Christianity and control the considerably lawless European visitors.

Mori response
The effect of contact on Mori varied. In some inland areas life went on more or less unchanged, although a European metal tool such as a fish-hook or hand axe might be acquired through trade with other tribes. At the other end of the scale, tribes that frequently encountered Europeans, such as Ng Puhi in Northland, underwent major changes.

431King, Michael (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. pp. 122. ISBN 0-14-301867-1.

Pre-European Mori had no distance weapons except for tao (spears)432 and the introduction of the musket had an enormous impact on Mori warfare. Tribes with muskets would attack tribes without them, killing or enslaving many.433 As a result, guns became very valuable and Mori would trade huge quantities of goods for a single musket. The Musket Wars died out in the 1830s after most tribes had acquired muskets and a new balance of power was achieved. In 1835, the peaceful Moriori of the Chatham Islands were attacked, enslaved, and nearly exterminated by mainland Ngti Mutunga and Ngti Tama Mori.434 In the 1901 census, only 35 Moriori were recorded although the numbers subsequently increased.435 Around this time, many Mori converted to Christianity. The reasons for this have been hotly debated, and may include social and cultural disruption caused by the Musket Wars and European contact. Other factors may have been the appeal of a religion that promotes peace and forgiveness, a desire to emulate the Europeans and to gain a similar abundance of material goods, and the Mori's polytheistic culture that easily accepted the new God.

European settlement
European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North. The first fullblooded European infant in the territory, Thomas King, was born in 1815 in the Bay of Islands. Kerikeri, founded in 1822, and Bluff founded in 1823, both claim to be the oldest European settlements in New Zealand. Many Europeans bought land from Mori, but misunderstanding and different concepts of land ownership led to conflict and bitterness. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. This alarmed the missionaries, who called for British control of European settlers in New Zealand.

432"Spear tao kaniwha, spear tao huata, spears tao". Cook's Pacific Encounters: Cook-Forster collection. Australia: National Museum of Australia. . Retrieved 2009-12-13. "'...Maori weapons were generally used in close combat, and the various types of clubs....'" 433"Musket Wars - Beginnings - Hongi Hika: Warrior chief". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved 2010-09-23. 434Denise Davis; Mui Solomon (2009-03-04). "Moriori The impact of new arrivals". New Zealand: Ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manat Taonga. . Retrieved 2010-01-16. "'..The annihilation of Moriori. Although the total number of Moriori first slaughtered was said to be around 300, hundreds more were enslaved and later died..'" 435Denise Davis; Mui Solomon (2009-03-04). "Moriori Facts and figures". New Zealand: Ministry for Culture and Heritage / Te Manat Taonga. . Retrieved 2010-01-16.

British sovereignty
In 1788 the colony of New South Wales had been founded. According to Captain Phillip's amended Commission, dated 25 April 1787, the colony included all the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean within the latitudes of 1037'S and 4339'S which included most of New Zealand except for the southern half of the South Island. In 1825 with Van Diemen's Land becoming a separate colony, the southern boundary of New South Wales was altered436 to the islands adjacent in the Pacific Ocean with a southern boundary of 3912'S which included only the northern half of the North Island. However, these boundaries had no real impact as the New South Wales administration had little interest in New Zealand.437 In response to complaints about lawless white sailors and adventurers in New Zealand, the British government appointed James Busby as Official Resident in 1832. In 1834 he encouraged Mori chiefs to assert their sovereignty with the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1835. This was acknowledged by King William IV. Busby was provided with neither legal authority nor military support and was thus ineffective in controlling the European population.

Treaty of Waitangi
In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced its plans to establish colonies in New Zealand. This, and the continuing lawlessness of many of the established settlers, spurred the British to take stronger action. Captain William Hobson was sent to New Zealand to persuade Mori to cede their sovereignty to the British Crown. In reaction to the New Zealand Company's moves, on 15 June 1839 a new Letters patent was issued to expand the territory of New South Wales to include all of New Zealand. Governor of New South Wales George Gipps was appointed Governor over New Zealand. This was the first clear expression of British intent to annex New Zealand.

436"Governor Darling's Commission 1825 (UK)" (PDF). Documenting A Democracy, New South Wales Documents. Australia: National Archives of Australia. 1825. . Retrieved 2010-01-16. "'...over our Territory called New South Wales extending from the Northern Cape or extremity of the Coast called Cape York in the latitude...'" 437For example, the British New South Wales Judicature Act 1823 made specific provision for administration of justice by the New South Wales Courts; stating "And be it further enacted that the said supreme courts in New South Wales and Van Diemens Land respectively shall and may inquire of hear and determine all treasons piracies felonies robberies murders conspiracies and other offences of what nature or kind soever committed or that shall be committed upon the sea or in any haven river creek or place where the admiral or admirals have power authority or jurisdiction or committed or that shall be committed in the islands of New Zealand".

On 6 February 1840, Hobson and about forty Mori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. Copies of the Treaty were subsequently taken around the country to be signed by other chiefs. A significant number refused to sign or were not asked but, in total, more than five hundred Mori eventually signed. The Treaty gave Mori sovereignty over their lands and possessions and all of the rights of British citizens. What it gave the British in return depends on the language-version of the Treaty that is referred to. The English version can be said to give the British Crown sovereignty over New Zealand but in the Mori version the Crown receives kawanatanga, which, arguably, is a lesser power (see Treaty of Waitangi#Meaning and interpretation). Dispute over the true meaning and the intent of either party remains an issue. Britain was motivated by the desire to forestall other European powers (France established a very small settlement at Akaroa in the South Island later in 1840), to facilitate settlement by British subjects and, possibly, to end the lawlessness of European (predominantly British and American) whalers, sealers and traders. Officials and missionaries had their own positions and reputations to protect. Mori chiefs were motivated by a desire for protection from foreign powers, the establishment of governorship over European settlers and traders in New Zealand, and to allow for wider settlement that would increase trade and prosperity for Mori.438 Hobson died in September 1842. Robert FitzRoy, the new governor, took some legal steps to recognise Mori custom. However, his successor, George Grey, promoted rapid cultural assimilation and reduction of the land ownership, influence and rights of the Mori. The practical effect of the Treaty was, in the beginning, only gradually felt, especially in predominantly Mori regions.

Colonial period
Having been administered, through 1840 when the treaty was signed, as a part of the Australian colony of New South Wales, New Zealand became a colony in its own right on 3 May 1841. It was divided into provinces that were reorganised in 1846 and in 1853, when they acquired their own legislatures, and then abolished in 1876. The country rapidly gained some measure of self-government through the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which established central and provincial government.

Immigration
"First Scottish Colony for New Zealand" 1839 poster advertising emigration from Scotland to New Zealand. Collection of Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow, Scotland.

438"Making the Treaty". The Story of the Treaty. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. . Retrieved 2007-08-28.

From 1840 there was settlement, primarily from Scotland and Ireland; and to States, India, and various including the province of Croatia, and Bohemia440 in Republic. Already a majority the number of white settlers increased rapidly to reach a In the 1870s and 1880s, men, mostly from migrated to New Zealand to goldfields. Although the been invited by the Otago quickly became the target settlers and laws were discourage them from

considerable European England and Wales, a lesser extent the United parts of continental Europe, Dalmatia439 in what is now what is now the Czech of the population by 1859, (called Pkeh by Mori) million by 1911. several thousand Chinese Guangdong province, work on the South Island first Chinese migrants had Provincial government they of hostility from white enacted specifically to coming to New Zealand.441

Mori adaptation and resistance

Mori had welcomed Pkeh for the trading opportunities and guns they brought. However it soon became clear that they had underestimated the number of settlers that would arrive in their lands. Iwi (tribes) whose land was the base of the main settlements quickly lost much of their land and autonomy through government acts. Others prospereduntil about 1860 the city of Auckland bought most of its food from Mori who grew and sold it themselves. Many iwi owned flour mills, ships and other items of European technology, some exported food to Australia. Although race relations were generally peaceful in this period, there were conflicts over who had ultimate power in particular areas the Governor or the Mori chiefs. One such conflict was the Northern or Flagstaff War of the 1840s, during which the town of Kororareka was destroyed. As the Pkeh population grew, pressure grew on Mori to sell more land. A few tribes had become nearly landless and others feared losing their lands. Land is not only an economic resource, but also the basis of Mori identity and a connection with their ancestors. Land was held communally, it was not given up without discussion and consultationor loss during warfare.

439Carl Walrond. 'Dalmatians', Te Arathe Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 26-Sep-2006, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/NewZealanders/NewZealandPeoples/Dalmatians/en 440John Wilson. 'Central and South-eastern Europeans', Te Arathe Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 26-Sep-2006, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/NewZealanders/NewZealandPeoples/CentralAndSoutheasternEuropeans/en 441Manying Ip. 'Chinese', Te Arathe Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 21-Dec-2006, http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/NewZealanders/NewZealandPeoples/Chinese/en

Pkeh had little understanding of all that and accused Mori of holding onto land they did not use efficiently. Competition for land was a primary cause of the New Zealand Land Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, in which the Taranaki and Waikato regions were invaded by colonial troops and Mori of these regions had much of their land taken from them. The wars and confiscation left bitterness that remains to this day. Some iwi sided with the government and, later, fought with the government. They were motivated partly by the thought that an alliance with the government would benefit them, and partly by old feuds with the iwi they fought against. One result of their co-operation strategy was the establishment of the four Mori seats in parliament, in 1867. After the wars, some Mori began a strategy of passive resistance, most famously at Parihaka in Taranaki. Others continued co-operating with Pkeh. For example, tourism ventures were established by Te Arawa around Rotorua. Resisting and co-operating iwi both found that the Pkeh desire for land remained. In the last decades of the century, most iwi lost substantial amounts of land through the activities of the Native Land Court. This was set up to give Mori land European-style titles and to establish exactly who owned it. Due to its Eurocentric rules, the high fees, its location remote from the lands in question, and unfair practices by many Pkeh land agents, its main effect was to directly or indirectly separate Mori from their land. The combination of war, confiscations, disease,442 assimilation and intermarriage,443 land loss leading to poor housing and alcohol abuse, and general disillusionment, caused a fall in the Mori population from around 86,000 in 1769 to around 70,000 in 1840 and around 48,000 by 1874, hitting a low point of 42,000 in 1896.444 Subsequently their numbers began to recover.

South Island
While the North Island was convulsed by the Land Wars, the South Island, with its low Mori population, was generally peaceful. In 1861 gold was discovered at Gabriel's Gully in Central Otago, sparking a gold rush. Dunedin became the wealthiest city in the country and many in the South Island resented financing the North Islands wars. In 1865 Parliament voted on a Bill to make the South Island independent: it was defeated 17 to 31. The South Island contained most of the Pkeh population until around 1900 when the North Island again took the lead and has supported an ever greater majority of the country's total population through the 20th century and into the 21st.

442Epidemic Diseases (Papa reti or Mate uruta)., National Library of New Zealand 443Entwisle, Peter (20 October 2006). "Estimating a population devastated by epidemics". Otago Daily Times. . 444Belich, James (1996). Making Peoples. Auckland: Penguin Press. p. 178.

1890s
Major changes occurred during this decade. The economybased on wool and local tradechanged to the export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain. This change was enabled by the invention of refrigerated shipping that allowed foodstuff to be transported over long distances. Refrigerated shipping remained the basis of New Zealands economy until the 1970s. In the 21st century, New Zealand's trade in skim milk and butter increased, thanks to their high price. The decade also saw the advent of party politics, with the establishment of the First Liberal government. This government established the basis of the welfare state, with old age pensions, developed a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and unions, and in 1893 extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to enact universal female suffrage.

Dominion and Realm

Historical map of Australia 1911. and New Zealand, 1788-

New Zealand decided Commonwealth of instead changed from separate "dominion" in Australia and Canada.

against joining the Australia in 1901, and being a colony to a 1907, equal in status to

Prohibition
In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It never achieved its goal of national prohibition. It was a middle-class movement which accepted the existing economic and social order; the effort to legislate morality assumed that individual redemption was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing labor movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy. Reformers hoped that the women's vote, in which New Zealand was a pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well organized as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60% vote to pass. The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6pm closing hour for pubs and Sunday closing. The Depression and war years effectively ended the movement.445446

First World War

The country remained an enthusiastic member of the British Empire, and 100,000 men fought in World War I (see New Zealand Expeditionary Force). New Zealand forces took Western Samoa from Germany in the early stages of the war, and New Zealand administered the country until Samoan Independence in 1962.

Depression
Like most other countries, New Zealand was hard hit by the Great Depression of the 1930s, which affected the country via its international trade, with farming export drops then going on to affect the money supply and in turn consumption, investment and imports. The country was most affected around 1930-1932, when average farm incomes for a short time dipped below zero, and the unemployment rates peaked. Though actual unemployment numbers were not officially counted, the country was affected especially strongly in the North Island.447

445Greg Ryan, "Drink and the Historians: Sober Reflections on Alcohol in New Zealand 1840 1914," New Zealand Journal of History (April 2010) Vol.44, No.1 446Richard Newman, "New Zealand'S Vote For Prohibition In 1911," New Zealand Journal of History, April 1975, Vol. 9 Issue 1, pp 52-71 447New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 79

Unlike later years, there were no public benefit ('dole') payments the unemployed were given 'relief work', much of which was however not very productive, partly because the size of the problem was unprecedented. Women also increasingly registered as unemployed, while Maori received government help through other channels such as the land development schemes organised by Apirana Ngata. In 1933, 8.5% of the unemployed were organised in work camps, while the rest received work close to their homes. Typical occupations in relief work were road work (undertaken by 45% of all part-time and 19% of all full-time relief workers in 1934, with park improvement works (17%) and farm work (31%) being the other two most common types of work for part-time and full-time relief workers respectively).448 Attempts by the conservative Liberal-Reform coalition to deal with the situation with spending cuts and relief work were ineffective and unpopular. In 1935, the First Labour Government was elected, and the post-depression decade showed that average Labour support in New Zealand had roughly doubled comparable to pre-depression times. By 1935 economic conditions had improved somewhat, and the new government had more positive financial conditions,449 under which it established a full welfare state, which included free health care and education and state assistance for the elderly, infirm, and unemployed. The programme was retained and expanded by successive National and Labour governments.

Second World War

When World War II broke out, New Zealand contributed some 120,000 troops. They mostly fought in Europe, relying on the Royal Navy and later the United States to protect New Zealand from the Japanese forces, who never reached as far as the New Zealand mainland except with some highly publicised but essentially ineffective scouting incursions. The cooperation with the United States meanwhile set a direction of policy which resulted in the ANZUS Treaty between New Zealand, America and Australia in 1951, which was to hold until disagreements over nuclear armaments decades later.

448 449

Maori Urbanisation
Many Mori fought in World War II, and many others moved from their rural homes to the cities to take up jobs vacated by Pkeh servicemen.450 The shift to the cities was also caused by their strong birth rates in the early 20th century, with the existing rural farms in Mori ownership having increasing difficulty in providing enough jobs.451 Mori culture had meanwhile undergone a renaissance thanks in part to politician Apirana Ngata. World War II saw the beginning of a mass Mori migration to the cities, and by the 1980s 80% of the Mori population was urban, in contrast to only 20% before the war. The migration led to better pay, standards of living and education for most Mori, but also exposed problems of racism and discrimination. By the late 1960s, a protest movement had emerged to combat racism, promote Mori culture and seek fulfillment of the Treaty of Waitangi. The urbanisation of the country was far from restricted to Mori. In the late 1940s, town planners noted that the country was "possibly the third most urbanised country in the world", with two thirds of the population living in cities or towns. There was also increasing concern that this trend was badly managed, with it being noted that there was an "ill-defined urban pattern that appears to have few of the truly desirable urban qualities and yet manifests no compensating rural characteristics."452

Post-war
The Mori protest movement was just one of several movements which emerged at this time to challenge the conservatism of mainstream New Zealand culture. This culture, and the country's economy, was based on being an offshoot of Britain. From the 1890s, the economy had been based almost entirely on the export of frozen meat and dairy products to Britain, and in 1961, the share of New Zealand exports going to the United Kingdom was still at slightly over 51%, with approximately 15% more going to other European countries.453 This system was irreparably damaged by Britain joining the European Economic Community in 1973. Britain's accession to the European Community forced New Zealand to not only find new markets, but also re-examine its national identity and place in the world.

450New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 91 451 452Urban Development (from a condensed reprint of a paper read to the New Zealand Branch, Town Planning Institute, 4 May 1949. Via New Zealand Electronic Text Centre. Accessed 200802-13.) 453New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 100

Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister from 1975 to 1984, and his Third National government responded to the crises of the 1970s by attempting to preserve the New Zealand of the 1950s. His conservatism and antagonistic style helped create an atmosphere of conflict in New Zealand, most violently expressed during the 1981 Springbok Tour. Some innovations did take place, for example the Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia, and in 1983 the term "dominion" was replaced with "realm" by letters patent.

Reform
In 1984, the Fourth Labour government was elected. Propelled into office amid a constitutional and economic crisis, the new government embarked on a policy of restructuring, known as Rogernomics. This involved floating the New Zealand dollar, cutting government spending, reducing most taxes and introducing a sales tax (GST), and removing almost all industry subsidies. Although many of these changes improved the economy, they also created widespread unemployment, which was made worse by the 1987 stock market crash. The Fourth Labour Government also revolutionised New Zealand's foreign policy, making the country a nuclear-free zone and effectively leaving the ANZUS alliance. Immigration policy was liberalised, allowing an influx of immigrants from Asia. Previously most immigrants to New Zealand had been European and especially British, apart from some migrants from other Pacific Islands such as Samoa. Other fourth Labour government innovations included greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi through the Waitangi Tribunal, Homosexual Law Reform, the Constitution Act 1986 and the New Zealand Bill of Rights. Unhappy with the speed and extent of reforms, voters elected a National government in 1990, led by Jim Bolger. However the new government continued the economic reforms of the previous Labour government. Unhappy with what seemed to be a pattern of governments failing to reflect the mood of the electorate, New Zealanders voted to change the electoral system to Mixed Member Proportional (MMP), a form of proportional representation. New Zealand's first MMP election was held in 1996. Following the election National was returned to power in coalition with the New Zealand First Party.

New Zealand today

The Fifth Labour government led by Helen Clark was elected in 1999. It maintained most of the previous governments' economic reforms restricting government intervention in the economy much more so than previous governments while putting more of an emphasis on social policy and outcomes. For example, employment law was modified to give more protection to workers, and the student loan system was changed to eliminate interest payments for New Zealand resident students and graduates. Helen Clark's Labour government remained in power for nine years before being replaced in 2008 by New Zealand's Fifth National government led by John Key.

New Zealand retains strong but informal links to Britain, with many young New Zealanders travelling to Britain for their "OE" (overseas experience) due to favourable working visa arrangements with Britain. Despite New Zealand's immigration liberalisation in the 1980s, Britons are still the largest group of migrants to New Zealand, due in part to recent immigration law changes which privilege fluent speakers of English. A few constitutional links to Britain remain the New Zealand Sovereign is a British resident, for example. However, British imperial honours were discontinued in 1996, the GovernorGeneral has taken a more active role in representing New Zealand overseas, and appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced by a local Supreme Court of New Zealand in 2003. From time to time there is public debate about whether New Zealand should become a republic, and public sentiment is divided on the issue. Foreign policy has been essentially independent since the mid 1980s. New Zealand contributed troops to the Afghanistan War, but did not contribute troops to the Iraq War although some medical and engineering units were sent. For a developed country, New Zealand's economy is still very dependent on farming, although the old trinity of meat, dairy and wool has been supplemented by fruit, wine, timber and other products. Tourism is a major industry, and the country has been successful in attracting several major film productions, most notably the Lord of the Rings trilogy, directed by New Zealander Peter Jackson, which in turn bolstered New Zealand's tourism image.

Recent earthquakes
New Zealand's location at the southern end of the Pacific Rim of Fire has produced many earthquakes.454 Attracting worldwide attention was one on 22 February 2011 that hit the second largest city Christchurch with 6.3 magnitude. This earthquake was an aftershock of a 7.1 magnitude earthquake the previous September. The 2010 earthquake caused severe damage to Christchurch and the Canterbury region, but there was no loss of life. However, the 2011 earthquake's shallow depth and closer proximity to Christchurch caused severe damage to the city and the loss of over 170 lives.

Further reading
Michael King (2003) The Penguin History of New Zealand. Immensely popular, this well-written and comprehensive single volume history is probably the best place to start for those new to New Zealand history.

454See "In the Shadow of Volcanoes"

James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from the Polynesian settlement to the end of the nineteenth century (1996) and Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders from 1880 to the Year 2000 (2001). Although Belichs history of New Zealand appears in two large volumes, it is not heavy going as it is full of anecdote and humour. The two books are the most academically respected histories in decades; they are very comprehensive and include several new and important theories. They are required reading for anyone making a serious study of New Zealand history. Ranginui Walker (2004), Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. The only general history written from a Mori perspective; fair, informative and interesting. Keith Sinclair, ed., (1996) The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand. Shorter than most recent general histories and with lots of good illustrations. Keith Sinclair, A History of New Zealand. First published in 1959, this is a classic of New Zealand history. Its updates consist mostly of what has happened since the previous edition, so it is seriously dated. Giselle Byrnes, ed (2009). The New Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-558471-6. Pool, Ian, Arunachalam Dharmalingam, and Janet Sceats. The New Zealand Family since 1840: A Demographic History (Auckland University Press, 2007). 474 pp.) Online reference works The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. www.teara.govt.nz/en/biographies As well as all the Prime Ministers, Mori chiefs, early settlers and sporting legends, this also includes con artists, adventurers and other lesser known but interesting characters from New Zealand's past. Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. www.teara.govt.nz A work still in progress, this will eventually offer short but comprehensive snapshots of most aspects of New Zealand, past and present. nzhistory.net.nz An authoritative and fairly comprehensive online source, produced by the History Group of the Ministry for Culture and Heritage. The Cyclopedia of New Zealand 18971908. Vanity press encyclopedia covering people, organisations and places. Recently digitised by the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre and available online. Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 50-volume set now digitised by the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre Campaign histories and the regimental histories covering New Zealand's involvement in the First World War by a variety of authors, digitised by the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre New Zealand history at the New Zealand Electronic Text Centre

External links
History of New Zealand - a history of New Zealand. New Zealand in History - an overview of pre-historic, colonial and modern periods. Catholic Encyclopedia - entry on New Zealand from the 1911 edition Official site of the Treaty of Waitangi Waitangi Treaty Grounds website NZHistory.net.nz - New Zealand history website from the Ministry for Culture and Heritage, including an ever-growing number of multimedia features on a wide range of topics.

Treaty of Waitangi
Treaty of Waitangi Te Tiriti o Waitangi Treaty to establish a British Governor of New Zealand, consider Mori ownership of their lands and other properties, and gave Mori the rights of British subjects.

One of the few extant copies of the Treaty of Waitangi Drafted 4 5 February 1840 by William Hobson with the help of his secretary, James Freeman, and British Resident James Busby 6 February 1840 Waitangi, Bay of Islands, New Zealand, and various other locations. Currently held at Archives New Zealand, Wellington. Representatives of the British Crown,

Signed Location

Signatories

various Mori chiefs from the northern North Island, and later a further 500 signatories. Languages English, Mori Treaty of Waitangi at Wikisource The Treaty of Waitangi (Mori: Tiriti o Waitangi) is a treaty first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and various Mori chiefs from the North Island of New Zealand. The Treaty established a British Governor of New Zealand, recognised Mori ownership of their lands and other properties, and gave the Mori the rights of British subjects. The English and Mori versions of the Treaty differed significantly, so there is no consensus as to exactly what was agreed to. From the British point of view, the Treaty gave Britain sovereignty over New Zealand, and gave the Governor the right to govern the country. Mori believed they ceded to the Crown a right of governance in return for protection, without giving up their authority to manage their own affairs.455 After the initial signing at Waitangi, copies of the Treaty were taken around New Zealand and over the following months many other chiefs signed. In total there are nine copies of the Treaty of Waitangi including the original signed on 6 February 1840.456 Around 500 chiefs, including at least 13 females, signed the Treaty of Waitangi.457 Until the 1970s, the Treaty was generally ignored by both the courts and parliament, although it was usually depicted in New Zealand history as a generous act on the part of the Crown.458 From at least the 1860s, Mori have looked to the Treaty for rights and remedies for land loss and unequal treatment by the state, with little success. From the late 1960s Mori began drawing attention to breaches of the Treaty, and subsequent histories have emphasised problems with its translation.459 In 1975 the Waitangi Tribunal was established as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with researching breaches of the Treaty by the Crown or its agents, and suggesting means of redress.

455"Meaning of the Treaty". Waitangi Tribunal. 2011. . Retrieved 12 July 2011. 456"Treaty of Waitangi Te Tiriti o Waitangi". Archives New Zealand. . Retrieved 10 August 2011. 457"Treaty of Waitangi". Waitangi Tribunal. . Retrieved 10 August 2011. 458"The Treaty in practice: The Treaty debated". nzhistory.net.nz. . Retrieved 10 August 2011. 459"Treaty of Waitangi Meaning". Waitangi Tribunal. . Retrieved 10 August 2011.

Today it is generally considered the founding document of New Zealand as a nation. Despite this, the Treaty is often the subject of heated debate. Many Mori feel that the Crown did not fulfill its obligations under the Treaty, and have presented evidence of this before sittings of the Tribunal. Non-Mori New Zealanders have suggested that Mori may be abusing the Treaty in order to claim "special privileges".460 The Crown, in most cases, is not obliged to act on the recommendations of the Tribunal but nonetheless in many instances has accepted that it breached the Treaty and its principles. Settlements to date have consisted of hundreds of millions of dollars in cash and assets, as well as apologies. The date of the signing has been celebrated as a national holiday, now called Waitangi Day, since 1974.

Background
James Busby, British Resident in New Zealand

Early in the 19th century, Mori were perturbed by the behaviour and intentions of traders, whalers and sealers who had come to the country, especially in the Bay of Islands. The introduction of muskets devastated the Mori population in a series of Musket Wars in the early 19th century.461 In 1831, thirteen chiefly rangatira from the far north of the country met at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV asking for help to guard their lands. Specifically, the chiefs sought protection from the French, "the tribe of Marion", and it is the first known plea for British intervention, written by Mori.462 In response, the British Government sent James Busby in 1832 to be the British Resident in New Zealand. In 1834 Busby drafted a document known as the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand which he and 35 northern Mori chiefs signed at Waitangi on 28 October 1835, establishing those chiefs as representatives of a proto-state under the title of the "United Tribes of New Zealand". This document was not well received by the Colonial Office in Britain, and it was decided that a new policy for New Zealand was needed as a corrective.463

460Dr Donald Brash (26 March 2004). "Orewa Speech Nationhood". . Retrieved 20 March 2011. 461Michael King (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14301867-1. 462Binney, Judith (2007). Te Kerikeri 17701850, The Meeting Pool, Bridget Williams Books (Wellington) in association with Craig Potton Publishing (Nelson). ISBN 1-877242-38-1. Chapter 13, "The Mori Leaders' Assembly, Kororipo P, 1831", by Manuka Henare, pp 114116. 463Paul Moon (5 October 2010). "Paul Moon: Agreement long ago left in tatters". .

From May to July 1836, Royal Navy officer Captain William Hobson, under instruction from Sir Richard Bourke, visited New Zealand to investigate claims of lawlessness in its settlements. Hobson recommended in his report that British sovereignty be established over New Zealand, in small pockets similar to the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada.464 Hobson's report was forwarded to the Colonial Office. From April to May 1837, the House of Lords held a select committee into the "State of the Islands of New Zealand". The New Zealand Association (later the New Zealand Company), missionaries and Royal Navy all made submissions to the committee. The committee recommended a treaty be concluded with Mori.465 Historian Claudia Orange claims that the Colonial Office had initially planned a "Mori New Zealand" in which European settlers would be accommodated, but by 1839 had shifted to "a settler New Zealand in which a place had to be kept for Mori" due to pressure from the New Zealand Company466 which hurriedly dispatched the Tory to New Zealand on 12 May 1839467 (arriving in Port Nicholson (Wellington) on 20 September 1839 to purchase land) and plans by French Captain Jean Franois L'Anglois for a French colony in Akaroa.468 On 15 June 1839 new Letters Patent were issued to expand the territory of New South Wales to include the entire territory of New Zealand, from latitude 34 South to 47 10 South, and from longitude 166 5 East to 179 East.469 Governor of New South Wales George Gipps was appointed Governor over New Zealand. This was the first clear expression of British intent to annexe New Zealand.
Captain William Hobson

464Paul Moon, ed (2010). New Zealand Birth Certificates 50 of New Zealand's Founding Documents. AUT Media. ISBN 9780958299718. 465 466 467"Ships, Famous. Tory". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. . 468"A Toe-Hold at Akaroa French Colonial Aspirations in Nouvelle-Zalande". . Retrieved 30 June 2009. 469Morag McDowell & Duncan Webb. The New Zealand Legal System. LexisNexis.

Captain William Hobson was called to the Colonial Office on the evening of 14 August 1839 and given instructions to take the constitutional steps needed to establish a British colony. Historian Paul Moon believes the instructions were written by Sir James Stephen, then head of the Colonial Office.470 However, T. Lindsay Buick in his landmark 1914 book 'The Treaty of Waitangi:or how New Zealand became a British Colony', clearly reproduces written instructions drafted by Edward Cardwell of the Colonial Office (Cardwell later became Viscount Cardwell and was most noted for his reforms of the British Army after the disaster of the Crimean War). Hobson was appointed Consul to New Zealand. He was instructed to negotiate a voluntary transfer of sovereignty from Mori to the British Crown as the House of Lords select committee had recommended in 1837.471 Hobson left London on 15 August 1839 and was sworn in as LieutenantGovernor in Sydney on 14 January, finally arriving in the Bay of Islands on 29 January 1840. Meanwhile a second ship, the Cuba, had arrived in Port Nicholson on 3 January with a survey party to prepare for settlement.472 The first ship carrying immigrants arrived on 22 January the Aurora.473 On 30 January 1840 Hobson attended the Christ Church at Kororareka (Russell) where he publicly read a number of proclamations. The first was the Letters Patent 1839, in relation to the extension of the boundaries of New South Wales to include the islands of New Zealand. The second was in relation to Hobson's own appointment as Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand. The third was in relation to land transactions (notably on the issue of pre-emption).474

470Paul Moon (14 August 2009). "Urge to 'civilise' behind NZ's quiet conception". The New Zealand Herald. . Retrieved 14 August 2009. 471Scholefield, G. (1930). Captain William Hobson. pp. 202203. (Instructions from Lord Normanby to Captain Hobson dated 14 August 1839) 472"Today in History". NZHistory. . 473Wises New Zealand Guide, 7th Edition, 1979. p. 499. 474King, Marie. (1949). A Port in the North: A Short History of Russell. p. 38.

Without a draft document prepared by lawyers or Colonial Office officials, Hobson was forced to write his own treaty with the help of his secretary, James Freeman, and British Resident James Busby, neither of whom was a lawyer. Historian Paul Moon believes certain articles of the Treaty resemble the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), the British Sherbo Agreement (1825) and the Treaty between Britain and Soombia Soosoos (1826).475 The entire treaty was prepared in four days.476 Realising that a treaty in English could be neither understood, debated or agreed to by Mori, Hobson instructed missionary Henry Williams and his son Edward to translate the document into Mori and this was done overnight on 4 February.

475"Paul Moon: Hope for watershed in new Treaty era". The New Zealand Herald. 13 January 2010. . Retrieved 15 January 2010. 476

Debate
On 5 February copies of the treaty in both languages were put before a gathering of northern chiefs inside a large marquee on the lawn in front of Busby's house at Waitangi. Hobson read the treaty aloud in English and Williams read his Mori version. Mori chiefs (rangatira) then debated the treaty for five hours, much of which was recorded and translated by the Paihia missionary station printer, William Colenso.477 Rewa,a Catholic chief, who had been influenced by the French Catholic Bishop Pompelier, said "The Mori people don't want a governor! We aren't European. It's true that we've sold some of our lands. But this country is still ours! We chiefs govern this land of our ancestors", Moka 'Kainga-mataa' argued that all land unjustly purchased by Europeans should be returned.478 Whai asked: "Yesterday I was cursed by a white man. Is that the way things are going to be?".Protestant Chiefs such as Hone Heke, Pumuka, Te Wharerahi, Tamati Waka Nene and his brother Eruera Maihi Patuone were accepting of the Governor.479 Hone Heke said "Governor, you should stay with us and be like a father. If you go away then the French or the rum sellers will take us Mori people over. How to you. Some of you tell Hobson to go. But that's not going to solve our difficulties. We have already sold so much land here in the north. We have no way of controlling the Europeans who have settled on it. I'm amazed to hear you telling him to go! Why didn't you tell the traders and grog-sellers to go years ago? There are too many Europeans here now and there are children that will unite our races".480.The French Catholic Bishop Pompelier,who had been counselling the many Catholic Maori in the north concerning the treaty,urged them to be very wary of the treaty and not to sign anything. He left after the initial discussions and was not present when the chiefs signed. Afterward, the chiefs then moved to a river flat below Busby's house and lawn and continued deliberations late into the night.

Signing
One of the signatories, Hone Heke, with his wife Hariata

477Colenso, William (1890). The Authentic and Genuine History of the Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: By Authority of George Didsbury, Government Printer. . Retrieved 31 August 2011. 478Orange, Claudia (2004). An Ilustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books. ISBN 1-877242-16-0. 479 480

Although Hobson had occur on 7 February, on February 45 chiefs were hastily arranged for this Hobson headed the 40 or so Mori chiefs, to sign the treaty. As each "He iwi tahi ttou", are now one people".482 Present at the signing United States Exploring Altogether, 150 Northern signed the treaty.<P285Orange.Bridget Wiliams from the Waikato/Tainui treaty.<P298-302 Treaty Bridget Williams Books To enhance the authority further copies were made country to gather the Manukau-Kawhia copy, the Waikato-Manukau copy, the Tauranga copy, the Bay of Plenty copy, the Herald-Bunbury copy, the Henry Williams copy, the East Coast copy and the Printed copy.

planned for the signing to the morning of 6 ready to sign. Hobson to occur.481 British signatories. Of the Hone Heke was the first chief signed, Hobson said meaning (in English) "We were members of the Expedition.483 . chiefs ,mainly Nga Puhi 292 Treaty of Waitangi.C Books. 2004> 44 Chiefs rohe signed the of Waitangi. C Orange. 2004> of the treaty, eight and sent around the additional signatures:

About 50 meetings were held from February to September 1840 to discuss and sign the copies, and a further 500 signatures were added to the treaty. A number of chiefs and some tribal groups refused to sign, including Ptatau Te Wherowhero (Waikato iwi), Tuhoe, Te Arawa and Ngti Tuwharetoa and possibly Moka 'Kainga-mataa'. Some were not given the opportunity to sign.484 A number of non-signatory Waikato and Central North Island chiefs would later form a kind of confederacy with an elected monarch called the Kingitanga. (The Kingitanga Movement would later form a primary anti-government force in the New Zealand Land Wars.)
481 482 483"...a disastrous circumstance for the natives...", Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, Vol2, p376 484

Nonetheless, on 21 May 1840, Lieutenant-Governor Hobson proclaimed sovereignty over the whole country, (the North Island by Treaty and the South Island by discovery) and New Zealand was constituted as a colony separate from New South Wales on 16 November 1840. The anniversary of the signing of the Treaty is now a New Zealand public holiday, Waitangi Day, on 6 February. The first Waitangi Day was not until 1947 (although there were some commemorations before that) and the day was not made a public holiday until 1974. The commemoration has often been the focus of protest by Mori and frequently attracts controversy. The anniversary is officially commemorated at the Treaty house at Waitangi, where the Treaty was first signed.

Treaty copies
In 1841, the Treaty narrowly escaped destruction when the government offices in Auckland were destroyed by fire. When the capital was relocated from Auckland to Wellington in 1865, the Treaty documents were fastened together and deposited in a safe in the Colonial Secretary's office. The documents were untouched until they were moved to Wellington in 1865, when a list of signatories was produced. In 1877, the English language rough draft of the Treaty was published along with photolithographic facsimiles of the Treaty, and the originals were returned to storage. In 1908, Dr Hocken found the Treaty in poor condition, partly eaten by rodents. The document was restored by the Dominion Museum in 1913. In February 1940, the Treaty was taken to Waitangi for display in the Treaty house during the Centenary celebrations this was possibly the first time the Treaty had been on public display since it was signed. After the outbreak of war with Japan, the Treaty was placed with other state documents in an outsize luggage trunk and deposited for secure custody with the Public Trustee at Palmerston North by the local MP, who did not tell staff what was in the case. However, as the case was too large to fit in the safe, the Treaty spent the war at the side of a back corridor in the Public Trust office. In 1956, the Department of Internal Affairs placed the Treaty into the care of the Alexander Turnbull Library and it was eventually displayed in 1961. Further preservation steps were taken in 1966, with improvements to the display conditions. From 1977 to 1980, the library extensively restored the documents before the Treaty was deposited in the Reserve Bank. In anticipation of a decision to exhibit the treaty in 1990 (the sesquicentennial of the signing), full documentation and reproduction photography was carried out. Several years of planning culminated with the opening of the Constitution Room at the then National Archives by Mike Moore, Prime Minister of New Zealand, in November 1990. The documents are currently on permanent display in the Constitution Room at Archives New Zealand's headquarters in Wellington.

Meaning and interpretation

"The Treaty is a Fraud" movement in the 1980s. poster from Mori protest

The Treaty itself is three articles. The first version grants the (actually the United over New Zealand. The guarantees to the chiefs undisturbed possession Estates Forests properties." It also sell land only to the guarantees to all Mori other British subjects.

short, consisting of only article of the English "Queen of England" Kingdom) sovereignty second article full "exclusive and of their Lands and Fisheries and other specifies that Mori will Crown. The third article the same rights as all

The English and Mori versions differ. This has made it difficult to interpret the Treaty and continues to undermine its effect. The most critical difference revolves around the interpretation of three Mori words: kwanatanga (governorship), which is ceded to the Queen in the first article; rangatiratanga (chieftainship) not mana (which was stated in the Declaration of Independence just five years before the Treaty was signed), which is retained by the chiefs in the second; and taonga (property or valued possessions), which the chiefs are guaranteed ownership and control of, also in the second article. Few Mori had good understanding of either sovereignty or "governorship", as understood by 19th century Europeans, and so some academics, such as Moana Jackson, question whether Mori fully understood that they were ceding sovereignty to the British Crown. Furthermore, kwanatanga is a loan translation from 'governorship' and was not part of the Mori language. The term had been used by Henry Williams in his translation of the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand which was signed by 35 northern Mori chiefs at Waitangi on 28 October 1835.485 The Declaration of Independence of New Zealand had stated 'Ko te Kingitanga ko te mana i te w[h]enua' to describe 'all sovereign power and authority in the land'.486

485"The Declaration of Independence". Translation from Archives New Zealand , New Zealand History online. . Retrieved 2010-08-18. 486

There is considerable debate about what would have been a more appropriate term. Some scholars, notably Ruth Ross, argue that mana (prestige, authority) would have more accurately conveyed the transfer of sovereignty.487 However, it has more recently been argued by others, for example Judith Binney, that mana would not have been appropriate. This is because mana is not the same thing as sovereignty, and also because no-one can give up their mana.488 The English language version recognises Mori rights to "properties", which seems to imply physical and perhaps intellectual property. The Mori version, on the other hand, mentions "taonga", meaning "treasures" or "precious things". In Mori usage the term applies much more broadly than the English concept of legal property, and since the 1980s courts have found that the term can encompass intangible things such as language and culture.489490491 Even where physical property such as land is concerned, differing cultural understandings as to what types of land are able to be privately owned have caused problems, as for example in the foreshore and seabed controversy of 200304. The pre-emption clause is generally not well translated, and many Mori apparently believed that they were simply giving the British Queen first offer on land, after which they could sell it to anyone. Doubt has been cast on whether Hobson himself actually understood the concept of pre-emption. Another, less important, difference is that Ingarani, meaning England alone, is used throughout in the Mori version, whereas "the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland" is used in the first paragraph of the English. The entire issue is further complicated by the fact that, at the time, Mori society was an oral rather than literate one. Mori present at the signing of the Treaty would have placed more value and reliance on what Hobson and the missionaries said, rather than the words of the actual Treaty.492

487Ross, R. M. (1972). "Te Tiriti o Waitangi: Texts and Translations". New Zealand Journal of History 6 (2): 139141. 488Binney, Judith (1989). "The Maori and the Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi". Towards 1990: Seven Leading Historians Examine Significant Aspects of New Zealand History. pp. 2031. 489The Maori Broadcasting Claim: A Pakeha Economists Perspective. Brian Easton. 1990. . Retrieved 1 September 2011. 490Report of the Waitangi Tribunal on Claims Concerning the Allocation of Radio Frequencies (Wai 26). Waitangi Tribunal. 1990. . Retrieved 1 September 2011. 491Radio Spectrum Management and Development Final Report (Wai 776). Waitangi Tribunal. 1999. . Retrieved 1 September 2011. 492Belich, James (1996), Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century, pp.1956.

Mori beliefs and attitudes towards ownership and use of land were different from those prevailing in Britain and Europe. The chiefs saw themselves as 'kaitiaki' or guardians of the land, and would traditionally grant permission for the land to be used for a time for a particular purpose. Some may have thought that they were leasing the land rather than selling it, leading to disputes with the occupant settlers. A northern chief, Nopera Panakareao, also early on summarised his understanding of the Treaty as "the shadow of the land is to the Queen, but the substance remains to us.", even as a British official later remarked that the Mori would discover that the British had acquired "something more than the shadow.". Nopera's later reversed his earlier statement feeling that the substance of the land had indeed gone to the Queen; only the shadow remained for the Mori.493

Effects
In November 1840 a royal charter was signed by Queen Victoria, establishing New Zealand as a Crown colony separate from New South Wales from May 1841. The short-term effect of the Treaty was to prevent the sale of Mori land to anyone other than the Crown. This was intended to protect Mori from the kinds of shady land purchases which had alienated indigenous peoples in other parts of the world from their land with minimal compensation. Indeed, anticipating the Treaty, the New Zealand Company made several hasty land deals and shipped settlers from Great Britain to New Zealand, assuming that the settlers would not be evicted from land they occupied. Essentially the Treaty was an attempt to establish a system of property rights for land with the Crown controlling and overseeing land sale to prevent abuse. Initially this worked well. Mori were eager to sell land, and settlers eager to buy. The Crown mediated the process to ensure that the true owners were properly identified (difficult for tribally owned land) and fairly compensated, by the standards of the time. However after a while Mori became disillusioned and less willing to sell, while the Crown came under increasing pressure from settlers wishing to buy. Consequently government land agents were involved in a number of dubious land purchases. Agreements were negotiated with only one owner of tribally owned land and in some cases land was purchased from the wrong people altogether. Eventually this led to the New Zealand Wars which culminated in the confiscation of a large part of the Waikato and Taranaki.

493From Zero to 360 degrees: Cultural Ownership in a Post-European Age Mane-Wheoki, Jonathan; University of Canterbury, International Council of Museums, Council for Education and Cultural Action Conference, New Zealand, via the Christchurch Art Gallery website. Accessed 27 October 2009.

In later years, this oversight role was vested in the Native Land Court under the Native Land Court Act of 1862, and later renamed the Mori Land Court. It was through this court that much Mori land was alienated, and the way in which it functioned is much criticised today. Over the longer term, the land purchase aspect of the Treaty declined in importance, while the clauses of the Treaty which deal with sovereignty and Mori rights took on greater importance. The treaty was never ratified by Britain and carried no legal force in New Zealand for over a century, finally receiving limited recognition in 1975 with the passage of the Treaty of Waitangi Act. The Colonial Office and early New Zealand governors were initially fairly supportive of the Treaty as it gave them authority over both New Zealand Company settlers and Mori. As the settlers were granted representative and responsible government with the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Treaty became less effective, although it was used to justify the idea that Waikato and Taranaki were rebels against the Crown in the wars of the 1860s. Court cases later in the 19th century, especially Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington (1877), established the principle that the Treaty was a 'legal nullity' which could be ignored by the courts and the government. This argument was supported by the claim that New Zealand had become a colony when annexed by proclamation in January 1840, before the treaty was signed. Furthermore, Hobson only claimed to have taken possession of the North Island by Treaty. The South Island he claimed for Britain by right of discovery, by observing that Mori were so sparse in the South Island, that it could be considered uninhabited. Despite this, Mori frequently used the Treaty to argue for a range of issues, including greater independence and return of confiscated and unfairly purchased land. This was especially the case from the mid-19th century, when they lost numerical superiority and generally lost control of most of the country. However irrelevant in law, the Treaty returned to the public eye after the Treaty house and grounds were purchased by Governor-General Viscount Bledisloe in the early 1930s and donated to the nation. The dedication of the site as a national reserve in 1934 was probably the first major event held there since the 1840s. The profile of the Treaty was further raised by the centenary of 1940. For most of the 20th century, text books, government publicity and many historians touted it as the moral foundation of colonisation and to set race relations in New Zealand above those of colonies in North America, Africa and Australia. Its lack of legal significance in 1840 and subsequent breaches tended to be overlooked until the 1970s, when these issues were raised by Mori protest.

Legal standing
The Treaty itself has never been ratified or enacted as statute law in New Zealand, although it does appear in authoritative collections of treaties, and is sometimes referred to in specific pieces of legislation. There are two major points of legal debate concerning the Treaty:

Whether or not the Treaty was the means by which the British Crown gained sovereignty over New Zealand, and Whether or not the Treaty is binding on the Crown.

Sovereignty
Although the Treaty was considered to be Mori consenting to British sovereignty over the whole country, the actual proclamation of sovereignty was made by Hobson on 21 May 1840 (the North Island by treaty and the South by discovery Hobson was unaware his agents were collecting signatures for the Treaty in the South Island at this stage).494 This was in response to New Zealand Company attempts to establish a separate colony in Wellington. The proclamation was published four months after the signing of the Treaty, in the New Zealand Advertiser and Bay Of Islands Gazette issue of 19 June 1840, the proclamation "asserts on the grounds of Discovery, the Sovereign Rights of Her Majesty over the Southern Islands of New Zealand, commonly called 'The Middle Island' (South Island) and 'Stewarts Island' (Stewart Island/Rakiura); and the Island, commonly called 'The Northern Island', having being ceded Sovereignty to Her Majesty."495 In the 1877 Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington judgement, Prendergast argued that the Treaty was a 'simple nullity' in terms of transferring sovereignty from Mori to Britain.496 This remained the legal orthodoxy until at least the 1970s.497 Since then, legal commentators have argued that whatever the state of Mori government in 1840, the British had acknowledged Mori sovereignty with the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835.498 Therefore, if both parties had agreed on the Treaty it was valid, in a pragmatic if not necessarily a legal sense. There has been some popular acceptance of the idea that the Treaty transferred sovereignty since the early twentieth century. Popular histories of New Zealand and the Treaty often claimed that the Treaty was an example of British benevolence and therefore an honourable contract.499

494 495"New Zealand Advertiser and Bay Of Islands Gazette, 19 June 1840". Hocken Library. . Retrieved 22 April 2010. 496Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington (1877) 3 NZ Jurist Reports (NS) Supreme Court, p72. 497Helen Robinson, 'Simple Nullity or Birth of Law and Order? The Treaty of Waitangi in Legal and Historiographical Discourse from 1877 to 1970', NZ Universities Law Review, 24, 2 (2010), p262. 498Peter Adams (1977). Fatal necessity: British intervention in New Zealand, 18301847. Auckland: Auckland University Press. 499Robinson, 'Simple Nullity or Birth of Law and Order?', p264.

The Waitangi Tribunal, in Te Paparahi o te Raki inquiry (Wai 1040)500 is in the process of considering the Mori and Crown understandings of He Whakaputanga o te Rangatiratanga / The Declaration of Independence 1835 and Te Tiriti o Waitangi / the Treaty of Waitangi 1840. This aspect of the inquiry raises issues as to the nature of sovereignty and whether the Maori signatories to the Treaty of Waitangi intended to transfer sovereignty.501

Binding on the Crown?

While the above issue is mostly academic, since the Crown does have sovereignty in New Zealand, the question of whether the Crown is bound by the Treaty has been hotly contested since 1840. This has been a point of a number of court cases: R v Symonds (1847). The Treaty was found to be binding on the Crown. Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington (1877). Judge James Prendergast called the Treaty a simple nullity and claimed that it was neither a valid treaty nor binding on the Crown. Although the Treatys status was not a major part of the case, Prendergasts judgment on the Treatys validity was considered definitive for many decades. Te Heuheu Tukino v Aotea District Maori Land Board (1938). The Treaty was seen as valid in terms of the transfer of sovereignty, but the judge ruled that as it was not part of New Zealand law it was not binding on the Crown. New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney General (1987). Also known as the SOE (State Owned Enterprises) case, this defined the "principles of the Treaty". The State Owned Enterprises Act stated that nothing in the Act permitted the government to act inconsistently with the principles of the Treaty, and the proposed sale of government assets was found to be in breach of these. This case established the principle that if the Treaty is mentioned in a piece of legislation, it takes precedence over other parts of that legislation should they come into conflict. New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney General (1990). This case concerned FM radio frequencies and found that the Treaty could be relevant even concerning legislation which did not mention it.502

500"Te Paparahi o Te Raki (Northland) inquiry". Waitangi-tribunal.govt.nz. . Retrieved 2011-1101. 501Paul Moon (2002) Te Ara Ki Te Tiriti: The Path to the Treaty of Waitangi 502Durie, Mason (1998), Te Mana, Te Kawanatanga: The Politics of Maori Self-Determination, pp. 17984.

Since the late 1980s the Treaty has become much more legally important. However because of uncertainties about its meaning and translation, it still does not have a firm place in New Zealand law or jurisprudence. Another issue is whether the Crown in Right of New Zealand is bound. The separate New Zealand Crown was created when New Zealand adopted of the Statute of Westminster in 1947, which granted legislative independence to New Zealand and created the Crown in Right of New Zealand.503 Dr Martyn Finlay rejected this contention.504

Legislation
The English version of the Treaty appeared as a schedule to the Waitangi Day Act 1960, but this did not technically make it a part of statute law. The Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975 established the Waitangi Tribunal, but this initially had very limited powers. The Act was amended in 1985 to increase the Tribunal membership and enable it to investigate Treaty breaches back to 1840. The membership was further increased in another amendment, in 1988. Although the Treaty has never been incorporated into New Zealand municipal law, its provisions were first incorporated into legislation as early as the Land Claims Ordinance 1841 and the Native Rights Act 1865.505 Later the Treaty was incorporated into New Zealand law in the State Owned Enterprises Act 1986. Section 9 of the Act said that nothing in the Act permitted the Crown to act in a manner that is inconsistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. This allowed the courts to consider the Crown's actions in terms of compliance with the Treaty (see below, "The Principles of the Treaty"). Contemporary legislation has followed suit, giving the Treaty an increased legal importance. The Bill of Rights White Paper proposed that the Treaty be entrenched in the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, however this proposal was never carried through to the legislation, with many Mori being concerned that this would relegate the Treaty to a lesser position, and enable the electorate (who under the original Bill of Rights would be able to repeal certain sections by referendum) to remove the Treaty from the Bill of Rights altogether. In response to a backlash against the Treaty, politician Winston Peters the 13th Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand (and founder of the New Zealand First Party) and others have campaigned to remove vague references to the Treaty from New Zealand law, although the New Zealand Mori Council case of 1990 indicated that even if this does happen, the Treaty may still be legally relevant.

503New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, Volume 279. Clerk of the House of Representatives. 17 October November 27. 504 505Jamieson, Nigel J. (2004), Talking Through the Treaty Truly a Case of Pokarekare Ana or Troubled Waters, New Zealand Association for Comparative Law Yearbook 10

"Principles of the Treaty"

The "Principles of the Treaty" are often mentioned in contemporary politics.506 They originate from the famous case brought in the High Court by the New Zealand Mori Council (New Zealand Mori Council v. Attorney-General507) in 1987. There was great concern at that time that the ongoing restructuring of the New Zealand economy by the then Fourth Labour Government, specifically the transfer of assets from former Government departments to State-owned enterprises. Because the state-owned enterprises were essentially private firms owned by the government, they would prevent assets which had been given by Mori for use by the state from being returned to Mori by the Waitangi Tribunal. The Mori Council sought enforcement of section 9 of the State Owned Enterprises Act 1986 "Nothing in this Act shall permit the Crown to act in a manner that is inconsistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi". The Court of Appeal, in a judgment of its then President Sir Robin Cooke, decided upon the following Treaty principles: The acquisition of sovereignty in exchange for the protection of rangatiratanga. The Treaty established a partnership, and imposes on the partners the duty to act reasonably and in good faith. The freedom of the Crown to govern. The Crowns duty of active protection. The duty of the Crown to remedy past breaches. Mori to retain rangatiratanga over their resources and taonga and to have all the privileges of citizenship. Duty to consult. In 1989, the Fourth Labour Government responded by adopting the following "Principles for Crown Action on the Treaty of Waitangi": Principle of government or the kawanatanga principle Article 1 gives expression to the right of the Crown to make laws and its obligation to govern in accordance with constitutional process. This sovereignty is qualified by the promise to accord the Mori interests specified in article 2 an appropriate priority. This principle describes the balance between articles 1 and 2: the exchange of sovereignty by the Mori people for the protection of the Crown. It was emphasised in the context of this principle that the Government has the right to govern and make laws. Principle of self-management (the rangatiratanga principle)

506He Tirohanga Kawa ki te Tiriti o Waitangi: a guide to the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi as expressed by the Courts and the Waitangi Tribunal. Te Puni Kokiri. 2001. ISBN 0478-09193-1. . Retrieved 8 February 2007. 507[1987] 1 NZLR 641.

Article 2 guarantees to Mori hap (tribes) the control and enjoyment of those resources and taonga that it is their wish to retain. The preservation of a resource base, restoration of tribal self-management, and the active protection of taonga, both material and cultural, are necessary elements of the Crowns policy of recognising rangatiratanga. The Government also recognised the Court of Appeals description of active protection, but identified the key concept of this principle as a right for iwi to organise as iwi and, under the law, to control the resources they own. Principle of equality Article 3 constitutes a guarantee of legal equality between Mori and other citizens of New Zealand. This means that all New Zealand citizens are equal before the law. Furthermore, the common law system is selected by the Treaty as the basis for that equality, although human rights accepted under international law are also incorporated. Article 3 has an important social significance in the implicit assurance that social rights would be enjoyed equally by Mori with all New Zealand citizens of whatever origin. Special measures to attain that equal enjoyment of social benefits are allowed by international law. Principle of reasonable cooperation The Treaty is regarded by the Crown as establishing a fair basis for two peoples in one country. Duality and unity are both significant. Duality implies distinctive cultural development while unity implies common purpose and community. The relationship between community and distinctive development is governed by the requirement of cooperation, which is an obligation placed on both parties by the Treaty. Reasonable cooperation can only take place if there is consultation on major issues of common concern and if good faith, balance, and common sense are shown on all sides. The outcome of reasonable cooperation will be partnership. Principle of redress The Crown accepts a responsibility to provide a process for the resolution of grievances arising from the Treaty. This process may involve courts, the Waitangi Tribunal, or direct negotiation. The provision of redress, where entitlement is established, must take account of its practical impact and of the need to avoid the creation of fresh injustice. If the Crown demonstrates commitment to this process of redress, it will expect reconciliation to result. The "Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Deletion Bill" was introduced to the New Zealand Parliament in 2005 as a private member's bill by New Zealand First MP Doug Woolerton. "This bill eliminates all references to the expressions "the principles of the Treaty", "the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi" and the "Treaty of Waitangi and its principles" from all New Zealand Statutes including all preambles, interpretations, schedules, regulations and other provisos included in or arising from each and every such Statute".508 The bill failed to pass its second reading in November 2007.509
508"Doug Woolerton's Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Deletion Bill". New Zealand First. Archived from the original on 1 July 2007. . Retrieved 13 June 2007. 509"New Zealand Parliament - Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi Deletion Bill". Parliament.nz.

Claims for redress

Reverse of a 1990 one dollar sesquicentenary of the Treaty coin commemorating the of Waitangi.

During the late 1960s Waitangi became the protest movement which the government to to "redress treaty expressed their continuing violations of subsequent legislation as well as inequitable unsympathetic decisions alienating Mori land

and 1970s, the Treaty of focus of a strong Mori rallied around calls for "honour the treaty" and grievances." Mori frustration about the treaty and by government officials, legislation and by the Mori Land Court from its Mori owners.

During the early 1990s, the government began to negotiate settlements of historical (pre-1992) claims. As of September 2008, there have been 23 such settlements of various sizes, totalling approximately $700 million. Settlements generally include financial redress, a formal Crown apology for breaches of the Treaty, and recognition of the group's cultural associations with various sites.

Public opinion
While during the 1990s there was broad agreement between major political parties that the settlement of historical claims was appropriate, in recent years it has become the subject of heightened debate. Claims of a "Treaty of Waitangi Grievance Industry", which profits from making frivolous claims of violations of the Treaty of Waitangi, have been made by a number of political figures, including former National Party leader Don Brash in his 2004 "Orewa Speech".510 Although claims relating to loss of land by Mori are relatively uncontroversial, debate has focused on claims that fall outside common law concepts of ownership, or relate to technologies developed since colonisation. Examples include the ownership of the radio spectrum and the protection of the Mori language. The New Zealand Election Study of 2008 found of the 2,700 voting age New Zealanders surveyed, 37.4% wanted the Treaty removed from New Zealand law, 19.7% were neutral and 36.8% wanted the Treaty kept in law. 39.7% agreed Mori deserved compensation, 15.7% were neutral and 41.2% disagreed.511

2007-11-07. . Retrieved 2011-11-01. 510 511"Part D What are Your Opinions?". New Zealand Election Study. 2008. .

Further reading
Adams, Peter (1977). Fatal Necessity: British Intervention in New Zealand 18301847. Auckland: Auckland University Press. ISBN 0-19-647950-9. Durie, Mason (1998). Te Mana, Te Kwanatanga; The Politics of Mori SelfDetermination. Auckland: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-558367-1. Moon, Paul (2002). Te ara k te Tiriti (The Path to the Treaty of Waitangi). Auckland: David Ling. ISBN 0-908990-83-9. Orange, Claudia (1989). The Story of a Treaty. Wellington: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-641053-8. Orange, Claudia (1990). An Ilustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-442169-9. Scott, Dick (1975). Ask That Mountain: The Story of Parihaka. Auckland: Heinemann. ISBN 0-7900-0190-X. Walker, Ranginui (2004). Ka whawhai tonu matou (Struggle without End) (rev. ed.). Auckland: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-301945-7. Simpson, Miria. (1990). Nga Tohu O Te Tiriti/Making a Mark: The signatories to the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: National Library of New Zealand. Buick, T Lindsay (1916). The Treaty of Waitangi: or How New Zealand became a British Colony (the first substantial work on the Treaty)

External links
Signatories to the Treaty of Waitangi Official Treaty of Waitangi Information Site Ministry of Culture & Heritage article Office of Treaty Settlements Biography of Moka Te Kainga-mataa The Patuone Website "Was there a Treaty of Waitangi?". Essay by independent scholar and NZ Listener columnist Brian Easton Waitangi Tribunal Text of the Treaty of Waitangi in English and Mori New Zealand Legislation Archives New Zealand site The Trail of Waitangi original research

The "Littlewood Treaty": An Appraisal of Texts and Interpretations Review of historical literature relating to the Littlewood Treaty. Legislative Violations of the Treaty (18401997) at the Network Waitangi Otautahi Waitangi Treaty Ground website

Immigration to New Zealand

"First Scottish Colony for New advertising emigration from Collection of Kelvingrove Art Scotland. Zealand" 1839 poster Scotland to New Zealand. Gallery and Museum, Glasgow,

Immigration to New Polynesian settlement in uninhabited, in the tenth The role of Moriori disputed, with some arrived in New Zealand distinct from Maori, & that the Moriori were a submigration provided a major of the Treaty of Waitangi in immigration has been Isles, but also from Pacific, the Americas, &

Zealand began with New Zealand, then century (approximately). settlement is currently suggesting that the Moriori before the Maori, and were others favouring the view group of Maori. European influx following the signing 1840. Subsequent chiefly from the British continental Europe, the Asia.

Polynesian settlement
Voyagers in the South Pacific discovered the landmass of New Zealand. Eastern Polynesian explorers had settled in New Zealand by approximately the thirteenth century CE. Their arrival gave rise to the Mori culture and the Mori language, both unique to New Zealand, although very closely related to analogues in other parts of Eastern Polynesia. Especially strong resemblances link Mori to the languages and cultures of the Cook and Society Islands, which are regarded as the most likely places of origin. Previous histories of New Zealand contended that New Zealand was settled by Moriori, prior to the arrival of Maori. However this viewpoint seems currently out of favour, with the current consensus being that the Moriori were Maori who settled on the Chatham Islands in the 16th century. What is agreed upon is that Moriori are the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands (Rekohu in Moriori, Wharekauri in Mori), east of the New Zealand archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, and that these people lived by a code of nonviolence and passive resistance (see Nunuku-whenua), which led to their nearextinction at the hands of Taranaki Mori invaders in the 1830s.

European Settlement
Due to New Zealand's geographic isolation, several centuries passed before the next phase of settlement, the arrival of Europeans. Only then did the original inhabitants need to distinguish themselves from the new arrivals, using the term "Mori" which means "ordinary" or "indigenous". The establishment of British colonies in Australia from 1788 and the boom in whaling and sealing in the Southern Ocean brought many Europeans to the vicinity of New Zealand, with some deciding to settle.

Migration from 1840

A poster of the Shaw, Savill & immigration to New Zealand flag of the United Tribes of Albion Line promoting in the 1850s, featuring the New Zealand.

European migration has legacy being left on the structures of New to New Zealand included missionaries, mariners, attracted to natural They came from the Great Britain and (forming the next after the British and Portugal, the The United States, and In 1840 representatives signed the Treaty of chiefs, motivated by colony at Akaroa and New Zealand Company in 1839. British sovereignty was New Zealand in May 1840.

resulted in a deep social and political Zealand. Early visitors whalers, sealers, and merchants, resources in abundance. Australian colonies, Ireland, Germany biggest immigrant group Irish),512 France, Netherlands, Denmark, Canada. of the British Crown Waitangi with Mori plans for a French land purchases by the then proclaimed over

Following the formalising of sovereignty, the organised and structured flow of migrants from Great Britain and Ireland began, and by 1860 more than 100,000 British and Irish settlers lived throughout New Zealand. The Otago Association actively recruited settlers from Scotland, creating a definite Scottish influence in that region, while the Canterbury Association recruited settlers from the south of England, creating a definite English influence over that region.513 By 1870 the non-Mori population reached over 250,000.514

512Germans: First Arrivals (from the Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand) 513"History of Immigration 1840 1852". . 514"History of Immigration 1853 1870". .

Other settlers came from Germany, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe as well as from China and India, but British and Irish settlers made up the vast majority, and did so for the next 150 years.
Plaque commemorating the Canterbury Association in Association would go on to Zealand in 1850. first meeting of the Charing Cross, London. The found Canterbury, New

Between 1881 and the 1920s, the New Zealand Parliament passed legislation that intended to limit Asiatic migration to New Zealand, and prevented Asians from naturalising.515 In particular, the New Zealand government levied a poll tax on Chinese immigrants up until the 1930s. New Zealand finally abolished the poll tax in 1944. An influx of Jewish refugees from central Europe came in the 1930s. Many of the persons of Polish descent in New Zealand arrived as orphans via Siberia and Iran during World War II.

Post World War II migration

With the various agencies of the United Nations dealing with humanitarian efforts following the Second World War, New Zealand accepted about 5,000 refugees and displaced persons from Europe, and more than 1,100 Hungarians between 1956 and 1959 (see Refugee migration into New Zealand). The postWWII immigration included more persons from Greece, Italy, Poland and the former Yugoslavia. New Zealand limited immigration to those who would meet a labour shortage in New Zealand. To encourage those to come, the Government introduced free and assisted passages in 1947, a schema expanded by the National Party administration in 1950. However, when it became clear that not enough skilled migrants would come from the British Isles alone, recruitment began in Northern European countries. New Zealand signed a bilateral agreement for skilled migrants with the Netherlands, and a large number of Dutch immigrants arrived in New Zealand. Others came in the 1950s from Denmark, Germany, Switzerland and Austria to meet needs in specialised occupations.

515"18811914: restrictions on Chinese and others". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. .

By the 1960s, the policy of excluding people based on nationality yielded a population overwhelmingly European in origin. By the mid 1960s, a desire for cheap unskilled labour led to ethnic diversification. In the 1950s and 1960s, New Zealand encouraged migrants from the South Pacific. The country had a large demand for unskilled labour in the manufacturing sector. As long as this demand continued, migration was accepted from the South Pacific, and many temporary workers overstayed their visas. In May 2008, Massey University economist Dr Greg Clydesdale released to the news media an extract of a report, Growing Pains, Evaluations and the Cost of Human Capital, which saw Pacific Islanders as "forming an underclass".516 The report, written by Dr Clydesdale for the Academy of World Business, Marketing & Management Development 2008 Conference in Brazil, and based on data from various government departments, provoked highly controversial debate. Pacific Islands community leaders and academic peer reviewers strongly criticised the report, while a provisional review was lodged by Race Relations Commissioner Joris de Bres.517518 A record number of migrants arrived in the 1970s; 70,000, for example, during 19731974. While these numbers represent many ethnicities, New Zealand had an underlying preference for migrants from "traditional sources", namely Britain, Europe and Northern America due to similaries of language and culture.

Introduction of points-based systems

Along with New Zealand adopting a radical direction of economic practice, Parliament passed a new Immigration Act into law in 1987. This would end the preference for migrants from Britain, Europe or Northern America based on their race, and instead classify migrants on their skills, personal qualities, and potential contribution to New Zealand economy and society. The introduction of the points-based system came under the National government, which pursued this policy-change even more than the previous Labour Party administration. This system resembled that of Canada, and came into effect in 1991. Effectively the New Zealand Immigration Service ranks the qualities sought in the migrants and gives them a priority using a points-based scale. As of 2009 this framework continues to control immigration, however from 2010 the new Immigration Act will replace all protocols and procedures. The Government published the results of an immigration review in December 2006.519 Regulations provide that immigrants must be of good character.
520

516http://www.stuff.co.nz/4553798a6000.html 517Review: Pacific Peoples in New Zealand 518Media7 report & interview on the Clydesdale Report 519"Comprehensive immigration law closer". New Zealand Government. 5 December 2006. . Retrieved 6 November 2007. 520http://glossary.immigration.govt.nz/goodcharacter.htm

New migrant groups

Acquisition of New Zealand 2004/05 (fy). Source: New Zealand residency by citizenship, Department of Labour521

This policy resulted in a wide variety of ethnicities in New Zealand, with people from over 120 countries represented. Between 1991 and 1995 the numbers of those given approval grew rapidly: 26,000 in 1992; 35,000 in 1994; 54,811 in 1995. The minimum target for residency approval was set at 25,000. The number approved was almost twice what was targeted. The Labour-led governments of 19992008 made no change to the Immigration Act 1987, although some changes were made to the 1991 policy. In particular, the minimum IELTS level for skilled migrants was raised from 5.5 to 6.5 in 2002, following concerns that immigrants who spoke English as a second language encountered difficulty getting jobs in their chosen fields.522 Since then, migration from Britain and South Africa has increased, at the expense of immigration from Asia. However, a study-forresidency programme for foreign university students has mitigated this imbalance somewhat. By 2005, New Zealand accepted 60% of the applicants under the Skilled/Business category that awarded points for qualifications and work experience, or business experience and funds they had available. From 1 Aug 2007, NZD$2.5 million is the minimum for the Active Investor Migrant Category . Changes to the point system have also given more weight to job offers as compared to educational degrees. Some Aucklanders cynically joke that most taxi drivers in Auckland tend to be highly qualified engineers or doctors who are unable to then find jobs in their fields once in the country.523

521Home New Zealand Department of Labour Migration Trends 2004/05, accessed 8 December 2007 522"Documents confirm April consideration of language requirement change". New Zealand Government. 20 December 2002. . Retrieved 6 November 2007. 523Collins, Simon (24 April 2007). "Migrants firm's secret weapon". The New Zealand Herald. . Retrieved 4 October 2011.

Recent years
In 20042005 Immigration New Zealand set a target of 45,000, representing 1.5% of the total population. However, the net effect was a population decline, since more left than arrived. 48,815 arrived, and overall the population was 10,000 or 0.25% less than the previous year. Overall though, New Zealand has one of the highest populations of foreign born citizens. In 2005, almost 20% of New Zealanders were born overseas, one of the highest percentages of any country in the world. The Department of Labours sixth annual Migration Trends report shows a 21 per cent rise in work permits issued in the 2005/06 year compared with the previous year. Nearly 100,000 people were issued work permits to work in sectors ranging from IT to horticulture in the 2005/06 year. This compares with around 35,000 work permits issued in 19992000. Around 52,000 people were approved for permanent New Zealand residence in 2005/06. Over 60 per cent were approved under the skilled or business categories.

Other migrant quotas

New Zealand accepts 750 refugees per year mandated by the United Nations. As part of the Pacific Access Category, 650 citizens come from Fiji, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Tonga. 1,100 Samoan citizens come under the Samoan Quota scheme. Once resident, these people can apply to bring other family members to New Zealand under the Family Sponsored stream. Any migrant accepted under these schemes receives permanent residency in New Zealand.

Government views today

Recent statements on immigration by the government have emphasised that New Zealand must compete for its share of skilled and talented migrants, and David Cunliffe, the former immigration minister, has argued that New Zealand was "in a global race for talent and we must win our share".524 With this in mind, a bill (over 400 pages long) has been prepared that was sent to parliament in April 2007. It follows a review of the immigration act. The bill aims to make the process more efficient, and achieves this by giving more power to immigration officers. Rights of appeal are streamlined into a single appeal tribunal. Any involvement of the Human Rights Commission in matters of immigration to New Zealand are removed (Part 11, Clause 350).

524"Where to for Immigration?". New Zealand Government. 19 November 2005. . Retrieved 6 November 2007.

Immigration Act 2009

The new Immigration Act, which passed into law in 2009 replacing the 1987 Act, is aimed to enhance border security and improve the efficiency of the immigration services. Key aspects of the new Act include the ability to use biometrics, a new refugee and protection system, a single independent appeals tribunal and a universal visa system.525

Immigration Advisers Licensing Act 2007

Effective in New Zealand from 4 May 2007, the Immigration Advisers Licensing Act526 requires anyone providing immigration advice to be licensed. It also established the Immigration Advisers Authority to manage the licensing process, both in New Zealand and offshore. From 4 May 2009 it became mandatory for immigration advisers practising in New Zealand to be licensed. The introduction of mandatory licensing for New Zealand-based immigration advisers was designed to protect migrants from unscrupulous operators and provide support for licensed advisers. The licensing managed by the Immigration Advisers Authority Official website establishes and monitors industry standards and sets requirements for continued professional development. As an independent body, the Authority can prosecute unlicensed immigration advisers. Penalties include up to seven years imprisonment and/or fines up to $NZ100,000 for offenders, as well as the possibility of court-ordered reparation payments. It can refer complaints made against licensed advisers to an Independent Tribunal. Immigration advisers who work offshore but give advice about New Zealand immigration matters must obtain a license by 4 May 2010. The Immigration Advisers Authority does not handle immigration applications or inquiries. These are managed by Immigration New Zealand.

New Zealanders Response to Immigration

As in most other countries, immigration is a highly contentious issue and has provoked fierce debate from time to time in New Zealand.

525http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PA0910/S00471.htm 526Immigration Advisers Authority

The political party New Zealand First has frequently criticised immigration on economic, social and cultural grounds. New Zealand First leader Winston Peters has several occasions characterised the rate of Asian immigration into New Zealand as too high; in 2004, he stated: "We are being dragged into the status of an Asian colony and it is time that New Zealanders were placed first in their own country."527 On 26 April 2005, he said: "Maori will be disturbed to know that in 17 years' time they will be outnumbered by Asians in New Zealand", an estimate disputed by Statistics New Zealand, the government's statistics bureau. Peters quickly rebutted that Statistics New Zealand has underestimated the growth-rate of the Asian community in the past.528 In April 2008, deputy New Zealand First party leader Peter Brown drew widespread criticism after voicing similar views and expressing concern at the increase in New Zealand's ethnic Asian population: "We are going to flood this country with Asian people with no idea what we are going to do with them when they come here."529 "The matter is serious. If we continue this open door policy there is real danger we will be inundated with people who have no intention of integrating into our society. The greater the number, the greater the risk. They will form their own mini-societies to the detriment of integration and that will lead to division, friction and resentment." 530

Bibliography
King, M, 2003, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin, Auckland Immigration New Zealand McMillan, K, 2006, Immigration Policy, pg 639 650 in New Zealand Government and Politics, ed. R. Miller, AUP History of Immigration News release from Caritas NZ Immigration Advisers Authority submitted by Mark Fenwick, Communications adviser May 2009

External links
Official New Zealand Immigration Site Official New Zealand Immigration Advisers Authority Site

527"Winston Peters' memorable quotes", The Age, 18 October 2005 528Berry, Ruth (27 April 2005). "Peters Asian warning". The New Zealand Herald. . Retrieved 4 October 2011. 529"Peters defends deputy's anti-Asian immigration comments", TV3, 3 April 2008 530New Zealand Herald: "NZ First's Brown slammed for 'racist' anti-Asian remarks" Apr 3, 2008