n|story of A|rcraft Land|ng A|ds

Cne of Lhe mosL dlfflculL Lasks a plloL has Lo perform ls Lo achleve a smooLh and safe landlng Larly plloLs landed on an open fleld
faclng any dlrecLlon LhaL gave Lhem Lhe besL angle relaLlve Lo Lhe wlnd 8uL as Lrafflc grew and more alrcrafL began Lo
use alrporLs raLher Lhan farms or flelds landlngs became llmlLed Lo cerLaln dlrecLlons Landlng alds were developed Lo help plloLs
flnd Lhe correcL landlng course and Lo make landlng safer
AlrporLs had begun uslng llghLs ln Lhe laLe 1920s when landlng flelds were marked wlLh roLaLlng llghLs so Lhey could be found afLer
dark ln Lhe early 1930s alrporLs lnsLalled Lhe earllesL forms of approach llghLlng 1hese lndlcaLed Lhe correcL angle of descenL and
wheLher Lhe plloL was rlghL on LargeL 1helr approach paLh was called Lhe glldepaLh or glldeslope Cradually Lhe colors of Lhe llghLs
and Lhelr raLes of flash became sLandard worldwlde based on lnLernaLlonal Clvll AvlaLlon CrganlzaLlon (lCAC) sLandards 1he Alr Mall
Servlces lnLermedlaLe or emergency landlng flelds LhaL lL esLabllshed along Lhe alr rouLe used roLaLlng elecLrlc beacons and llghLs
LhaL were seL around Lhe perlmeLer of Lhe fleld
1he lnLroducLlon of Lhe slopellne approach sysLem was a flrsL ln landlng alds ueveloped ln Lhe 1940s Lhe ald conslsLed of llghLs ln
rows LhaL showed Lhe plloL a slmple funnel of Lwo rows LhaL led hlm Lo Lhe end of Lhe runway CLher paLLerns showed hlm when he
was off Lo Lhe rlghL or lefL or Loo hlgh or low 1he sysLem was lnexpenslve Lo bulld and operaLe alLhough lL had some llmlLaLlons and
was noL sulLable for cerLaln alrporLs
8adlo navlgaLlon alds also asslsLed ln landlng Cne Lype lnLroduced ln 1929 was Lhe fourcourse radlo range where Lhe plloL was
gulded by Lhe sLrengLh of Morse code slgnals AnoLher Lype LhaL was Lrled experlmenLally was Lhe lowfrequency radlo beam 1hese
radlo beams flared ouLward from Lhe landlng polnL llke a v" so aL Lhe polnL farLhesL from Lhe runway Lhe beams were wldely
separaLed and lL was easy for Lhe plloL Lo fly beLween Lhem 8uL near Lhe landlng polnL Lhe space beLween Lhe beams was exLremely
narrow and lL was ofLen easy for Lhe plloL Lo mlss Lhe exacL cenLerpolnL LhaL he had Lo hlL for landlng AnoLher new meLhod had a
plloL Lune lnLo a cerLaln frequency aL a checkpolnL far from Lhe alrporL Lhen use a sLopwaLch Lo descend aL a preclse raLe Lo Lhe
Louchdown area of Lhe runway 1hls meLhod also proved dlfflculL
1he lnsLrumenL landlng sysLem (lLS) lncorporaLed Lhe besL feaLures of boLh approach llghLlng and radlo beacons wlLh hlgher
frequency Lransmlsslons 1he lLS palnLed an elecLronlc plcLure of Lhe glldeslope onLo a plloLs cockplL lnsLrumenLs 1esLs of Lhe
sysLem began ln 1929 and Lhe Clvll AeronauLlcs AdmlnlsLraLlon (CAA) auLhorlzed lnsLallaLlon of Lhe sysLem ln 1941 aL slx locaLlons
1he flrsL landlng of a scheduled uS passenger alrllner uslng lLS was on !anuary 26 1938 as a ennsylvanlaCenLral Alrllnes 8oelng
247u flew from WashlngLon uC Lo lLLsburgh and landed ln a snowsLorm uslng only Lhe lLS sysLem
More Lhan one Lype of lLS sysLem was Lrled 1he sysLem evenLually adopLed conslsLed of a course lndlcaLor (called a locallzer) LhaL
showed wheLher Lhe plane was Lo Lhe lefL or rlghL of Lhe runway cenLerllne a gllde paLh or landlng beam Lo show lf Lhe plane was
above or below Lhe gllde slope and Lwo marker beacons for showlng Lhe progress of approach Lo Lhe landlng fleld LqulpmenL ln Lhe
alrplane allowed Lhe plloL Lo recelve Lhe lnformaLlon LhaL was senL so he could keep Lhe crafL on a perfecL fllghL paLh Lo vlsual
conLacL wlLh Lhe runway Approach llghLlng and oLher vlslblllLy equlpmenL are parL of Lhe lLS and also ald Lhe plloL ln landlng ln
2001 Lhe lLS remalns baslcally unchanged
8y 1943 nlne CAA sysLems were operaLlng and 10 addlLlonal locaLlons were under consLrucLlon AnoLher 30 were belng lnsLalled for
Lhe army Cn !anuary 13 1943 Lhe uS Army lnLroduced an lLS wlLh a hlgher frequency LransmlLLer Lo reduce sLaLlc and creaLe
sLralghLer courses called Lhe Army Alr lorces lnsLrumenL Approach SysLem Slgnal SeL 31 ln 1949 Lhe lnLernaLlonal Clvll AvlaLlon
CrganlzaLlon (lCAC) adopLed Lhls army sLandard for all member counLrles ln Lhe 1960s Lhe flrsL lLS equlpmenL for fully bllnd
landlngs became posslble
1he developmenL of radar durlng World War ll led Lo Lhe developmenL of a new preclslonbeam landlng ald called ground conLrol
approach (CCA) CCA worked along wlLh Lhe lLS Lo help planes land aL busy alrporLs 8y 1948 dlsLance measurlng equlpmenL (uML)
was belng used Lo provlde daLa relaLlng Lo Lhe planes dlsLance from Lhe ground 1he lnsLallaLlon of oLher radar conLlnued wlLh Lhe
alrrouLe survelllance Lype of radar and Lhe alrporLsurvelllance radars LhaL were lnsLalled aL a number of alrporLs ln Lhe mld1930s
1hese helped alr Lrafflc conLrollers wlLh Lhelr [ob
Mlcrowave landlng sysLems (MLS) were developed ln Lhe 1980s 1hese sysLems allow plloLs Lo plck a paLh besL sulLed Lo Lhelr Lype
of alrcrafL and Lo descend and land from more dlrecLlons Lhan Lhe lLS Pavlng dlfferenL landlng paLLerns can help reduce nolse
around alrporLs and keep small alrcrafL away from Lhe dangerous vorLlces behlnd large alrcrafL MLS have been adopLed ln Lurope as
replacemenLs for lLS ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes however Lhe lAA halLed furLher developmenL of MLS ln 1994 lnsLead Lhe lAA ls
conslderlng Lhe use of Lechnology based on Lhe global poslLlonlng sysLem (CS) lnsLead of or ln addlLlon Lo exlsLlng mlcrowave
sysLems 1he CS uses saLelllLes for navlgaLlon beLween alrporLs and ls exceedlngly preclse
LlghLs sLlll play an lmporLanL parL ln landlng Modern approach llghLlng can be orlenLed Lo accommodaLe any obsLrucLlons locaLed
near Lhe alrporL LhaL Lhe plloL may need Lo avold before beglnnlng hls descenL Lo Lhe runway LlghLs can even be seL aL a second
angle for larger alrcrafL because Lhose cockplLs are farLher off Lhe ground and Lhe angle of descenL wlll look dlfferenL Lo plloLs ln
Lhese planes lloLs flylng lnLo flelds wlLhouL any sLaff can ofLen Lurn landlng llghLs on or off Lhemselves or change Lhelr brlghLness by
Lunlng Lhelr radlo Lo a cerLaln frequency and cllcklng Lhelr LransmlLLer
PellcopLers have used vlsual landlng procedures for mosL of Lhelr hlsLory and on !une 12 1987 Lhe lAA opened lLs naLlonal
concepLs developmenL and demonsLraLlon hellporL 1hls research hellporL was fully equlpped wlLh lLems such as a mlcrowave
landlng sysLem as well as preclslon approach paLh lndlcaLlon llghLs llke Lhose used by flxedwlng alrcrafL

ueflnlLlon
An lnsLrumenL landlng sysLem (lLS) ls a groundbased lnsLrumenL approach sysLem LhaL provldes preclslon guldance Lo an alrcrafL
approachlng and landlng on a runway uslng a comblnaLlon of radlo slgnals and ln many cases hlghlnLenslLy llghLlng arrays Lo
enable a safe landlng durlng lnsLrumenL meLeorologlcal condlLlons (lMC) such as low celllngs or reduced vlslblllLy due Lo fog raln or
blowlng snow
lnsLrumenL approach procedure charLs (or approach plaLes) are publlshed for each lLS approach provldlng plloLs wlLh Lhe needed
lnformaLlon Lo fly an lLS approach durlng lnsLrumenL fllghL rules (ll8) operaLlons lncludlng Lhe radlo frequencles used by Lhe lLS
componenLs or navalds and Lhe mlnlmum vlslblllLy requlremenLs prescrlbed for Lhe speclflc approach
8adlonavlgaLlon alds musL keep a cerLaln degree of accuracy (seL by lnLernaLlonal sLandards of CAS1/lCAC) Lo assure Lhls ls Lhe
case fllghL lnspecLlon organlzaLlons perlodlcally check crlLlcal parameLers wlLh properly equlpped alrcrafL Lo callbraLe and cerLlfy lLS
preclslon

rlnclple of operaLlon
An lLS conslsLs of Lwo lndependenL subsysLems one provldlng laLeral guldance (locallzer) Lhe oLher verLlcal guldance (gllde slope or
gllde paLh) Lo alrcrafL approachlng a runway AlrcrafL guldance ls provlded by Lhe lLS recelvers ln Lhe alrcrafL by performlng a
modulaLlon depLh comparlson
A locallzer (LCC or LLZ unLll lCAC deslgnaLed LCC as Lhe offlclal acronym) anLenna array ls normally locaLed beyond Lhe deparLure
end of Lhe runway and generally conslsLs of several palrs of dlrecLlonal anLennas 1wo slgnals are LransmlLLed on one ouL of 40 lLS
channels beLween Lhe carrler frequency range 10810 MPz and 11193 MPz (wlLh Lhe 100 kPz flrsL declmal dlglL always odd so
10810 10813 10830 and so on are LCC frequencles buL 10820 10823 10840 and so on are noL) Cne ls modulaLed aL 90 Pz
Lhe oLher aL 130 Pz and Lhese are LransmlLLed from separaLe buL colocaLed anLennas Lach anLenna LransmlLs a narrow beam one
sllghLly Lo Lhe lefL of Lhe runway cenLerllne Lhe oLher Lo Lhe rlghL
1he locallzer recelver on Lhe alrcrafL measures Lhe dlfference ln Lhe depLh of modulaLlon (uuM) of Lhe 90 Pz and 130 Pz slgnals lor
Lhe locallzer Lhe depLh of modulaLlon for each of Lhe modulaLlng frequencles ls 20 percenL 1he dlfference beLween Lhe Lwo slgnals
varles dependlng on Lhe poslLlon of Lhe approachlng alrcrafL from Lhe cenLerllne
lf Lhere ls a predomlnance of elLher 90 Pz or 130 Pz modulaLlon Lhe alrcrafL ls off Lhe cenLerllne ln Lhe cockplL Lhe needle on
LhehorlzonLal slLuaLlon lndlcaLor (PSl Lhe lnsLrumenL parL of Lhe lLS) or course devlaLlon lndlcaLor (Cul) wlll show LhaL Lhe alrcrafL
needs Lo fly lefL or rlghL Lo correcL Lhe error Lo fly down Lhe cenLer of Lhe runway lf Lhe uuM ls zero Lhe alrcrafL ls on Lhe cenLerllne
of Lhe locallzer colncldlng wlLh Lhe physlcal runway cenLerllne
A gllde slope (CS) or gllde paLh (C) anLenna array ls slLed Lo one slde of Lhe runway Louchdown zone 1he C slgnal ls LransmlLLed
on a carrler frequency beLween 3286 and 3334 MPz uslng a Lechnlque slmllar Lo LhaL of Lhe locallzer 1he cenLerllne of Lhe gllde
slope slgnal ls arranged Lo deflne a gllde slope of approxlmaLely 3 above horlzonLal (ground level) 1he beam ls 14 deep 07
below Lhe glldeslope cenLerllne and 07 above Lhe glldeslope cenLerllne
1hese slgnals are dlsplayed on an lndlcaLor ln Lhe lnsLrumenL panel 1hls lnsLrumenL ls generally called Lhe omnlbearlng lndlcaLor
or oov loJlcotot 1he plloL conLrols Lhe alrcrafL so LhaL Lhe lndlcaLlons on Lhe lnsLrumenL (le Lhe course devlaLlon lndlcaLor) remaln
cenLered on Lhe dlsplay 1hls ensures Lhe alrcrafL ls followlng Lhe lLS cenLrellne (le lL provldes laLeral guldance) verLlcal guldance
shown on Lhe lnsLrumenL by Lhe glldeslope lndlcaLor alds Lhe plloL ln reachlng Lhe runway aL Lhe proper Louchdown polnL Many
alrcrafL possess Lhe ablllLy Lo rouLe slgnals lnLo Lhe auLoplloL allowlng Lhe approach Lo be flown auLomaLlcally by Lhe auLoplloL

1he lnsLrumenL Landlng SysLem
A CLnL8AL uLSC8l1lCn
lnsLrumenL landlng sysLem (lLS) faclllLles are a hlghly accuraLe and dependable means of navlgaLlng Lo Lhe runway ln ll8 condlLlons
When uslng Lhe lLS Lhe plloL deLermlnes alrcrafL poslLlon prlmarlly by reference Lo lnsLrumenLs 1he lLS conslsLs of
lLS ls classlfled by caLegory ln accordance wlLh Lhe capablllLles of Lhe ground equlpmenL CaLegory l lLS provldes guldance
lnformaLlon down Lo a declslon helghL (uP) of noL less Lhan 200 fL lmproved equlpmenL (alrborne and ground) provlde for CaLegory
ll lLS approaches
A uP of noL less Lhan 100 fL on Lhe radar alLlmeLer ls auLhorlzed for CaLegory ll lLS approaches
1he lLS provldes Lhe laLeral and verLlcal guldance necessary Lo fly a preclslon approach where gllde slope lnformaLlon ls provlded A
preclslon approach ls an approved descenL procedure uslng a navlgaLlon faclllLy allgned wlLh a runway where gllde slope lnformaLlon
ls glven When all componenLs of Lhe lLS sysLem are avallable lncludlng Lhe approved approach procedure Lhe plloL may execuLe a
preclslon approach

8 LCCALlZL8
1 C8Cunu LCulMLn1 1he prlmary componenL of Lhe lLS ls Lhe locallzer whlch provldes laLeral guldance 1he locallzer ls a vPl
radlo LransmlLLer and anLenna sysLem uslng Lhe same general range as vC8 LransmlLLers (beLween 10810 MPz and 11193 MPz)
Locallzer frequencles however are only on oddLenLhs wlLh 30 kPz spaclng beLween each frequency 1he LransmlLLer and anLenna
are on Lhe cenLerllne aL Lhe opposlLe end of Lhe runway from Lhe approach Lhreshold
1he locallzer back course ls used on some buL noL all lLS sysLems Where Lhe back course ls approved for landlng purposes lL ls
generally provlded wlLh a 73 MPz back marker faclllLy or nu8 locaLed 3 Lo 3 nM from Louchdown 1he course ls checked perlodlcally
Lo ensure LhaL lL ls poslLloned wlLhln speclfled Lolerances
2 SlCnAL 18AnSMlSSlCn 1he slgnal LransmlLLed by Lhe locallzer conslsLs of Lwo verLlcal fanshaped paLLerns LhaL overlap aL Lhe
cenLer (see lLS Locallzer Slgnal aLLern flgure below) 1hey are allgned wlLh Lhe exLended cenLerllne of Lhe runway 1he rlghL slde of
Lhls paLLern as seen by an approachlng alrcrafL ls modulaLed aL 130 Pz and ls called Lhe blue area 1he lefL slde of Lhe paLLern ls
modulaLed aL 90 Pz and ls called Lhe yellow area 1he overlap beLween Lhe Lwo areas provldes Lhe onLrack slgnal
1he wldLh of Lhe navlgaLlonal beam may be varled from approxlmaLely 3 Lo 6 wlLh 3 belng normal lL ls ad[usLed Lo provlde a
Lrack slgnal approxlmaLely 700 fL wlde aL Lhe runway Lhreshold 1he wldLh of Lhe beam lncreases so LhaL aL 10 nM from Lhe
LransmlLLer Lhe beam ls approxlmaLely one mlle wlde
1he locallzer ls ldenLlfled by an audlo slgnal superlmposed on Lhe navlgaLlonal slgnal 1he audlo slgnal ls a LwoleLLer ldenLlflcaLlon
preceded by Lhe leLLer l eg lCW
1he recepLlon range of Lhe locallzer ls aL leasL 18 nM wlLhln 10 degrees of Lhe onLrack slgnal ln Lhe area from l0 Lo 33 of Lhe
onLrack slgnal Lhe recepLlon range ls aL leasL 10 nM 1hls ls because Lhe prlmary sLrengLh of Lhe slgnal ls allgned wlLh Lhe runway
cenLerllne
3 LCCALlZL8 8LCLlvL8 1he locallzer slgnal ls recelved ln Lhe alrcrafL by a locallzer recelver 1he locallzer recelver ls comblned wlLh
Lhe vC8 recelver ln a slngle unlL 1he Lwo recelvers share some elecLronlc clrculLs and also Lhe same frequency selecLor volume
conLrol and CnCll conLrol
1he locallzer slgnal acLlvaLes Lhe verLlcal needle called Lhe Lrack bar (18) Assumlng a flnal approach Lrack allgned norLh and souLh
(see lLS Locallzer Slgnal aLLern flgure above) an alrcrafL easL of Lhe exLended cenLerllne of Lhe runway (poslLlon 1) ls ln Lhe area
modulaLed aL 130 Pz 1he 18 ls deflecLed Lo Lhe lefL Conversely lf Lhe alrcrafL ls ln Lhe area wesL of Lhe runway cenLerllne Lhe 90 Pz
slgnal causes Lhe 18 Lo deflecL Lo Lhe rlghL (poslLlon 2) ln Lhe overlap area boLh slgnals apply a force Lo Lhe needle causlng a parLlal
deflecLlon ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe sLrongesL slgnal 1hus lf an alrcrafL ls approxlmaLely on Lhe approach Lrack bur sllghLly Lo Lhe rlghL
Lhe 18 ls deflecLed sllghLly Lo Lhe lefL 1hls lndlcaLes LhaL a correcLlon Lo Lhe lefL ls necessary Lo place Lhe alrcrafL ln preclse
allgnmenL
AL Lhe polnL where Lhe 90 Pz and 130 Pz slgnals are of equal lnLenslLy Lhe 18 ls cenLered lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhe alrcrafL ls locaLed
preclsely on Lhe approach Lrack (poslLlon 3)
When Lhe 18 ls used ln con[uncLlon wlLh Lhe vC8 full scale needle deflecLlon occurs 10 elLher slde of Lhe Lrack shown on Lhe Lrack
selecLor When Lhls same needle ls used as an lLS locallzer lndlcaLor fullscale needle deflecLlon occurs aL approxlmaLely 23 from
Lhe cenLer of Lhe locallzer beam
1hus Lhe senslLlvlLy of Lhe 18 ls approxlmaLely four Llmes greaLer when used as a locallzer lndlcaLor as opposed Lo vC8 navlgaLlon
ln Lhe locallzer funcLlon Lhe 18 does noL depend on a correcL Lrack selecLor seLLlng ln MosL cases however Lhe plloL should seL Lhe
Lrack selecLor for Lhe approach Lrack as a remlnder of Lhe flnal approach
When an Cll flag appears ln fronL of Lhe verLlcal needle lL lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe slgnal ls Loo weak and Lherefore Lhe needle
lndlcaLlons arc unrellable A momenLary Cll flag or brlef 18 needle deflecLlons or boLh may occur when obsLrucLlons or oLher
alrcrafL pass beLween Lhe LransmlLLlng anLenna and Lhe recelvlng alrcrafL
C CLluL SLCL LCulMLn1
1 18AnSMl11L8 1he gllde slope provldes verLlcal guldance Lo Lhe plloL durlng Lhe approach 1he lLS gllde slope ls produced by a
groundbased uPl radlo LransmlLLer and anLenna sysLem operaLlng aL a range of 32930 MPz Lo 33300 MPz wlLh a 30 kPz spaclng
beLween each channel 1he LransmlLLer ls locaLed 730 Lo 1230 feeL (fL) down Lhe runway from Lhe Lhreshold offseL 400 Lo 600 fL
from Lhe runway cenLerllne MonlLored Lo a Lolerance of 1/2 degree Lhe uPl gllde paLh ls palred wlLh (and usually auLomaLlcally
Luned by selecLlng) a correspondlng vPl locallzer frequency
Llke Lhe locallzer Lhe gllde slope slgnal conslsLs of Lwo overlapplng beams modulaLed aL 90 Pz and 130 Pz (see Cllde Slope Slgnal
aLLern flgure below) unllke Lhe locallzer however Lhese slgnals are allgned above each oLher and are radlaLed prlmarlly along Lhe
approach Lrack 1he Lhlckness of Lhe overlap area ls 14 or 7 above and 7 below Lhe opLlmum gllde slope
1hls gllde slope slgnal may be ad[usLed beLween 2 and 43 above a horlzonLal plane A Lyplcal ad[usLmenL ls 23 Lo 3 dependlng
upon such facLors as obsLrucLlons along Lhe approach paLh and Lhe runway slope
lalse slgnals may be generaLed along Lhe gllde slope ln mulLlples of Lhe gllde paLh angle Lhe flrsL belng approxlmaLely 6 degrees
above horlzonLal 1hls false slgnal wlll be a reclprocal slgnal (le Lhe fly up and fly down commands wlll be reversed) 1he false slgnal
aL 9 wlll be orlenLed ln Lhe same manner as Lhe Lrue gllde slope 1here are no false slgnals below Lhe acLual slope An alrcrafL flylng
accordlng Lo Lhe publlshed approach procedure on a fronL course lLS should noL encounLer Lhese false slgnals
2 SlCnAL 8LCLlvL8 1he gllde slope slgnal ls recelved by a uPl recelver ln Lhe alrcrafL ln modern avlonlcs lnsLallaLlons Lhe conLrols
for Lhls radlo are lnLegraLed wlLh Lhe vC8 conLrols so LhaL Lhe proper gllde slope frequency ls Luned auLomaLlcally when Lhe locallzer
frequency ls selecLed
1he gllde slope slgnal acLlvaLes Lhe gllde slope needle locaLed ln con[uncLlon wlLh Lhe 18 (see Cllde Slope Slgnal aLLern flgure
above) 1here ls a separaLe Cll flag ln Lhe navlgaLlon lndlcaLor for Lhe gllde slope needle 1hls flag appears when Lhe gllde slope
slgnal ls Loo weak As happens wlLh Lhe locallzer Lhe gllde slope needle shows full deflecLlon unLll Lhe alrcrafL reaches Lhe polnL of
slgnal overlap AL Lhls Llme Lhe needle shows a parLlal deflecLlon ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe sLrongesL slgnal When boLh slgnals are
equal Lhe needle cenLers horlzonLally lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhe alrcrafL ls preclsely on Lhe gllde paLh
1he plloL may deLermlne preclse locaLlon wlLh respecL Lo Lhe approach paLh by referrlng Lo a slngle lnsLrumenL because Lhe
navlgaLlon lndlcaLor provldes boLh verLlcal and laLeral guldance ln Lhe Cllde Slope Slgnal aLLern flgure above poslLlon 1 shows
boLh needles cenLered lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhe alrcrafL ls locaLed ln Lhe cenLer of Lhe approach paLh 1he lndlcaLlon aL poslLlon 2 Lells Lhe
plloL Lo fly down and lefL Lo correcL Lhe approach paLh oslLlon 3 shows Lhe requlremenLs Lo fly up and rlghL Lo reach Lhe proper
paLh WlLh 14 of beam overlap Lhe area ls approxlmaLely 1300 fL Lhlck aL 10 nauLlcal mlles (nM) 130 fL aL l nM and less Lhan one
fooL aL Louchdown
1he apparenL senslLlvlLy of Lhe lnsLrumenL lncreases as Lhe alrcrafL nears Lhe runway 1he plloL musL monlLor lL carefully Lo keep Lhe
needle cenLered As sald before a full deflecLlon of Lhe needle lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe alrcrafL ls elLher hlgh or low buL Lhere ls no
lndlcaLlon of how hlgh or low