SWITCH-MODE

POWER SUPPLY DESIGN

P.R.K -, CHETIY

BPB PUBLICATIONS
J76.0LD LAJPATIIAI MARKET,DELHI_l10006

FtAST

IHOIAIII

EOIllOIII

1917

FlflSf[OlnOIll "~ST

.",.",,,,,.",.,,,",~.,, ...=,,,,~,,,
'AU "OO~S INC., U,~ A

PIII~T'~G

·."""'.",,~"',.oJ~o''''''.' """,~,~.,
."'""""'"'""""''''"'~ "Uw,._nd

Contents
Preface Imroduction Switch-Mode Power Supplies-an 2 Modeling and Analysis
Curfj)o1! tinuous CIECA:

vii Ix

Introduction 7

Injecl8d Equivalent CirclJiI Approach

Equivalent Ccnductlon 10 C~renl EquivSenl Cir~lIil Approacl'llo 17 InduclO( Mode

;0

MGdDt.ingSwitching ee-oc Converters

Modeling 01 SwiTching ee-oc Con .... dc-dc Conv&i1~ 26

9
in Drscon.

CUu","lln)iJcted

Application

Plogr<lmmed Appr-oK~

Swilching lo Modlilling

rtlls

Currar.llnjeel'8d

ClrcuH

and ~Iy:;;l:i

01 ClJrr$r11 Programmed

$wiICJ'i-

~~eI~~n':;:r~~~~~~~-=r1I:rd~li~~

~~::i~~;!~tt~~!ajl:nl. 4(l CI(¢lJilAPofOUh

47
Tfi!lr'!lIfer Fundian8 ilnd l,oop Gam 651

Design ana Measurements

Ilr;d o...WlQII 01 Swi'tching R(r'jjul~I(I;" 4e LO(Ips-on Track for TesTing Swltch8f-JI £.0 M$IlWromtnl 01 ~Ag"iI<JOOatld;Dl'IM$ o.f SiNil(:Ming ~~ull!l~r Moaeling

Ckl~

4 5

Computer-Aided Design
SPICE·2 CAD P.alCk.~ for lhe

84
of Swi'!ching RilQule.lorfj 84

l'lII'tSiQfl

Practical Design Examples

D~9" 011 2.8 kW Off-Line SMI,cMr Using
PWM

93
PU5f1.Puil CorlVette, 9'"

,....._~DigIIaIShunlRo9J_,05
___ ~aI~",,_ingRegulMol ",

Do«:C--M_HIgIIE-.c:y
LInH'_SUppllM127

123

""~1<1_~12e

8 7

IC, for SwHch-Mod.

Contro~lC.forSwih:h __ ICTIm ...... Conlrol .... IorSWhcl\.

Pow.r Suppll ..
Suppl"'32
__ ~ .. ,..,

131

Spllcecrllft Power System.

SI*:.c ... Imp_P.,...,CondlllonlngUnllfo,Reg"'.todS""S_,oftPowOfSyllom151

ft_rSysl.""'~

DNlgnlOrRlllobilty HIO R.lillllllyllnll~ney167

R.11ab1lily_F.ilurflMO<I.fIn<IEIt&c:I.AnII~. 170

, ,

.. ..

Indo.

Preface
(nthel960s.demandsnflh~spaceprogr.>IlI51~ tothedevelopmentofhighly ....liable.effidentand lishtweight.,]ectricalpower.yst~forspacecraft Despite thelimited.upply of.vailable energy on board the spacecraft, engineers found innovativ~_ !IOlutions for power proce .. in~ and management of cle<:tricaljWWer. These helped usher in Ihe era of modem pOWer eleclronitll. Today, similar limita tionsonsourresofav"i1.bleenergy=~coming a prime de.ign c<K1sideration m everyday electric powerprocessmg Powerelectronicsi$ent.irelydevotedto$w;t~h lnode powerconver$i(ln and deals with modern probiemsinanalysi •. de.ign,andsynthesi.u!ele.:· Ironic circuirn as applied to efficient conve",;on, cOIIU"oi,andregulationofele<:tricalenerlO'.De!!ign and optimization of dc-tQ-dc converters, which of· fer the highest power efficiency, small .ileand wei(!,ht,andhighperformance,arealsoindudedin supplyofthisrypeha.wideapplic(uion.,JI3.'· ticularly in computer s~"Stem., ... herein • low· voltagehigh'curr~nlpowersupplywith!owQutput ripple and fasl lransientrespons. are mandatory inadditiOll,theseconvertersconne<;tedin'JI3.r ticularconfigllrationresuitin .... ilched·moo£.c power amplific!1l with enough bandwidth and high effici~n0'_ Off·li"" switthe"., dc·to-do single and multiple output power suppl;~s, bi-<lireuio""l powersllppiies(balterycharg ..... andd;schargersl dc·to-ac inverters, dc·t()-~~ unint~rrupt;hle power supplies,dc·to-ac motorcootrol,)JOwer servo con· trol,robotic •• andswitchingaudioamptifiers,etc .. are some olth~ examples 01 .witch·mode power supplies. Sw;\cb·mooe power supplies ""\"~ come intO ...idesptead use in the las! decade_ An es.senn~1 feature of efficient eleclronic i>O,,"crprocessing ig the u,e of semiCllnrhWIOrS in a power,wilcbing mode(toachi~yelowlogsesltoconl"'I'hetransf~r ofenergyfromS<"IUrcetolo"dthroulihtheusee>f pui .... width modulated or reson.nt techniques. In· duaj"e ~nd caJl3.ci,i"e energy storag~ ~lemen's are

:::::~;:~£~?i~ve ~":~~~~~ C~:;~~;::t~~~

magnitudes and poWitiea, The regulat~ pow~r

used rosmooth the flow of energy while keeping Iosse5toa low level. ru.rhefrequeneyof.wirch· ing increases, the ~iZI:' of the !lI.1lgI1"tic and capacilive elementl decreases in a direCl propor· tion, Becau",<of their superiorperiormance, i.e., high effICiency, small size and weight and relatively loweoot, they are di.p!acing conventional linear (cli•• ipativeas they operare in linear orconcluction mode) pOwer .~upplies even ~t very low pOwer level' The modding, analy.i~ .• nd design of the"e switchingdc'l<rdcoonvertffl"s,",vebee!1exteTl5ively carred our.and u is commonly believed that the design. in the oommercial usc todaycmploy the simpiesl poasible converter topology for dc-r<rdc conversion.lndustryi'lasbeenqukklorealjuthal thcenergy saving technique aisc affOfds the oppor. tunitytomakedramaticreduction.inequipment ~i.., and weight. Consumer and industry appli,JI.· lions are ellpanding rapidly. Among the =ious appmachesdcveloped for modelin~~odanalysisoflhe<Wilchingdc·to-<lcr.on· verters, theCWTcnt·inj~ctooequivalcnl·circuitap· proachand.tatespaceaverageappr02chareused inproducingalio~ar·P.l!uivalentcircuitm""elthat correctly ,..,pr~"~nts ue nonlinear cvnverlcr pro' p~rlie5 for the static as well a. dynamicac Sm:ltl signalatlowm,qu.neylevels.theessenti:llfeatures of the input and output transfer prQperties

Availabilityof the above model allowschoiceofthe best converll!l" !or a specific application and optimi%at.iOflofthefeedb3ckloopofar~gulatorcon· taining such a COfIverter Also the models enable to design the switch· ing regulatorn lorstab1e openuiOfl with large bandwidth. fast transient response, and g<>O<i line rejecrion.Thisisbeca.usethedesignca.napplyLhe standard method Or circuit analysisappliCllbie to linear feedback control syslems using linear feed· back conrrnl lheory. However. thevalidityoftheo;e mo<lelsandlhecletl\gnC3J1oolybemadebymeasur· ingthefreq"encyresponseGfthesyst~mtocheck the accuracy of the loop gain and phase. Thus, in the d~si!1n ollhe feedback "y.r""", it is necessary to make measur,,;mentofthe loop lI'Iin00 theprac· tica.ldrruitasarunctionoft~efrequencyloensure th:itlnecircuitllpeta[esasaDalyticallypredicled, or get feedback from the meaSurement 10 COI'Tcd the analytica.l prediClilln Thus, .witch·mode power suppliel; have receivedcDnsiderabieattentionbeatu:jeuftneirhiRh perfonnance features and il ismy intention to make avail~bieantheworklcarried outln j'IOwerelec· tronics (pa!1 of which has already been published intlleconferenceproceedin,o:s,joumalsandwcllrc ceived),sothatthepowcreIL..:tn>nicscommunily may enjoy its fruits. Thus, power electronic.i. covcr ..<Iindelailinthisbook '

Introduction
This book isan assemblylcoUcction 01 the paperll I have published (some of thern arecoauthored)and papersspeciaUywrilten forilli. book. Mosl of the papers were l'resented in confarcnccs and inpto fe8~ional journals. Conference papers were publisned only in the conference proceedings, whicharelatgelyoMcureandunavailable.conse quently I thought lMt it would be of !rf"3t benefit for tlte power electronics community to publish themasabook.This,·o)umecontainspapersdeal· ingwithmodeling.analysis,design,measuremen! including c'Omputcr aided design, pOwer supply practicaldesigne""mples.~nd~liabililya"pect" ircompris<% 23 papers arrangc:<iinasystematic o.<,!er inlo eigbt chapters in such a way it is easy thundcrsland Ch.apterlgivesanintroducriontoswitch-mooe pOWer8upplies. Thcevo]uLion oftbe power electronicsi5presenredfrrsr.Tb.!nilstressestheimportaDe<: of power syst~ms in all clectronic equipment and systems as it is the main S<lIJI"ce of pow .... with which eachand every electronic equipmentwOfks,andthesucressfuloperationofal1eleccronk equipment critiC211y depends upon proper and reliabte functioning of ti>e power "l"'tem. The secondpaperpresentsadefinit;onofpowersystem. classification of power suppHt:lI, bridoperational deocriptiun ufdissipative (linear) powersyslems andnondissipative(switch·mode)powff'ystems, as an introduction to matr..matical modeling and ~naly.;s ofswitch-mnde power supplies ChapteT 2. entitled Mcmlingd1llfA""lyl"is. con tainsfi~p;lpel"$.Inthis.aneWCUITent·injetted equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) to mooeling switching dc·dc convene, IIOwer stages is deve[· oped. which starts with tl><> cu1Tent·in~cted approach and results in eitherasetofequ.tion. that completely desctihe inpUI properties Or an equivalentcircuitmodelvalidatsmall·signallow· freq\leT1cylevels. As an example. the duty·ratio programmedcon,'erteroperatingincontinuousmduc lor conduction (CIC) mode is mode~ The same cun-ent-injected equi, 'a lent circuit approach i. employed to model II><> converten ope",ting in the foUowingmooes. (il duty ratio programmedcoovertersaperatingindiscontinuoosin-

ductor conduction (DIC) mode; {iiI current programmed converters operating mcontinoous in· ductor current (CIO mooe; and {iiil current programmed con,..,rters operating-in discontinuous in· ductor conduction (DIC) mode A.• tlu> Cult converteT has tbe merits of both b"ck and boost converters, namely, it has nonpulsatingioplltanduutputcurreotsanditcanbuck and boost the input vulrage to resuit in the required outputvo\lage,itisworthwhiletohavethelineaT equivalent circuit model fortheCuk converter. Also itis an optimum topologycon,·erter as it uses the minimum number of components. Hence. the mathematicalmodelingandanalysisofthcCukcQu, verter is also included. Having known the mooels for switching dc·dc converters. now the design of regulators using ahove mentionoo basic or extended converters is appropriate and is thus dealt in Chapter 3. V"rious building blocks of a switching regulator are de scrihedindetailandmathematicalmooelsarede· veloped forallbuildingblocks in terms of transier function. that enable one to design a switching regulatorfoTstabiliry. desirable bandwidth. hnerejectiQn.and transientre.ponse,A.tep-by-step procl'dure to design compensalion is ilIuslrated using two examples. Vario(>s networks for compensalion and their transier functions are presented Having designed (ompensation and im plemen!:edincircuilry,onlythemeas"rementswil1 confirm the a"curacy of the modeling and design which is dealt with in the second and third papers Difierenttecbniquestomeasurfthemagnitudeand pilaseof'I<'itchingregulatortransierfunctionsand loop i(ain are presented. Now to accelerate the design process a computer-aided design appr(>a(h forswitchingregui.atorsispresent •.<linChapter4 Chapter 5 indudes six papero \0 give more in sight into the practical hardware design aspects of switch-mod~ pow.,,- supplieo, In the first paper. design of an Off·Line 2.SkW Switcher employing Pulse-Width Modulated Push-PnIl Converteras the iX>werstage is presented including the step·by-step design procedure lhat eliminates tbe trial anderror approach and results in fewer man-hourupent in development. In the second paper, anew ap

nnlqeoGicompactDeSS,accuracy, reproducibility, _""_~throughrehx::I;c.,GiIlifaSitics. and the etonmniesGimasaproduction. The first paperpresentsICsforcontrol,prolectionandinstrwnenta.tionGi£ree-runninll"a9 well aadtiven-zype power supplies Not only the regulator ICa or pulse-width modulatingregularorICsareuoedfOTswit<;h·mOOe pawersupplies,butotherICsareused~sweU.This is illustrated in the sec.ond paper. where an integrated-circuit timer i8used as the control d.,. menl for a simple dc-dc convener regulator v,ith CUlTentfoldback.thecurrenlstep-upconverter regulatorandapolarityrevennngvollllge.tep-up converter regulator. Chapter 7 includee twc papers that deal with spacecraft power systems. The firsl paper deacribesa typical 5paCe<:rait power s)">tem con .istingof90larcelb,storage battenes, and power conditioning <U>dontrol electronics. The maindif c ference. between powersyste"'" for low earth or· bil~tellites<U>dgeo-syncbronDUSorbit5.1tellites areal$Opr~nted.lntheoecondpaper.anim proved power condirioning unit developed lor regu!ated busspacecraft power systems based upon the prindple of using a common conlrol block for charge, di.charge,and .hunt...,,,,,lator.i. pregented.!nadditioobeavyelementslikeinduc· torforchargeanddiocluorgereguJatorsandoutpul eIOpacitOT"ll shunl and diacharge regulators are for made common for the integrated system

Chapter8dealswiththereliabilitya~tsaf the power.ystems. Reliabilityi. the main requirementafany~orsystem.Unre1iabilitycan mean lO!$ of waste. The imjlOltant ways of improv· ing the reliability of any electronic S}"$tem and various methods. to be lollowed in designing the syste!llljforhighd~"ignreliabilitycl)tnl"'redtothe reliability due to components, manufacturing techniques. etc .. are covered in the firlltpaper Tbereliabilityandredundancyaspectlare~x· amined willi special refe-rence Ul the power supplies. TbQUgh the inherent circuit reliability could he maximized by drruit design, judiciouSlIelection ofcomponenls.~tc .. thechancefailurelhatcould lWliallyortotallyjeopardizea misaion can he taken Care of only byadoptingre~UJlda", ... tu a •• ure the y overall mission reliability atthe required level. The second paper describes different ~pproaches to redundancy suchas standby redundancy. load shar· ingredundaocy,majorityJog;credundancy.partial redundancy<U>d&haredmode afatandbyredundancy. Highpomormance.highlevelso{...,liability and lowercool$ are llIe primary conside-ratkms in the design afpower systems. A reliability analysis i.preoentedintbethirdpaper. wbich provides a measure 01 reliability desiiOUed inlo tbe system Also included i~ the failure mode and effects analysi9(FMEA)whoocpurpo!le is to identify and :!~::~te, where possible, critical single point

Chapter 1

Switch-Mode Power Supplies-an Introduction

SWITctI-IIIQIIt; 1.0 I__

POWER SUPPUE$ largo MTBF. The energy is 3C. The other

reries,

power ,gystem basically processes the power to convert it from one fonn (input) to another form IreA uuired power output). The: hardware processing is known used (0 carry as a. power out this supply,

~KUlator, de-de converter, battery eliminator, etc., and this field is known as ft,wo- Prot:ts.si1tg E1«· trotria or simply .EVwr ElldnmiCl. The power supply is. one of the important elements of any piece of electrical or electronic equipment. Thill is because it provides pow~r to energize .. U the electrical or electronic circuits and makes the equipment operate, The successful operation 01 any piece of ele{ltrk:3~or electeceic equipment depends upon proper and reliable function~:d.I of the power supply', TM specifcations of the power supply are closely linked with the equip-

for I'OOat of the equipment of energy sources are ba etc. Thus, the sources lJi energy are available in the form 01 ac or de. However, most of the electrical and electronic equipment operates with de voltage, Within the equipment SO~ portion may work at a different de voltage than [be other portion. Some equipment may require more than one de: voltage for internal opererion.
tourCe

types

solar cells,

Few

piece;

of equipment

work

on ac voltage

ment, The stringent demands on performance, ...Jaht. volume. reliability aud ceet make the design

ill. the pOwer supply. a truly challenging exercise. In general, the power !R1pp1y shall be able to. de" liver the regulated power at specific ..oIt!ge. and current levels meeting the equipment requirements This can be anywhere from iii fraction of a watt (0 a Iew 1:houBands oi "Wa~ and few volts to thousands of volts and the voltage can be de or ac. In the CASe <X ac output voltage. tho fnoquoncy can be anywhere from a few cycles to few thousands of cycles. Lt is very essential to have very high efficiency. Also
bc.atsinking and forced air requirements increase

directly. The power system converts the voltage Irem one type 10another and iron) one M!velto an-otherlevi'~tndtn tl:fecase of ac from One frequency to another frequency, ThU$, the power ejstem proceeeee the power while matching the impedance of the energy sources to that of the loads or equipment. In orher words, the power !y.stem conditions the outputs of the emrgy sources so as to match with the requirements of the various loads or
equipment,

2.0

o.tIn_ As.
explained

above, the primary fuocti.on of supply is to provide a predetermined constant output voltage when the input voltage and/or output current vary widely a.nd there is a possibi.lity of change in operating temperature. The any power degree to which
3

power supply provides the above eonditioRa of the power supply.

a constant

output voltage under

sic figure of merit

i!l the

baAccord-

with lower .efficiency and the system becomes bulkier and heavier, wbich 18not acceptable. Thus, the weight and volume of the power supply has to be as ,m.an as possible. It is not only desirable but abo essendal to have the cost of th-e power 8l.Ippl,y to be as low as poMible_ In view of the fact that the. IneaD time between failure (MTBF) of any piece of equipn:le-nt m dOM!ly linked with tm! cf the power supply, the design and te<:hoolOiY of the power sy:5-tem have received 3. great deal of attentioo. The Last, decade has witceseed significant ~dvmces in Power Electronics relulti.Dg in the develcpmeat-ef reliable. Uahtweight aar.I high efficiency power systems with 2

ingly, regulation is defined as given below.

Lin, R.euJalion(%) -

{aEIAE. liE, x

100

where

~~ !JEt.. E~ ..

Change

in outpUt voltage

Change in input volage Nominal Output voltage

wher-e

E....
Ell -

Output vo]taee with

DO

I0o<I
Output voltaac with full: load

E.

Nominal

output

vQl_tAg~

'temperature 1(E, _ where

Coefficient .. - T."i}
> 100 at

- E, •• ]I[E,(T _

E~_
E, .....

Output

voltage

!II"

max. rated temperature (T_) Output voltage at min. rated

temperature (T..... )

1'-.
T_~

..

Maximum operating temperature .. Minimum operating temperature

3.0

C... Ir~.tilon o. Power Syltems The power systems employ different ap preaches to process the power and to convert it from one form to other. The power svstems can be
classified as (il DlssijJatillf. (Li~,) hWV" Sysftm.i

tM de input 15chopped at It high frequency rete to resuh in a square wave. This square wave voltage can be levelled·up or levelled-down by using eransformers. The output can be rectified and filtered' to get de at a different voltage level than the input. The duty ratio determines the amplitude of the output voltage if the input voltage is constant. The duty ratio of the square wave can be varied to obtain regulation it there are variations in input voltage Or load. The second approach is the reeonant mOOlI!' approach wherein de iDput is applied through controlled switches to a LC resonant errcuit. In this approach, the rate of en@rgyexchange iii nol governed by an independent clock but by the resonant frequency of the energy storige elements Thus power supplies Ide-de convertersjcan be viewed as a linear or nonlinear LC or non·LC oscillatortsquare or sine wave) coupled through a traMform@No!!<:tifier. to a l-ow·pass filter. rig. 1 shows the power supply claseificetion tree 3.1 DIooIport ... or Linear .

_.

Po_ S'_"

and OJ) Nrmdissipah'vt (Switd.·Math) Fbswr Systems. As the name irKlicates the dissipative systems are those which dissipate more in the conversion process, thereby operate inefficiently r~quiring large hearsink area. The diseiperion varies as a function oi input voltage and load Iiuctuations and hence they result in poor efficiency. However. these
pow~r systems exhihil low EM] and less ripple

characteristics. These power systems can be further classified into series and shunt types. The nondissiparive power systems operate in the switch mode resulting in high efficiencies, Nondissipative power systems employ some kind of highly efficient cc-to-ac conversion proceee. Oneil'" the de power ia converted into ac power. it is ea&y to level-up or level-down the voltage by employiag low wei,h.t and high frequency transformers. In meet of the prscncal appllcatiorrs. tr.ln~Jc)(tneriscl.a· rion is very essentiaJ and it is a must for equipment
operated by human beings, Final de voltage can be

In the case of linear type, the paM transistor is operated in active conduction mode such that the voltage across tbe pass trnnsistor is always equal to the differ-ence between the input voltage and cutput voltage. Diode voltage and emitter followerregulerors are the ~imple8l regulators one can conceive. These are nonnally employed only for coarse regulation, .... low outpul current requirements, -ith and where efficiency is nOI an important cnnsieeration 3.1.1
cuits

Sene.

Regulelor

The most wid.;:1y used of 0111 linear regulator ciris the series regulator, the baslcconfigu.ratiOfl of which is shown ill Fig, 2. There is a series CDn~ trol device usually a transistor in either the common-emitter or cemmcn-colector configuration that acts on a signal from the control circuit or erTor amplifier-and prevents the outprr yollage fTQlTl

obtained by rectifying and filtering the ac waveform. There are two approaches to dc-to-ac conversion. The first approach is the square Wave or pulse-width modulated IPWMJ apPI'Nch where

Iluctuatiag , The control circuit may lake many forms, but it .... always have rome sort of reference ill with which it compares the received sample of the output voltage and amplifies the difference. The
resulting error signal corrects the drive of the
SiI"'.

l.in("IH(Dis.sipa[lvl.")

·I
I

S"ll~hiT1g

(~OJl-dissip.!tlve)

Shun

t,

Squ e r e vn ee (1'~.':1 Sv i r c h 'lode)

';i [IC~ WII v e (RI!'Sonlnt S. ... itch "[ode)

Buck

Deri\'~d F>g_ 1. Power supPy c~Slific.alion rr ...

Conyeru~-rs-Re-culators

lies transistor. SO that the collector-emlner voltage is always the difference between the input voltage and the desired output voltage, even. if there are variations in the input voltage and/or output load As in this regulator, the series-pass transistor alwa)'3 operates in the active region, the dissipation is rugn. Hence, the series transistor must be chosen carefully to avoid the second breakdown. This regulator is: eenerally preferable for high voltage, medium current loads. 3.1.2 Shunt Ilegu"t",

shown Jn Fig. 3. Here the shunt control element Irransisror] must be capable (If withstanding the entire output voltage, but it does not have to carry the full load current uelcss required to regulate from fu11load to no load. Since the series-dropping resistor used with the shunt regulator has higb dissipation, the efficiency of chis regulator is poor. This regulator is preferable for medium [0 low voltages and high output currents with relatively constant loads. 3.2 Nondlaalp.tl •• powor Sy.tern.

The basic configuration of a shunt regularcr is

As explained above. in the case 01 the switch-

ing or noudisstpative power systems, the pas. transistor operates ill ON (saturation) or Off (cut-off) mode and hence the dissipation in ehe pass transistor is minirmun, 'The regulation is achieved by controUing the duty ratio of the pass transistor. The

ON and the process continues such that the output voltage is maintained very close to the reference

voltage. 3.2.2 Boo.s1RegulatQf ln a boost regulator, the output voltage Is alway... higher than the input voltage. A schematic

output voltage, in these regulators, can be greawr than. equal to, or less than the input voltage, The

regulators can be divided into three types. viz .. (i) of a boost power stage is shown in Fig. 5. When buck type, (ii) boost type and (iii) buck-boost type. ~ switch is turned-ox, the current flows through lI"!iie inductor and energy is stored in it. When the switch i~ turned-osr; (he stored energy in tbe in3.2.1 Eklck Regulator ductor tends to collapse and its polarity changes In a buck regulator, the output voltage is such that it adds to the input voltage. Thus. the voltalways less than the inpu t voltage and can be pracage aero ss the inductor and the input voltage are tically anywhere between 10 % and 90 % of the inin series and together charge the output capacitor p ut voltage. Thia means Ih3 t a "witching r~ 'tUlator to a voltage higher than tbe input voltage. can be used as a de step-down transformer with highest efficiency. Figure 4 shOW'l a simple buck 3.2,3 BuckbOost Regulator converter power stage. The au tput voltage i. compared with a stable reference voltage and the This ret{1llat.or operates 00 the principle of both amplified error signal ill used to gE'nerate " pulse' bock and boost. \lvhen the switch is turned -OFF, the width modulated waveform, which controls the inductor releases the stored energy similar to an switch ONto!'}' periods. When the switch is turnedauto mobile ignilion system. The output voltage is. ON, current fi_s through the induc!orand into out· at course, determine'] hy the rate af discharge of put capacitor and lbe load. When the output voltthe indu tor. Rapid discharge «'SUllS in i\ lower age e xceeds the reference vo 1tagl', the .wilCh L~ lJoltage and vice. VCf~. Figure- 6 shows a sim ple twned-o.,.,. At this instant. tile stored l'nerID' in the buck boost power s(age. When the switch ;s (l.~, the inductor reverses its polarity. takes the path inducto" charges and stores energy, When the through the diode a nd send. (he current into t be switch is O"F, the stored energy {tie" to collapse load while the voltage is maintaiued by the capacireversing ill! pclarjty. thus ~""nding current into the OUtput capacitor and load, This takes output v"II' ,. tor. When an the stored energy in the inductor is used up, the capacitor discharges and the output age to an 0 pposite polarity to that 01 the inJlut voltage decreases, At this step, rhe swildl is turnedvoltage.

F~, 5. BOOst converter

power stage.

vg

fig. 6. BlJCkbooSt oonveeter power stage.

3.2.4

Other Typo of Converter-Regulators

The above described regulators are the three basic converter-regulators. All other converters like. Cuk, Bell Lab. Weinburg. Vanable, etc .. are derived from these basic converter-regulators.

3.2.5

Free Running and Oflven Type.

The switching regulators can be of the Iree-

running type Of driven 1)1"'. As is clear from above description, the output voltage is compared with a reference v oltage and the am plified error voltage is used to generate a PWM sig-nal, which is used to drive the regulator switch such that the output voltage is maintained at a predetermined level. This PWM signal can have one 0 [ the following characteristics, (il FIXed ON period and variable OFF period; (ii) Variable ON and OFF periods with fixed frequency; (iii) fixed OFF period and variable ON period. For a specific use, a trade off between the various characteristic features has to be carried out depending upon the requireme nts and an appropriate configuration has to be selected, 1'0 enhance the power capability. the above regulators are usually connected in parallel and are operated in phase-shift, multiphase) mode to reduce the EM [ an d pro blerns ,,: ele ctrcmagneti C SoC'" ening. To improve the performance characteristics such as regulation. transient response. line rejectiOll. ct .. the feedback control loop of the above "ltUb!"", is modified to sense the at; changes besides tbe de changes on the output voltaire and the changes in the input voltages,

II

Chapter 2

Modeling and Analysis

Cllmlntln~ed de

Conv""".

Equivalent I

CIrcuit Appt'mll;h to Modeling

SWitchIng de-

CUrTant InJltC1ed Equivalent CIn;ul1 Approach to MOdeling of Swllchlng Ik-dc Convert .. In DlKontinuou. Indul;tor Conduction Mode 17 ClECA: Applleatlon vertera 28 10 Cu~l Progr8lllmed SWitching Dc-Dc Con-

CUlTanllnlKt1ld Equtv.nt CIrcuit Appt'o_ch to Modeling and Analysis of Current ProgT1lmmed Swllchlng de-de Converters (Discontinuous Inductor CondUlrlIon Mode) 33 Modeling and Analy." 01 CUK Conyerter Equlva .. nl CIrcuit Approach 40 Using Current Injected

CURRENT INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH TO MODELING $WITCHINGI)C.DC CONVERTERS

A
II)
ftCU' ,ar"",,1 "'Iuiw/e1l Id""U m'odt.[j~ff swUchiJtgdc-dr; cmr.!:~rleT

;"iu'«1

por.t.!t!:T$tiJP5

,/>ed, wJoich ;fMi~ ",;11: 01£ ""mml injITltfi aJ!pmf1<h and 'l"?UfUSin'eithtra sci 11}eqrmiitms whith WJ?lpl.e.wzy dtM;n'be m{Nlf t:i!,,-d ()rd~( /)ro~s U1 an e.w.'Mif(l~~t lir.NJt cin;1t1'r
'" '!1M ... Ud ,01 ."",.11 nptll, low j leuets. Thi, app,roat,~to ,'"'>I1e/;ng ",dtc},;", dc-dt eM,"",,,, !.l~ i'-.8Slbt merits Or.d ri()i lht d~"ffle,rits ()jooth lhf.'
rJ/lLh'(l/tiTi df('JII!l :#r(1.1rJ[Xlt.'("i}l~'!lJ t Q:(I}mJai'b. {illd

fffr/m)l1c-h (ClEC AJ ts ikw[·

'''I"'."''

fiO!(.'eF

fWlrotf.k

liw ,.""", i~jffhliJro"I'ol Iyj!.' epl''''''c.I!, """"Iy, IIlk, madellng i!J ~ drar'd1rd i~simldf' H:'helh~'1' "j' fv:pff'l:m>r t
{}(Rrafts in ro12/'1.' •. "'lmS
{1.1'"

dr:~j(:~,}1tJ'i:ml,""~ iJujuej'tJI'

roifdu~:ti-m

m«k'~r 2l the madi!ling ~u.H~ 1'1at'! l'!.f./wir.lfJ","J rin-Ull wl.l-iia.!l:!, l<fl Vf'~' rlOSl? to 01'(, aciu.at coroxrter. an.d 3) 'low l'i!llr:t'(J!f'~/ cir(Uit ,Cal'; lu; ,~"jNiu.i«tt, 111 aIr' mmPllleT Jcr thnm:hm}' 1~'NIirli"",< /i'" SPIC'F.. fir,

, .0

Introdu clio n

Mod eII.I'L:R switch in~ convert c n; has rece ivcrl (UII,sidera ble anent ion ill recen l yean; and anum ber u f m ~thllds ha ve bee n tI~.eiopr.<iran;(, fig from analytic to de$~>!noriented. and the results range from speci fi, nu m eri c sol ut t t:'flS tu p;efl e ra! equi ville o I eire lli t n uldc Is. A gOUt] revie W I'J f these • pproachesis auern II! ed in 1,:' 0 f I h~ va rious "~l_ preaches to rnodeling' 1'io'l":i~thinK converters Cx,i~ling to J a te onl y t he ~ ~"'c(r<>nic C 'lui va len ic ircu i l stale s PJ ce average a pproacn a- I.~ and t he c urrent in ~ iecrcd control ty].lc approach ' 1. ". arc wdl. ,," ceived. What~""r the' approach used h) ~et the C:On veri er t ransf er p rupert ies, l he result is uf course the same, however One approach givt.'"'3more infnrmarina about the converter properties compared with the other. The current injected approach represent; control type techniques which arrive at a block d iagra m Iinear iwtj descript ion of \ he nonlinear system and models fmly transfer proper' t ies. The electronic equivalent ci rcuit sta te sp ace average approach models input and output in adhom IEEE Vol,

clition to transfer properties, Tbeequivalent eire uit approach might be preferred by electronic circuit designers, and those accustomed to the control type might prefer the curran t inj ected ,control type appreach to modeling switching converters. It is ! hought Ih::ll one "Itb.e most I.Isdui benefits of t he electronic e qui valent c ircuit state space average approach is the ea se with which more cornplicated converter structures can be anatyzed. The equivalent circuit also leads to til. physical in5ight I hat permits optimum design, SUI a thoreugh study and applicauon 01 both a pproaches reveal that 1) the current injected control type approach in Con' tinuous inductor conoucrion (CIC) mode is equally .:1$0 easy compared with equivalent circuit state ~INI"~ 3¥e,a,RP approach, and 2) the electronic t!'q ui valen l c ireu ir st iii t e space ave ru I{t: app roach is nor clear ~or becnmes more complex and cumber~.rirrH~ in di~cm'il1 1'1 inlMiJ,.'oj inductor t~\onduni(m lDIC) rnndt~. whereas thP.:'CUJTl::'n:! iILj€'cred renrrul ~YP£' apntna L· h 'is very dew' and becomes ea sier. These t vilO fart" led me '" (avur the current injected control t~lw approach iomodel input and output, as well as !he fact that transfer properties simultaneously rI~vl'.lnJJ un ~Quiv;;sl~nt circuit 1J:!i\n~ the current injected willFUIIYP" <\~pn)3ch, Thus this approach is ca j i~d 1he cu rrenr inj c,rl t'd cqu I \,,:H lent t -irc ui! approacb (CltXA'f Thi, mod ilied approach has the n erirs 01 the above mentioned two 3pp'ooche >, 1he n mo,t important of which art the (",llowinl!:,

II Lin ear equi valent ci rcuit is dev el~ped to give ph ys.ical in'sight int o the ccn verter circuit !na t permits optimum design. 2) The av ilab;1ity "f the in pu I mode I avoids the f res b Sl2 rt in 'he ana lysi s of cascaded converters. 3) Input and output as wen as transfer properries are modeled, 4.) The anal ysis is dear" r and easier in the' DIe mode,
The development switching converters of the is presented

<&:119$1IEEE. 1\£$-17,

Reprinted

with

permission 19B1_

T"'-"SIlcw.... "" Airnspaa ".d Ektronic

NQ, 6, pp, S02-8GB, Nov,

s)"r,ms,

emeA

to modeling io detah, TQ

demonstrate this approach, modeling and analysis is carried out Ior the basic three converters' buck, boost. and buckboost. Section 2 contains the detailed development of modeling switching converter power. stages using the CIECA_ The ClEeA is demonstrated in Section 3 by applying it to the boost converter power stage. Following the same approach. the modeling is carried out for buck and buckboost con verters and the results are presented in Section 4, Section 5 compares the me"; ts of the CI ECA wit h those of the elect ron ic equivalent circuit state space average approach and the current iniected control type approach, Section 6 concludes this new approach. the ClECA, to modeling switching de-de converter power stages.

2.0

CIECA

The development "f the CIECA allows a unified treatment of a large variety of converter power stages, since this approach is very simple and easy to apply, Physical reasoning in each step 01 this modeling is included and the modeling is attr!mptoo for the basic threE: converters: buck. boost. and buckboost. The end result of modeling i" cither a set of equations representing the transfer properties of converter, or a linear equivalent circuit mode I for the nonlinear converter. Th e loll owing conventions a nd notations are followed in the modeling and analysis, dl Ts is rne interval during which the transistor is turned em and the diode is off. d2Ts is the i_merval during which the transistor is turned o-rf and the diode is on. dl + d2 - 1, and 1'5 = IIfs is the switching period. Capitalized quantities are used for steady-state values and quantities with carets are used for small perturbations The CIECA is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 1. which is very general and applicable to various power stages. The flrst step in this process is to identi.fy the nonlinear part of the converter circuit and to linearize o"ly that part of the con ve rter as the remaining part is inherent ll' linea.t. Th us the converter power stage is identif\ed" as both nonlinear and linear and in fact the ea part of the converter determines the verat. current in-

n.m..

jected into the linear part of the converter. Hence this approach becomes simple as the linearization is achieved by averaging the current through the nonlinear part that is injected into the linear part of the converter. One of the two parts contains the switch and is supposed to be the nonlinear part as it takes different connecticns depending upon whether the switch is turned on or off. The second part does not contain any switch, remains the same throughout the switching period, and is inherently linear. Figure 2 contains the WUrce voltage !III, a threete rminal block, and a paralle 1 RC network. Assume the three-terminal block simply contains an ideal switch as shown in Fig. 2 (6); theoretically the circuit results in a converter though there are practical limitations. Initially, as the capacitor is nne charged .• very large current will Flew t hruugh the switch. only limited by the equivalent "erie~ reS;,,· (;jnc~ (ESRl of the capacitor. This large current can damage the switch it se lf. In addition the ripple will be very large as til" capacitor has to supply current to the loitd during the penud when the switch is turned off. An inductor is "dded to allevian: th,',,-, problems, as .hllwn in Fig. 2 (C). Now the current through the three-terminal 1J10t.J;{ is limited awl ('01\trolled by the value uf the inductor!' which is of c ourse affected by the paralle I RC" et work. This is In", whether the 2 connects 1(, the I (10 the source) or 10 the :1(to the ground), Thus the buck converter would have resulted. Now I be clockwi se rotation of Fig. 2 (C) results in Fig. 2 IDI. We know that this circuit is a buckbuost converter. A Iunhcr step in clockwise rotation 01 FiR. 2 (D) results in Fig, 2 (E), Again we arc familiar with this drfuit, the boost converter This is of the views which explain"lhe development of basic converters, l n fact this is how the nonlinear (three·terminal blOl"kl and lin..ar (parallel Rand C) pam are identified ;1\ basic converters, A similar method can be f<lJ1ow~d for any switching COnvener power stage. A. mentioned above. the three-terminal block re present.s a ncnli n P."~;' pa rt w h ereas r he S~cond (paraHeiR and C) part re presents a Iinea r parr, A I" l onp. can see that the three-terminal block injects current into the second part resulting in appropriate

0""

<II W

'" o
""it

.... <I: .... <II

,

...

,..
....

D <I: w

~-'------------~
~ :z
o ;::
<>:
:J

> '"

a:
w
W

o w ....

o(ij

'" Z '" o
o

0'" v:

-'"

~<: C

,_

10

2) derivative of the inductor current function of the value oC the inductor. the voltage 'Cf<>S< that in each subinterval in " switching period; 3) relationship between average injected CI1)"rent and output voltage v ~ (i,",)(z). where ~ is the impedance of the linear part of the converter. Now a steady-state solution is achieved by setting derivative" and perturbations to zero (Fig. 1. box 3). Sin ce the converter equations in (Fig. 1, box 21. are linear. superposition holds and can be perturbed (Fig. 1. box 4) by the introd uction of a small ac variation over the steady-state operating point. As we know. the independent dr'VLTlJ!nputs are vg and i d. the perturbation in these two inputs causes the perturbation in i and r'. The small ac variation from the steady-state operating point is negligible COlI" pared with the steady-state operating point values, ie .. viV. e.r:!Vg. dJD. ill Ieach) -0:: I. Osing the above approximations. nonlinear scrond-order terms arc neglected to obtain once again a linear set of equations. Now only the ac part i, retained which describes the small signal. low fre/''fIdI.Jc,~currlJlll(

~J

-.
G

.>
2

--........___/

---~

Fig. 2. (A) Probebl .. b .. lc dtcU" wl1h wtllch swilcI1ill!l eon""",1<1 hava developed. (8) Th_ lerml",,1 DlooK shown .oporeJely. (el IndlJdor 10 added 10 IB) .1 _po ~r<lpriaI. pIrIce. (01 e"",_ rt>IOIi,," ot ee). (E) eloe ...... ""alion of 11)).

,.It.,.

8"

output voltage, The following ate a set of relationships relerring to the converter diagram and current and voltage waveforms shown io Fig. 3: I) average current
(i...

J determined

by the first
Fig.

...----~-

-To --

...-_

part, injected into the ....cond part in a switchiug period;

3. Ty~cal inductor current and buc4< convarler.

''''Iag<!

""vflQrm.

in

11

quency behavior of the converter. Using this set of equations, the input-to-output and control-to-output transfer functions (Fig- I, bDX 5) are written, Using the same set of equations an equivalent circuit (Fig. I. box 61is dra w ~ which represents the input and ooiput small .~ignal, low frequency properties of the nonlinear converter. Although the outlined method follows in terms ot equations and arrives at an equivalent linear circuit model, one can proceed from (fig. I, box 2) in a parallel way using equivalent circuit models. As in the first method. a perturbation and linearization are carried out and from the resulting circuit models a final linea" equivalent circuit model is obtained similar to that of (Fig. I. box 11). Even though both paths have identical results. <me need use only one method depending on his taste: however the circuit model path give> more physical insight into the qualitative nature "I the results, especially the right half-plane Z!~r(J" boost in and buckboost converters, Thus the CI ECA to modeling switching de-de converter power ~t"~". derives the linear equivatent circuil which complet<·]y describes the input and output small sigllal. low frequency properties of the nonlinear convener power stage, ill addition to the transfer properties.

FIg.. 4. BQost ron v 6f19t wit'" a.11pataslUe:s. and -Storage timll! &11001& n"9'<H:I(!d.

The average inductor current injected into the output circuit during .J. s.witrhiog period is g1veo hy i,.. = i (<12) _
(1)

where i is th.e inductor current, The derivative f the tml uclfj r CU rront j,1;j g iven by Lfdi/dl) • [v},' 0

(de)J

(2)

The refnre the nul pu l volmge is n,

3.0 Soost Converter Modeling

We now demonstrate the method "·Jr the boost converter power stage shown in FiR. 4. The switches are assumed 10 be ideal. P"rasiti~s and storage time effects of the transistor swurh arc not included for simplicity. The OECA con be applied to the converters operating in both erc and Die modes whether they are duty ratio programmed or current programmed, Similarly the CmeA can be applied whether the convener operates in freerunning or in fixed-frequency mode. However, the present modeling is limited to (iy.ed·frequency duty ratio programmed converter>; "perMing in CIC mode. Inductor CUJTCn\ and voltage waveforms for the boost converter are shown in fig. 5. The shaded portion shows the amount of current injected into tbe output linear circuit (parallel R and C) and the interval during which the current injected is rl2Ts.

Ii.. RJIIl ,

+ ,RC]

(3)

where HI(l + sRe) is the impedance of the out· put netwnrk. The steady-state conditions can now be found by us; og (l)-( 3) and sell ing the deri va rive [0 zero. Therefore the above ~ql1ations reduce to

lltVK

11D2; l ~ VI[R(D~ll.

(4)

Equations (1)-(3) are perturbed around the steadyslate O!>,-,'ating' point. and second-order nonlinear terms are neglected once a{(ain to obtain the linear small signal model

t:

i(D2) - l

i
(5)

L(diJdl)

= fig -

TXD2) + Vd~ • sHe)]~" the

Ii • [Ri(l
The input-t';:~mtput

and

ccntrol-to-output

12

J ~.-~F
I

I I I

I I

I I

1-4t:= =-:.~I~"""'-h==_d21_' __
dlT_" Fig. 5, !oouctcr cu rrent and 'lMltage waveforms

_~:I

01 I he bOOliII ecnve ner in FI g. 4.

transfer functions are obtained from (5) by first taking Laplace transform

NS)liig(fi) - (l/D2){U(l + SLiRD', + S' l.elD',H W;)/(irs; ~ f1'gID.) (l - SURlY,!! l6)

(J

equivalent circuit model nbtajned using the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach.

+ SURlY', + S'LCllY.)

These transfer functions are the same as those obtained by 3. , using the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach or the current injected control type approach. Using (5), an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig_ 6 can be drawn. The dependent current ""d voltage generators are replaced by an equivale nt trn nslormer as shown in Fig. 7. This equivalent circuit is identical to the

6. Small signal ~Ow frequency 'i ne81( &qlI~lafl.t orcun mode I 01 I he boo:9l OOI'Ivll!l 01 Fig. 4. This d rcuh can be rter dire<:lly used in oornpuh3 r slmw(IItkirt.
Fig.

13

~,(-

:~· D~~ D
C

0].. -~
':.,

till";
I, •.
C

:
•

,c

o,:~!

01,3

rent and voltage generl!lOr.s by an 8q:uMitent tfanITo,mer. From the circuit of Fig, ., one can see that there is a current generator (in place of a "witch in the actual circuit of Fig, 4) between the L and the C. This current generator is moved to the inpu t to put the cirrmt in a form that enables one to see thaI there is reaUy a low-pass LC filter. Thus the movement of the current generator to input prOO1Ke8 a freqaency-dependent voltage generator, The sign of this generator is such t hat in the con trnl-to-ootput tranefer function, this re suits in a ri~ht hal f· plan. zero, Also notice that the effective value ", L now depend. upon the steady-state duty ratio. Hybrid Approach. A hybrid approach to modeling is demcnsrrated below which uses the equivalent circuit model immediately after the Iinearization oi the nonlinear part of the converter. Using 0)-(3). an equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8 can be drawn. From this circuit we can see that during steady-state, the de model is simply obtained by short circuiting the inductor and open circuiting the capacitor: then !llf, o, dl, and tf2 assume the steady-state values. Now the circuit is perturbed and second-order terms are neglected to once again obtain the linear system. One can see that Fig. 9

Fig. 7. Small ')9"'" tow f,O<jUeflCy mOdel of 1M _ ccn .....r1er roploci"9

Ii""", equivlller>! circuit

"'" dependent cur·

FIg. 9. Sm.aIl"gnaJ low frequollC)' Ilooar equlval",,1 circuft for booS! con ... ner 01 Fig, 4,

is the same as Fig. 6 and one will get an equivalent circuit as in Fig. 7 after the dependent generators are replaced with a transformer.

4.0 Modeling Buck.

and Buckboolt ConvIJr1a,.. The same method as described in Section 3.0 has be e n followed 10 model buck and buckboost converters. Tbe converter and its equivalent circuit d iagrarns are shown in F ig. 10 f nr the buck "on' verter, and shown in Fill. II {or u,., buckboost, The results for the two transfer functions of principal in reresr . th e input-to-output transfer funcnon, and the control-to-output transfer function are as follows.

-0 .{]} 'ffi_O
c:i'"U~rO!
"'to.
~,

10, (A) Buck CO erter. (8) L",ear equivalent circuit ...

Fill 8, Equivalent

11H3),

14

type approach and the electronic equivalent circuit state space average approac It. 6.0
Conclusions

Fig. 11. (A) B~I c:ult model.

ccewerter. ~8)l.jJlIlU:U· QlquiW1oe'n1 clr-

FO}r the buck converter. w-vlvf;{s)

uWdr.v -

(DI)I Jill + SJ} R + S' I Lli (V~ [1/(1 + SUR + S' L() I

V(s)!Vgfs} ~ (Dl! D2) [11(1 + SURD',

v(s)ld(sJ ~

S' LC/lJl J I

(VIDl D2) (I - SLJ)1I RIY ,)I

SURD,' •

(I +

S' LCflJi.)

The equivalent circuit diagrams and transfer functic ns obtained here for buck and bU.ckboost are the same as these obtained in ", 5.0 Comparison

A new CmCA to modeling of switching de-de converter" is developed and presented which describes the small signal.Iow frequency input-tooutpu t and control-to-out pnt transfer properties as well as input and outputpropertes of II1e converter. To demonstrate this approach.the modeling is carried out for buck. boost, and buckboost converters ope rating in fixed-f requency, d utJ' ratio programmed ClC mode. The results of the mod ding and analysis are compared with those results obtained by using the current injected coatrol type appreach as WeJJ38 by us ing 1 he e lectroni.c ecuivalent circuit state SP" ce average approach. T~ble I gives a detailed comparison of CIR-CA with two other approaches, It is very clear that the CIECA has (he merits of both the other approaches. The merit, of the CI l':CA will be substan t iated by work l<! be publ i. hed if) w hid, the modeling and ana lysis is carr ied ou t. for the "on verters operating in t be [)] C mode, fOf rhc C onverters ope ra ting in current programmed UlOOC, and Cor cascaded converters, This approach also allows power system designers with control background to use their COntrol ~now ledge and sti II ge! eq ui v-alent circuit mode Is to give m ore ph ysica 1 insight int 0 the converier operation, thereby enabling them to make be tter designs, Th is • pprcac h is al so encouraging and attractive to power system designers with circuit background as the modeling become' sfmpler and is "cry clear in DIC mode. References.

Mode ling and analysis for Ihe d m y ratio programmed buck, boost. and huck boost converters operating in fixed- frequency CI C mode are ca rried out and th e i.r linear equivalent circuit models developed uSing the new CmCA. The traosfer functions a", the same as those obtained in the current injected contro I type approach or ; II the elecrronlc equi,-alent circuit "tate <pace average approach. In addition the equivalent circuit models developed are the same as those obtained in the state space average approach. Table I gives a detailed compa<';';011 CIEe}\. with the c-urrent iuje<:ted control of

1_ M iddlebroo k. R.D and

'>

Cuk, S. (1977) Model·

2. Fossard, A.J., and Clique. M, (1976) Modelisa-

;ng a nd analysis methods for d c-dc switc hing con ve rters. Presented at the I £E E In te rnational Semic ond uctor Power Converter Coil' ference, Orlando. FL. 1977. tion des cellule. elementaires, Technical Report 1, Contract 25901'1.5 A K, Enropea n Space Rese ar chan d Tech T! oJogy Organ i~-3t; 01'. Nocrdwijk, The Netherlands, 1976. 15

Tab. 1. ConIperI ..... et tho CIECA to _I .. SwItctIlng Do-I)e eonv.n ... wlll1l1le· CIImtn1 InJeded Comrol TI'PI A,p_ and :... ElM:lronIc EqIll •• I.nt Circuit ~ 6pKe ..... I"I1II. "'PPRllch. EI... re... ~ulnWrl el_MS.oI.l_,

.....
~Ul 11M oLltput

equt¥"'t

nOI avaJa.b~

-~
•

ClECA

circuit modets eMI8 to Obtain RAS4!Imb~nc801 equiv8l8nt clrcu~ock diagram. to actual oorw.rt~ control type blO¢~ dJagram is 100fer ._, 110m
actual conveJ1M nJ'Olllic:al nccers flllMmbti.nc:e to (OflWllrte-f

e-uil!r 0:0 have tc:hiaJ

\00

obtain

9qLllivalent circun modem a1Go

muctl 010&81 to physical converter circuit .nd lI'u: c:anon='t:-aI m.oo.ts tao be obtailn8t;l .. tt.., mlilll"lip!JIlllill'OO:fl5. 19'aSy

r.t<>dolog '" CiC

Modelil1g in Ole

••

oy &rod

''''pI.
5i~I",r

I:;IIBI!ii:f

and

s! m pie
ami '1191)1 c.1&ii.r

"-'Y &net

e,.n.r

no. cleat

Of •

M,S.jer,

~mple,.

com;plex Ph)I!IlcIII l'8IISIOOin~ tor fight htlrf..pIaMo :r:troto UN 01 blOC-$( <HI:Qram.sJ eoQul.... .,' (:ir~i,jrt model!: in COIfIpLlte!'S kJr ~etiCl!ll)

and eumbe'lOm.

no. availan'"
iJN.ble hybrid ill .a.ntliog C~4Jr:s

a..... aRabl. IJnd

l

Ca:nflO! .1:'M9O used dir&Cilly jn eornpu.tlltf1l., iiQ us il'lg SPICE.OIc.

be u~ rtir'l(;Uy in t:Om&:lutsn, like U5irig

GoiP

SPICE. etc.
li 11.881 artd flOn~n.Qr ~'S of tl'toi- OOfWG~r pow&r ~tago IlI'tiI idIIiIInh'liBd 1111'\(1 QiI'II~ INl p,IJI i.5 lilleDrizo8'd: tHIfK;& lhi1 I!IIPP~ i!. SI~mj;H1;II •• y IiiInd

PfediCtiC""
MOdelJl'Ig .pproIOJ'!

of

:stage

1in .. ' IIIInd noniiIr'l81l11' part, the oonli8f18r power ~r& d&t1ti"'&d _00 O"ly that ~~rt is litreJllm8d: I\8nee Ihill! 8DP'{)8C~ f.5 limp" and ... ~

(;(Wn(llirE' CQAvIl1l"(8t is trealed lor lin.Q8.r_ulion thOtJg'" only sem, p.$I'I 01 nre c:orwerH!H t" nonliino.r: hll!!lJ'lC6o l~ apDfOl1ctJ. be<:aMes compktx

, T"'"
"'.Ipatti t.t1ual

(fOe:!. 00'1 mean that mit CJloor'tiCAI modfllll9,." n(rI u&4'I1I. In lact, tnr;' ~re the in l.Indefi!itandlng ~l'Iat all tM MSfC COI'I-"enet1 eff8Ctiv61y hlll.loIMl-C filler propanilt'

models 'hili
U'1wgh It
is;

ior' tt't .• tjtS~ rime not ,..n in lhe

oon'_"';.

drt:urtt,

ftpeCJi.~

in t:IIJC-~1lI1

and i)oo;t

wl1er.

U.. ,.. re III

,wtlch beIwe6n l

PoI'1d

C.

3. Middlebrook, R.D., and Cuk, S. (1976) A general unified approach to modeling switching converter power stages. In IEEE Pouer Etearonic« Specialists Conference ReCl6d, H)76, P,P- 18·34. 4. Cuk, S .. and Middlebrook, R.D. (1977) A general unified approach to modeling switching de-to-de converters in discontinuous conduction mode, In IEEE Power Electronie» Specialists C{)n/~re»ce ReCflrd. 1977, PI'. 36·57. 5. fun, S.·P.. Br~n. A .• Rensink, l., and Middlebrook. R.D. (1979) Modeling and analysis of switching de-de converters in constant frequency current programmed mode. In IEEE

Technical

Note

T-58.

Power

Electronics

Group. California Insf itute 01 Tef.hnology,

Pasadena. Feb. 6. 1979 1. Fossard, A.J .. and Clique, M. (1979) Modeling and design of de-de con verte rs using mod ~rn control theory. pan: 1: rnedelisation: part 2: open loop analysis and control design. Presented at the 3rd European Space Research and Technology Organization Spacecraft Power Conditioning Seminar. Noordwijk, The Netherlands. 1977 8. Ferrante, J.G., Capel, A .. Fossard, A.]., and Clique. M. (1977) A general linear continuous model for design of power conditioning units at fixed and free running frequency, In fEEE

Pouier Ekclroni", Spaialisls Crm/£Te1lCe Recm'd, 1979. pp. 284·301. 6. Brown, A. (1979) State Space analysis of pulse
width modulated switching converters.

f'rJwe>" E/edronics Specin iists Con/cronce Rcccrd, 1977, pp. 113-124.

9. Praioux .. R .. Marpinard,

J.e .. and

Jalade,

].

16

(1956) Establishment de modeles marhematlques pour regulaterus de puissance a modulalion de largeur d impulsions (pwm): 2: models

continua, ESA SdenHj"IClJ.n4 TcclmiclJ.1 Reuiew,

1966, 2 (1), 115·129,

CURRENT INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH TO MODELING OF SWITCHING eC-DC CONVERTERS IN DISCONTINUOUS INDUCTOR CONDUCTION MODE
Ckm",1 NtjecJM IIqlu,,./,,,1 r:inuil a/1/lnJoc;, (CIECA) to m!JdtU"g ,wi/ching d<'<k ooni$rler /ll!U}.' s(<ljf<!Ss lkueli oped . .,h.d ,/11m wilh. """,,", i><j<L1ed "","')(11:11, .Itd I"'$><II> in a "./ 01 "'I011li""_, .,hid, Ikscrio. '","plttdy i"pW and VIJ.tpu t /W'OIJCrl~.and i%H t(jJUtJ(lkn1 linear circuit m.:xkl l~lid al .'un-aU Jipa i 1o!4,~/reqJ#;:~jfzy kt't!~ Th,s appmlJ<h to m<Jdeli"JI ,wildoing d<-4r crn<wrl.,. pourer :sl.are.s Iuu tb~ mt!riJ~ lJ/ tuo k:!w:wn approac~.: i) elect'W'!ir. ftJJjJ'mltml rin:uil $l.ul~ space r.n~ r1PtmXJ.ch. ii; ~r~."t i~~jmed ('(mlm! ty/>fOnpprooch, nt1m'f!Y;.a.J tJu? ~Ung is r,'f'ry dt'4raM is !i;mpltt w"l!IJu,..lItf!amt'(tmr~)pr,.a.lc$11I ro~tinU<1u.~J' di~MllinilOJt:; irlductM ctJMfKtimc modt.!i. b; O results i,. ,m eit?lIttwu:nl ritt'Ui~ whidt j_~ i.WF] t:/(}5(, to Ill" ucA .... tua! convener. eJ tlu' r.q~ifialnd .:frr:ui.t
tmI

bf .. ,~

di"£d~)l

ill CIImplller;,1' tneoretica! pntdi<!i,m" li~< S/'/CE. erc.. dJ demit! "I In, de",,"l, 0/ b,,11I h. apptw,du'_, ",.alwn,d. t Hm.~i7lK d~I'fJI'.lolK'd amJ
('~1ilti,.'}! .-]e.."WH.<;(Tatm for

Ihr m'1f1('11o~
"'~t~r

i"

(mlli,lhOU'$

"~ldwrWi'

omU.u.('hilft

w, the

CIi:..'CA is nrm.' n1P"(lRd

!iHIIIJSL<tO

10 tJ4;' (QU!I(>rlet'!IJ/I4'rnfingill mode,

discmJ-

iru/Ilttm"

limdaflim!

1.0

Inl.raducllon

The modeting uf switching converters has received considerable attem ion in recent years and a number of methods have been developed, rallj(ing from analytic to design oriented, and the results range from specific numeric solutions to general equivalent circuit models, A good review of these approaches is attempted in '. :!. Among the various approaches to modeling switching converters existed to dale, only the follov.'ing two approaches are well received, namely: i) electronic equivalent circult state space average approach ,~; iii current iniecred con! ro! type approach " ,-0. 'Whatever theapproacb is used to get the converter transfer pro© 1982 fEEE. Reprinted with permiss ion from IEEE 7",."",/;"", ""Industrial Ei<tI'Onics. Vol. [~",.29,No.3, pp. 230-234, Aug. 19S2.

perties. tbe result is, of course, the same; but One approach gives additional information about the coeverter properties compared to the other, The current injected approach On one band, represent" control type tech niques which arrive at a block diagram linearized description 01 the nonlinear system and models only transfer properties: on the other hand, electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach models input and output in addition to transfer properties. The equivalent circuit approach might be preferred by electronic circuit designers and those accustomed to the control type , might prefer current injected control type approach to modeling of .witchinR converters, In addition 10 the above cnmments, it is lhou!(ht thaI one ui the must useful benefits of electronic e.qujvalcnt circuit stare space average approach is the ease with which more COmpIiGH~d converter structures can be analyzed and the equivalent circuit lead. to the physical insight that permits opt i roum design, [jut a thoroug h study and ~ P1l1 iClilion of both approaches reveal much more interesting facts that "I the current injected ''-'''Irel type ap· preach in c'Jntinuous inductor conduction (Cl C) mode is equally easier compared to equivalent circuit state space average '11JlI1><l."h; b) electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach is nor dear 4 or becomes more complex and cumbersome' in discontinuous inductor conduction (DIG) mode, whereas current injected control type approach is very clear and becomes more easy. Because of these two facts, current injected control type approach is used to model input and output, as wen as <ransier properties simultaneously developing an equivalent circuit. Thus, this approach is hereafter called current injected equivalent circuit approach (C[ECA). Having developed ODd demonstrated the

17

-~

- switching de-de converters operating in continuous inductor conduction mode 1., the current injected equivalent circuit approach is now extended to the converters operating in discontinuous inductor conduction mode and presented in this paper, To

2.0

Current

In.je<:ted Equivalent

Circuli ApprDach (CIECA) The following conventions and notations are follo...'IJd in the modeling and analysis: 11', T, the interval during which the tranis turned on an d the diode is the interval during which the transister is turned off and the diode is on,

demonstrate this approach, the modeling and analysis is carried out for the basic three converters, i.e., buck: boost, buckboost. The section following the introduction contains the detailed development of modeling of switching converter power stages using current injected equivalent circuit approach. This method is demonstrated by applying to the boost converter power stage in Section 3. Following the same approach, the modeling is carried (Ap· pendix) out for buck. and buckbocst converters and the result. are presented in Section 4, Final seclion presents the conclusion.

sister off,

d,T,

d,T, + d~T, + d"T, = Y,

T, =

1'/, swit.ching

period.

The capitalized quantities are used for steady-state

SWtTCHI~O ()C-DC
CO~YERTERS CONVERTER EQUATIONS

STUDY STATE PAOl'EllTE9

~Iv ... _'jn (lt~ndh,lOJ:)-E

i) i)tflwal,f.'t'e-

of jn~hH;;llJ( eunenl

current !:it
A'w'Mage indud.or iii
ill

ct,ll~r.n'~ 0 'lI --Vg

""'''chlng

period
(v}-= Ipt: :z or QUI.$n.lt

('.1,1") iii) Oul put .... olta~ 1,1. impoed.nu

,,_v .-114(.,
v

MtwQirkl

lave ""iIoln. d, -D1 dl-02

PERTUA

DA rtO~

OVNA."C PROP ERnE S

LI"U~

UHEARllATtON
d1 • 01 tt2 D2

EQU....... ENT CI!lCUIT (8,,",)

:9:~~~Yg :r~:~~ again nn....

i-

a2:

d1

Perturt ..
.,f(!duel

UOn ttorma

iI) rr:tpul to OIJ'JlU!:

Itaosler f\lnehon
Cbntro. to OtJ1pUI

if)

•• n-=I,eye+7."tI

Uar1S'" Nnction

'-Yltl'm

fig. 1. Flowchart of
pt(lQrammed

cufJ'ttnt injected &quival&nt circtJil apptOlld110 dJscOO1inuous induCl.c;Ir COfHSuClion mode.

modeling

sW!lchlng

de-ce

cooverter!

In the

dUty

ratio

18

values and the quantities with hais for the small per. turbations,

The current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling converters operating in discontinuous inductor conduction mode is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 1. which is very general, applica ble to various power stages. The first step in this process is to identify the nonlinear and linear parts of the converter circuit and linearize only the nonlinear part of the converter a. the remaining part of the converter is inherently linear [Box 1). The nonlin ear part of the converter determines the average current injected into the linear part. Now (Box 2), • set of relationships are wriuen referring to the converter diagram and current and voltage waveforms shown in Fig, 2: volt secon d balance on the inductor; av e rage curren t (i".) injected into the linear part in a switching period; iii) relationship between average injected current and output voltage u ~ (j .) x (z) where z is the j m pedance of ~h;~jin ear part nf the converter.
i) ; i)

vg

e"&<1"

Fig. 3. SooSit conver1er with

""9lecled.

en P8rasif:ijcs Bind

:~1I0r.gll:'l

lime

Now steady-state solution is achieved by settin" derivatives and perturbations To zero (Ro~ 3). Since the cunve rrer equations in Box 2 are llnear. superposition balds and can be perturbed (Box 4) by the introduction "j a small ac variation Over the steadystare operating point. As wt, know the independent driving inputs are III! 3l1d d. the perturbation in th es two inputs cause the perturbation ee in; and v. Now making the small signal approxirna-

tion, namely, the small ac variation from the steadystate operating point are negligible compared to the "!eady state D~rating point values. i.e .. vlY, d,ID,. J.,tD" ill (each) "" 1. Using the above approximations, nonlinear second order terms are negle('te<J to obtain once again a linear set of equations. Now only the ac part is retained which describes the small s ign I low frequency behav iur 6/ the convert er. {J sing these sets 01 equal ions, the input to output and control 10 output transfer funclions (Box 5) are written. Using the same set of equations, an equi valent circuit (Bo" 6) is draw" w hich represents t he input an d outpu r small signal Jaw frequency properties of the nonlinear converter. Although the outlined method follows in terms of equations and arrives at the end an equivalent linear circuit model, one can proceed from Box 2 in a parallel way using equivalent circuit models. As in the first method, perturbation and linearizetion are carried out and from the resulted circuit models a final linear equivalent circuit model is obtamed similar to that of Box 6. Both the paths ,',,suIt in identic a.! results.

t;V,.'

3.0

Boost Convute-r·Modeling

Fig. 2, TypiUllnduclor book. COnverter.

currenl on<! voltage

w •• eformsln

We now demonstrate the method for the boost converter power stage shown in Fig. 3. The switches are assumed to be ideal, and lb. present modeling is limited to fixed frequency duty ratio programmed converters operating in discontinuou& HI

state operaeing point and second order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal model

'"" - 2L (.

- T, V~

D,' D, + ", • d, • D.

+ V, •

D, •

J,)
=

VIV, - V·
Fig. 4. In<lLJCIor curr&!'H an<lvoll11l"'''''''om",'' coovertor in Pig. 3.

VIV)

d.,1D. - D, ' J,ID,'

(5)

l!le_

inductor conduction mode. The Rt constan t is asswned to be much greater than the switching period T,. Inductor cunene and voltage wa veforms Ior the boost COllV erte r arc shown iIT Fig. 4. The "haded portion shows the amount of current injected into the output linear circuit (parallel Rand G) and the interval clurillg which the current injected is d, T,. The average inductor current injected into the output circuit during' a switching period is given by II, d,' T, • d,

The in put-to-output and tbe coatrol-to-output transfer functions are obtained from (5) by first raking Laplace transform

"""f ~ ~
where

II

2V

(["M-:-j J--;;;D, +
I).,

1
I
oj.

SIWfr

II)

2L
Volt second balance on the inductor V·d,.
(2)

o,

The output voltage is

" =

(i....

!?)J(l + sRI...)

(3)

W, -

_(2M _- 1I) M

RC·

where RI(l + "Re) is the impedance of the output network, The steady- state conditiorrs can now be found by using (1)-(3) and seuiag the derivative tc zero. Ve: V, d,. d2• etc .• assume steady-state values. Therefore, the above equarions reduce to

These transfer function. are the same as those obtained using electronic equi valent circuit state space
a verage approach or current injected contra] type approach. Using (5) an equrva len t circuit is drown as shown in Fig. 5. This equivalent circuit is ideo· tical to the equivalent circuit model obtained \Ising electronic equivalent circuit state space average approach. A. Hybrid Approacll_ As mentioned in Section 2.0, a hyhrid approach !O modeling is

ViV, ~ 1+D,

D,

v
R

V, __c;...

D"D,'T
2L

..:.'.(4)

Equations (1)-(3) are perturbed 20

around the steady-

.~

vg

Fig. 5. Small !Signa~law frl;!qu8.!lCYlinear equivalent tkcui1loc in compute~ srmulalions_

60051 CO!'l.v~nl!r 01 Hg. 3_Thts eirClIl1 can 00

dit9Cth{

IJs,'IIb'e

demon<l..at('d below, which U>;CS the equivalent cirt·u;! model imnwdi"tely alter the linearization of the nonlinear part Illt' convener. UsinJo: (1)-13), [·~wi\ialtnt {'lTl"uil, Fi~.0 can br drawn. From this circuit we van see rh.u dnr'in~ steady-state, t;u,' dc mode1 is simply Ob'~tDI1,..d by open rircuitin;.: Ih" (a'

"r

pacitor

and assuming

stcady-stutc

I;'a_hl~::-; for

r-:j{. I',

d•. d~. Nnw the circuit i:s perturbed. ~H1dsecond urder terms are neglected l<J obtain tlw linear system unce aga,ln. This is shown in Fig. 7 and is the same ~.~Fi~. .5.

Modeling 01 Buck and Buckboost Conve-ners Th..:· sanu- mC'!hud a~ (h'S04.·ritwtiill the pn"'i~~u~ ""'1 i<1 " II<", IWt'Il ["110,,,(,<1(API~'n<I'ix),n ,,">dl'll)l!('k and buckboost l·onvt·rh.'f~_ The ('OU1\if...rter ~lIld ib4 l~qutVa1t'lil rin-uit dt'W;fam~ an- shown ill F;~!_~ ftU' trw huck ronwrte-r ~Hlflin Fij..f_ jor th,' hlld;.bm~t 9 CI)!l"'~'nl'r, Tlu- n·:~~n.l1l::"ofor the tw» tr~~tl.'i.(cr f\lll~'tillH~ uf principal interest. th<:- input [0 output transfer function and thr rontrol tu ()LlfPOllr;:ms(~I' htn1.-titltl are ... follo ..... ~ s,

4.0

VII

Fig, 6. Equivaion' ",,,,uJt

I." I,1H3),
21

where

F.... 7. S",..~ fOf _

"""".n....~f fig. 3.

oi!lm.l lOW f.oquoncy II""", """,,".nt

cl,cult

K_

ZL RT,

w_
> converter

2 -M RCll - MI

F Of the buck converter For the buckboost

if

M __

l_. _

V.
v
ii
M

1 ... SIW,

"n

l~ (I
+

1 ) SIW,

{:11J
L

09

9,
r2 = (1-M)R Fig.

=(!f....)...!..A '·M.

92 = lm.:M) ·t·M
(q I'"
smoll

fl.)
\A 1ino",

ciU:\JH' mod'al.

s. ("I BuCI<t<lI\Viln.".

tB) tnduOlO<cu rre.nt _VOltaga

\OS'<_"".

stgnal \ow frequ.r:q

eq"ivaI' nt

22

Jl ~1'!'_ Il /K

91 ~ 0

FIg. 9. !A) Buckb(K:t:S1cot.-vel1er. (8) Indue-lor turrui'lt and 'VOltage wa.... eli)im~, equiv.a1ef'i1 cncult mode'.

(C'J

Irs small signal lo11'II trequency linear

where

s: D,
ZL
RT,
2

inducturccuduction mode. T() (k~llim~ir.i:~lot'" this appreach, the ml)()eling is. carried Out tor buck. beosr. an d bu L k boo st con verte T~ <\I ~(l prvsen ted irI l l Lt" previ nus sect i ons, T he result $ of ~he mod ~I i 11g ~Iu d analysis are compared with th use 0 bWi"ed u,i n g current injected control typ~ apprM<:h as well M e Iectroni c eoui va lent circuit Slate Sll'\ce a ver ag~ ap-

preach.
Appendix A. voltage shown amount eire ui l whirh average _ Inductcr curre n t an d waveforms for the buck converter are in Fig. 8(8). Shaded portion shows the of current injected into the output linear Iparallel Rand GJ and the in te rval du ri ng the current injected is (d, • d,)7;- The inductor current injected int':.fl thf' ourpur

IV 5.0 Conclu~ons

RC

Buck Co n verter

H a vi ng developed ana demoast rated the new current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling switching de-de converters operating in continuous inductor conduction mode '", is I\OW extended to converters operating in diS<'ontinu",,"

23

circuit during a switching

period is given by

'"7'>", ~ v

1 (!tfJ ---

l+SIW, jIK M

Volt second balance on tile inductor (2a) The output voltage is

R)1(1

-Ii
where (3a)

2V (~) M Z-M

-~--V D,
+ ,RCI K-

.' ~ (i... •
where R/(1

of- sRC) is the impedance of the output network. The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (),,)-(33) and setting the derivative to zero; V,. V. d, d,. etc .. assume steady-state values,

W_{~-M) ,- 1M

I RC'

Therefore, VIV,

the above equations

reduce

to ll::iing (Sa), art equ iv aleru circuit is drawn a'S.shown in Fi,! 8(C). R, Huck-Boost Converter. lnducror current and vnll;JRf:': w;)'I,.'c[()nns for I he buckboost COn· vcrtrr ,m' shown iu Fil!. ~HJ, Shaded pori ion shows the amount of current injected into the output linear circuit (pa.... sllel Rand C), and the- mtcrval during which t he current injected is d.:r. The average inductor current injected into the 'output circuit during a switching period is f.!lvt:~n by

o,
=

iJ,
(l'~, -

n;
V)IJ, TJiJ, - D)
(1a)

v
R

2L

E"""ti<>ns (tal-nal are perturbed around [be steadystare operating point, and st.!\."ond order nonlinear terms are neglected nnr-e "gain 10 obtain the linear small signal model

v~,• til
Volt second balanre

.. T~ r{J;~

v-

'~I (1),

,1,1

lL
on the inductor

(lbl

(2b) (V + /))I(V,
-I-

!) ~ (D,
+

... 3,)i(/), +

,i, •

D,+

J,)
(511)

The outpu t voltage is

l' ~

f) ~ (Ri(I

sRC));;".

(im

R)l11 + ,RC)

(3b)

The input to output and the control to output transfer lunClions are obtained from (5a) by first taking Laplace transform

where RIO + ,RQ is (he impe dance of the output network. The steady-stare conditions can now be found by usiQg (lbH3b) and setting the derivative to zero; 1'; d". etc" assume steady-state values. Therefore. the aoove equa lions red uce to

v~.

a,.

24

~rlV

5..
D,

V R

D,' 2L

D,· T,
(4b)

Equations {lbH3bl are perturbed around the steady-state operating point and second order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small signal model

',.. ~-?~'-

T,

(V, • D, • D,

V,

d,'

D,

anaiy. method. for dc-cc switching conveners," presented at the IEEE Int. SemiConductor Power Converter Conf., (Orlando, FL),1977. 2. A,j. Fossard and M. Clique, "Modelisation des celhiles element. ires ." Tech. Rep. J. ESTEC contract 2590175 AK, 1976. 3. R.o. Middlebrook and S tuk, "A general unified approach to modeling switching converter power stage s, " in IEEE Po"," Elearon. Specialisu Coni., 1976 Rec., pp, 18.34, </, S. Cult ant! R.D. M,dt!l6IrTook. "A KB"cml

('IV, - V •

VIV.' ~ 1i~1D,~ fl,

IitD,'
(5h)

V-

llnifwd I1PProoc;' 10 m(xieli .•" switching lir·l(f-ac comlfr/,,,, i" discontinum .. crmdudiIJn miNk" pY.seltlrn III Ihe ll:.EE Pow.", EI~cI,.onics Spe~.nI~I.' Om/. lIme 1977.
5. S. .1'. H$u "' a!., "Modeling and analysis of switching de-de converters in constant trequeucy Current programmed mode." in IEEE Pouer EII'cITrIn. ;.;"",';al"l" Con]. 1':179R r, (;. Art Brown. "State S""ce t\n"ly,i" of pulse width rnodulated ~wlll'hlt1.R converters.' Power Rlt'flrulIil,,":S ernUl), C~lirnrni;1 I nt'ol i 11 1<.' of u Tcchnology.fechnical ''''1<' T·s<;, Feu. 6, 1'l7!l. 7, A.J. Fnsaard and M. Clique, "Modeling Mr,d design uf de-de converters using mode-ron cont ,,,I t ncory, Part 1 Model: ?mi, m. Pa rl ~ Ope" 1.(10p 1\ nalysis and eMI ml De, ign, " in }'riX'. Third £STEC $,",'W'11I)) i'£"<1", t:.,m<iilil!ni"" s'm,;nar, {N'~>rdwijk. 1'h<, Netherlandsl, 1977. ~. A,]. Fossard d al" "1\ ~eneral linear COn· tinuous model fur design of power conditioning units at fixed and free running frequency," In IEEE Pmcer £ll'rlro,,;,'$ S/wia/isls Cont.. 19771M" pp. 113·124. 9. R. Prajoux, J.C. Marpinard, and J JalaM. "Establishment de modele. mathernatiques pour regulate-us de puissance a modulation de largeur II impulsions lpwm]: 2. Mode! "",. tinus;" ;;:5..4 Sci. Tech. Rr». , vol 2, no. 1, l~{it\. pp. 115·129. 10, P .R.K. Chetty. "Current injected .()uil·;jl~nt circuit approach (CIECA) to modeline of switching de-de converters," lEEI-: Tran» A erospace and Elec trcn ic $ysl., vol, 11. 1\ (1" 1981. 25

IRI{l + "1<()1;.~"

The input to output and the control to output transfer functions drC obtained (rom (5b) by first t .. kill~ Laplace transform

T ,
if /1
where

(M)

,
V

~W.

M$
V Ii

I + S/W,

M~

V, D,

,
2L

Ks

T,

U"inS (5h). an equivalent in Fig. 9(C),

circuit is drawn as shown

Ral.rancH
1. R.D. Middlebrook and S.

Cult, "Modeling

and

CIECA: Af'PLICATION TO CURREH-T PROGRAMMED SWLTCHINO DC-DC CONVERTERS

The curnn! ;"jcc:;"" f./lui,,,k" Icircuil "IIProoch(ClECA) 10 ",Ddtllng swi/clting am1J<:l1<>r />Owe, is <Sf •• dd to model the <'.<mini pro/lf'!J",,,,..t co__ /lmIif' stages

,tages

without

load sharing

problems.

4) Inductor sawtooth current waveform replaced

advantageously the reference sawtooth necessary to generate the putsewtdthmodulated control signal. Thus this paper is concerned witb current programmed switching de-de 'Converters operating in the fixed frequency, CIC mode. The main gool is to obtain the small-signa Iequi va lent circuit models which rep rese nt both inp ut and out put prop erties, which call then be embedded in the model of a complete regulator system, so that the overall dV-l13mic properties and the slllbility can he analyzed and designed. CmC;\ is briefly reviewed in Section 2: Soclion 3 contains the explanation for the instability of the current programmed converters when they cperate at duly rat;, ... greater than 0,5 Section 4 contain" the detailed devekrprneat 01 modeling for bon.! converters. Following the same approach, modeling is carried out rur buck and buckboost converters and the results are prc..,nlcd in Section 5, Section Ii presents modeling Inr the current pro-

o/l<mli.g inj&..d
lion

f""llw~CJ,

Cimh'n"WS intiru:1or (;<loth.".

b/orlijIdo' romp clio""", tm",~rlm; to ahibil ,..11 dl;mf!<J two-POk ml)('"", Tnis bas """" '",-.sligm.d fiN
ditio»

mode, 1'0 /kmqn.tralc/u method. _li"g i, l4rr'.-d oul for Ihe ~Jltk, """'I, ami boc/d,,,,,,/ _t~>1"" ItJ obtai • •"",U-.;g.a.llil1l!ar rqu;,'(j/enl circuit model' which repre_I wih HI/I<II and ""(PUt frroPitrl;"s. The re,ult;; of lire,. """,- .... ar, pr.,•• too I'. th< /f)rn' of eql(iV<1/""/ arcui/ .. odel, as "",/I "" /.."ctiMls T~augh ",,,,,,,I pro/ITUm ",ed conll6rlors ""h,bit ~;,.rgl.. />Ok ""Jxm'" lhe .d-

I",.'/'-"

1(_,

thefirst rime using CIECA. s re,ull. o_( /It"" a""(~,,,,, are Pm6'l1l<d i.lh.fumr ofl"",,,,r "I~iV(J1en1ircuit c a" w<1I os In,..!" /"n<tlb".

m,,,;,,r,

1_0 Introduction
In the last ten years, modeling of switching de-de converters has received considerable attention and the effort has resulted in the characterization of transfer .1" well as input and output properties of basically nenliuear switching de-de converters in the frequency domain. Among the various appreaches attempted tJJ attain this goal, the current in;~r-I.d equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) is very ~er8Dlile t.', This approach is nOW ".tended 10 current programmed converters operating in the continuous inductor conduction (CIC) mode. The advantages of the current p,-ogrammil>g are already well known and are summarized as follows: 1) Switching converter active components are protected from excessive overload and stress, This allows controlled derating of compoaeras. 2) Switching con-verters when current programmed behave basically as first-order systems. 3) Several converters can be operated in parallel lSi 1982 IEEE. Reprinted with permission Imrn fEEE Tm ..""Uons "" Aero_<""""and El!d,rmic SystIln .. , Vol, AES--18, N~. 5, pp, 538-544, Sept. 1.982.

grslnmed stabilized converters. Section 7 compares

the resu Its wit]) those nbtained ","ing other modeliog approaches ~, _The salient 1eature of the cu rrent programmed CI C mod. i·\ tha t the control-to-ourput transfer function is basically a onepole function if the effect of adding an artificial ramp to stabilize the converter is neglected (see Section 8). One, more interestinli: invesrigatinn made for the first time is tbat the effect of the inclusion of an artificial ramp adds back the pole but with large damping. Section 9 present. the conclusions on the results 01 the work carried out,

2~O RevLew 01 CIECA

The current injected equivalent circuit approach to modebng switching converters in duty ratio programmed mode has been developed 1,~. Since this approach 1 is used in this paper for rriooeling and analysis <if converterscperated in the

26

SWfTCHmC .DC·Oc CONVER111AS:

GDNVERTER

£aUATIONa

STE"DYSTA

TE PJ!OPlERTIISS

I)

1J.lE![Natl~c1In~"Jctor
CI,l1ft1n.t

D.rlv~niv. I:unent ::::0 'V~__"'V!i z -Ro(zj I~~'I -lave

otini;ilUGIICIl"

I~) J\'1l1rag.e ~d 1oI~lor eu U.-n'

In •• wilc~I"~ p«lo~ (I••• ) Yi) OtJ\pu1vD1lU.g1' 1")~lt;IIt-·;z (>'-I"",.oon ,e 01 0 Ulput n.,work)

v-V

<11-0'
112-02

PER7I1ABATIO~

& LI~EARIZA.nD~

DYNAMIC

PAOFEJ!TIES

LINEA"

EQU IV,A LE~T

eIRCIII~

(Bud:) I)ln~u. 10oulput

U~N'tf h.lM1iOn

d j' ~ D] ... ~ ~ D2 T a2 • vg ;;;Vg+vg 11' _'oJ ... V l~fIiI.,='l.av!!+i;nI'B

a~

PllrU,u!Ja.H:on croduet t~Tl11i obl.in Ol'lCoII ~:a-,in hnU~ '1:sr.~0'1

nlli!!!;I,lected tc

ii,) CQ.nttoI:

t~ (n.llJ:1ut tr,ntlf'lfIrfUf'u::tli:l" ,':'1)1

Fig.

1,

A(lWChan 01 mocI91ing 'wilohing dc-l<><lcconverters

in Iil& elc m<>de ",.Ing CIEe"'. is inherently linear (box I), Tbe aonlinear part of

fixe d I req!lency mode. a brief r€ vie w of t ilis approac his presented here. 01 course tile same a p.
preach can be also used io modeling tbe converters

the corwerter derermmes the average current ;Q. jected inro rhe line~r part. Now (bolt 2)a rela!innshi(l-" Me written referring to rue COnvener diagram and (he current and voltAge waveforms shown in lIig_ 2: 1) average current (i".1 lnjected into the linear part ina swi tching perle d:

operated in variable frequency mode. The Iullowing conventions and notad(Hls are • followed in the modelOlg and analysis, dl Ts is the interval during wbicb the transistor is rurned-on and the diode is off; d2Ts is !he interva; during which the transistor is turned-off and the diode is on; d1 n + d2 Ts ~ T,. and Ts ~ llJ, is the swi~hinil period, Capitalised <l\.lantities indica te steady-ttlate values and quanhlies with carets indicate small perturbatinns.

set~'

2.) derivadve o( the· inductor current function 01 the value orthe inductor. the voltage across that ina &wi tcrung period:
3) rela tionshi p between a verage inj...,t~d current and output voltage V ~ (i~.,l x (x) where. is

Modeling converters operating in the aCmode 'using CIECA is outlineo in !he flowchart of Fig. 1.
which is very general and is applicable to various power stages _ The IirSI step in this process is to

the impedance of the linea.r part of the converter.

Now steady-state solution is achieved by setideDtlly the nonlinear ami linear parts (If the c,O,n· ting derivatives and perturbations ru zero (oox 3), verter ciro;uitand to linearize only the nonlinear pert Since the conve II e r "<lila lion. in box 2 arc Iinear, 01 the ron verier as the remainder of the Co" verter

21

.""
these ap proximationa, nonlinear second -order terms are neglected to obtain once again a linea" set of equations. 'ow only the Q; part is retained which describes the small·signallow-Jrequency behavior of the converter. USC"!! this set of equations, the input-to-output and comrol-to-outpor transfer functions (box 5) are written, Using the same set of equations, an eouivalent circuit (box 6) IS drawn which represents the input and output small-signal low- frequency properties of the nonlinear converter.

3.D In6tablllty In
Current
granmwrl

Progrommed Conveners
t

1~·I-- _T'___' __d_' __

btJck convener.
Fig 2. Typical

""_;~,_'-_"'_d_'_T_'_'- __. ..
Current an.d ~tllQe waveforms in

Ind~or

superposition hoids and can hr. perturhed (box d) by the iutroducuun nf.a small ac vatin linn over the stt:a~y-~tat(' operating point. As we know, the independent driving inputs are UI( and d. the perturblat; On in! hesc two i n pu ts cause (be pe rt urbat ion in i and u. Now h\' making the small-si~nal approximation. namely, the small fie variarion from the steady-state operating point being negligible compared with ihe steady-stare oper-"ting point values. "IV furlVg. fi21D'2, ,II, reach) -<! I. Usin~

in Sccuon 1 current proconverters op~nltin~ ill {ha~d frequency C[C mode exhibit instability even in the ab~l~n{~e of external Ieedback (u regulate the output ". This instability occurs when the duty ratio exceeds O.!:i and he cause ror this inst~hiljlY is thltt rbe current proS{ anuning itself ron:.. j.iitutl~5 ;ill i.ntern;ll rl'r-dback the- j.!aill 01 which b",'oJHw:,- ]lll-:-\i(jvp and at· tains a v::11ut ~Jf 1 ill a dutv nltin o( n_;;. anrl in(n~a:-;.t:~ m; Un· duty rau» inn·(,~n~:ot';s_ hus I ht' vu rreut proT Krammed (otlvl:rlt-r::;;, even in rhe upt-°n loop, exhibit

As. mentioned

sui».
l

.g

J
Wilhall PQ'aai!lcS8n-d 5tof&ge1lme Mg,

/'

I...OUCTOIl'"Ol.UG.E

,---I _S
___

~dIT"-----d~'t

fofo---~----h
OW/fErn!

Boost converter sttecl.s. neglect-ed

Fi9· 3,

4_ Induetor

l:onvr7n~u.

and ... flag8Ws,velo,m8 o

01

t.heboOS!

28

instability when. the duty 1"111;0 exceeds 0.5. 4.0 Model.lng 01 Boo'l Converter Modeling converters using CIECA, as reviewed
and

Equations (lH4) are perturbed ","omld the steadystate operating point, and second-order nonlieea terms are neglected once again to obtain the linea small-signal model.
(6) (7)

ill Section 2, is applied to tl1e boost converter

current pl"{Igramming is introduced in the process.

With tbe assumption of ideal switches (no parasitics or storage time modulation effecta have been considered). the converter diagram is shown in Fig. 3, Inductor rurr e nt and voltage waveforms for the boost con verter shown in Fig. 4. The shaded portion shews the amount {If current injected into rhe output linear circuit (parallel!? and (.) and the interva! during which the current injected is d2 Ts. The average lndcctor current injected into the 0\11put circuit during 3 .wi!(hin>: period is given by

L(dildfl

"

Vg [RI(l

D2 •

if + t' •

"T"

(8) (9)

P"
written as

+ SRCrft~.".

After taking the Laplace transform of (81. J(an be

i.;

d2i

(1)

where i h. the a verage inrl udal" cirrre nt . The derivative of the lnductnr current is f,(ivcn hy 1.(diMj) ~ V!f The output voltage is

The line-to-output and coatrol-to-outpur transfer Iunclions can be written from the above equations

rn·

\I,

(2)

VIVI! ~

(1/l!J)2)! 11(] + SH(2)] {J2I21

(11)

IiI~ ~ (N •
+ SR{.)I
(3)

v ~ i.....IRIII

.(1 - SU(R 1),':,)/(I + SI?Ci2).

where RIO + SR(."J is the impedance of the output network. In the boost converter, the programmed c urrs or is actually the in d UCIO'" current 3'; nee that i, the current which flows through the switch when it is turned on. Therefore; is constrained ",jIb the control signal irt (41 The steady -sta te cnndirions can now be found by using Url3). setting frequency terms to zero. and setting all other quantities to their steady-state values. Therefore the above equations reduce to VIV,!( = 11m ~ M

The salient feature of the resuh is now apparent. Both rt-sponses show siogle pole response when the eflect (If addil\g an artificial ramp is excluded. An equivalent linear circuit model is developed uSin!': (7}(1O) as shown in Fig. 5 which ~"<lmp!etely

describes the inpll1and output properties of the cur-

(5)
fill, 5. una.' equivalent eire"" grammed boosl convartar in

no:.::,,~

,l L1 - ito~r-_

I ~ VI(R •

m).

etc

mod.1 lot ttwo curront premod •.

rent

programmed nonlinear boost converter """ling in the CIC mode. S.ctioo 6 presents the modeling of current pro-

'ammed stabilized converters, i.e., to .nclode the :fl'ct of addil)g an artificial ramp.

··M3J o
-,,"~,iI',,1
D' -If-

5.0

Buck and Buckbooll

The same method bas been followed to model the current programmed buck and buckboost COnverters operating in the ele mode. The converter and iu. equivalent circuit are 01>0 .. ", in Fig. 6 for the buck converter and in Fig, 7 for the buckboost converter. In both cases the switch current is the inductor current during the interval dl Ts. The equivalent circuits of Fig. 6(B) and 7(B) contain familiar current sources driving the He network, i.e., si ngle-pole response in bot h cases: the current modulation generators as a function of i; the Control signal, and vC, the input modulation voltage and the filter C in parallel with load R. The re&JJt for the two transfer functions 0/ major interest, the line-to-output transfer function and control-to-ourput transfer [uncrion, '.T~as follows, For the buck converter, ildnl:s <>01. depend upon Vii',

o<gnol _,

Fig. 7. (A)

a_boo.t

oquIIi .... rt d",u~

oon""rte,.

(S) i.(lw tr.q"""cy .moll modo! 01 blJCtllioo<d _>'$(I", +

vtV, ~ (DlID'l)2
vii;
=

{l/(l

SRCIDZ)l

R( 1 - SUIJi R)/(l + S h'ClU2) (13)

vA; ~
For the buckboost

RIO + SRCJ.

t 12)

coovertcr,

As in the case oi the boost converter.the buck and buekboost con verters exhibit olle'DOk response and ' it is interesting to aote tha t inclusion of an art ificial ramp into the modeling changes all these results, which is dealt with in Section 6.

8,0 Moc»Hngof Slull~ Progfllmmed Boost

Current Converter

H
.1

A mentioned in Section 3, an artificial ra mp with suitable slope has been added 10 the switching current to stabilize the con verter even ill the absence of external feedbaca. Figure 8' shows the

"'9. '6. (AI _

co~.r.

"W'

lW.,CIl.hi_Jot' 101l1'1I,IC1'IIL _.II .....

.... M tNiM

.-----:--~

--;;;:J:=- :....::,,> "" r~

_---,

• ..,..,..~ --(:OoI'!1!Ql,s.(;.oo.~

;
~el"''''''''''IIIeT'~':'11Io.C.''1

linear 4!q1J1Y81erdcircuit

(8) SmaJlslg""ll"", !req_ mod8t of ~ conVOtter.

Fig. B_ Adu,,~ !nduc:lOl cur"'nt ,n Si{InIII.nd anillcilJ of Ojlpraprilltl ,wilc/l C"""'nt.

''''''P

boo., converter. eo."..

oIop& m lIddod '"

30

actual inductor current, the control oigl'laJ, and an artificial ramp of apPropriate slope III added to the switch current. Now looking at the waveform. the average inductor current; can be related to i, ali
.j _

V{/;j/i,rS)

Ac [(1 - SfW:2J/H

+ SlWQ

+ S"IW")J.
Under !:be assamption tMt Dl. D2 <:K (convert being opel'llting d""p in tAe ClC ~ .

i, - '" • dl

' Ts - ",1

• <II • TsI2.(14)

W"
Perturbing i•
!, -

21D1· 1s 112·
[)'J

(14) and retain.ing only ac terms

(m

mll2)

Ts •

d-

Ag IDl . TsJ2)ml (15)

where

m is the slope of the artificial

I is the slope of the inductor current and ramp added to stabilize the open loop converter. For the boost converter ""I is given by
In

Ac
W'

R • D2I2

- 2KIL • (;(2 - lY).

.11

VglL

(16)

where '" is chosen to be the tr ega!i ve slope of the programmed (inductor) current and is given by

From the above equations, it is clear that either th~ control-to-output or the line-to-output transfer funcbollS exhibit two-pole response. This is Quite in contrast 11) the single-pole response of current programmed converters in the absence of an artificial ramp.

m•

(V

(17) alter lak-

7.0

Phy.lcal

Ellplanation

Using (16) and (l n (15) is rewritten ing Laplace transform as

irs)

=~(s)

- [Vl2

- D2)1RKj

drs)
{lS]

- (DIRK) V,(S) Substituting the value oi

7 frnm

(18) into (10) yields 11)21 II) fi(s)

(/M ~ {

(:,~.Iv,if$! +

- (IlL) (I + SLDlRK) [1 + SL(2 - D2)1RKj.

Vg{s)}!
(19)

Line-to-output and control-to-output transfer functions can be written using 17l, (9), and (19) as helo;o':

Vrs)IVg(<.i ='Ag[(1

+ SfWd}l(l

+ SlWQ

+ S"I~J

The following explanation applies to lh~ current programmed converters operating in the erc mode and in the absence of all artificial ramp with appropriate slope. Of course the converter will be unstable if the duty ratio is greater than 0.5. When the convener is current programmed. the state variable loses its contribution toward a pole due to inductor current. This happens because the inductor current is no longer an independent variable and is (Constrained by the control signa.1. Though the deve) opment of ill duetc r current depends upon the value of the inductor and other operating parameters, its magnitude is constrained by the control signa L Now con sider the current programmed converter operating in the CIC mode. but in tbe presence of an artificial ramp. Of ccurse, now the couvert. r will be stable th roughout the operating range of duzy ratios. Refer to the schematic of Fig. S where the practical implementation of current programming and addition 01 an artificial ramp are shown. The switCh Sl in Fig. 9 i. purposely lneluded for better explanation, Rs is the resistor

31

of the artificial ramp, they exhibit two-pole reo sponse in the presence of th e sta biliztn g art ificia I ramp. This has been investigated lor tbe first time using' CIECA, .This effect is very significant as sopbisticated and high performance is expected (rom the power processing systems.

8.0 Modelingof St,blllled

Clj,relll ProgramlTlfKl Buck and Buckboost
Fig, 9. Practie61 jmplemematfon 01 curren! programmed boost tind addlbon (If al1lfi;cial ramp,

Converters

across wlu .h a rurrent proportional to the switch {'urrent is produced when S J is dosed and d "sur c or .)'2 adds (In artificial r.<i,nlpto this current. the slope nf which cari be adjustable or f:untiollously programmable in a hi~h performance system. When ... IS open and 81 ia closed, the converter ~ will be fit,bk only il rh,· duty ratio is less than 0.5, Tl J rna k {' I h e conve rtc r ~{~ b lr- 0'\1 ~ r t hr en t ire f.'L n:gc uf dUlY ratio. nn aruticial rarnp is added hy <.:losinlo! Ihe swih'h 82,
NIIW nlnsjd~'r .'ik!1 J: llu~ ~rnp ~illl.'li ion Lr1two steps.

The same method has been followed to model the stabilieeo current programmed buck and buckboost converters operating in the CIC mnde. The results for the two transfer Junctions o] major interest, the line-to-output transfer function and control-tc-output transfer function. are as Iollows. For the buck cuuvertcr, v(.,)lffPU - ARjl/(J AliI/I! ... SIWQ • .'i'/W'1f
+

VI>!I~("J

SIWQ ... .)"'/11"')1

Onty current programmin,~ is. pn:~c:nl, i.e., 81 i~closed and SI. i:; Opt:II. Sirp 2: Only an artificial ramp is present. i.e .. .'il is open and SJ is closed. We discussed SI~P 1 at th~ beginning of this section, The current progra rruned om" erters in top absence "f artificial ramp exhiblt single-pole ccntrol-to-ourput rCSJXrn>('. Now cons ider SIep 2. In the abse nee of curr ent proportional to switch current, only the artificial ramp is present. This means the duty ralin is ("Uslam in the absence of sw itch rurren t Rl1 d hen ce the converter behaves as i( it is duty ratio programmed. Everybody knows thai duty ratio programmed converters (buck, boost, buckboost) exhibit two-pole response. To g'" the overall effect, Steps 1 and 2 have 10 be summed up in proper perspective. The net effect is that the conveners now exhibit two- pole response but well (over) damped. This also can be seen as the rwo poles being well separated as shown in Fig. Ill. Thus, though current programmed converters exhibit single-pole response in the absence

limier the ""''''''Pliun

f)l. Ill ...K.

Ac - R
IV' ~ KILC.

Ag, 10, Bode pial boosl conV~ll1er,

01 ooOlr<>110 OUIput t•• ,,010< '""ellen

01

For the buckboost

converter.

fixed frequency current programmed CI C mode 'ISing CIECA permits us to design regulal()rS contair
+ SfWQ + ing these co nverter power required performance . Referenoe. 1, Chetty, P.RK Current injected equivalent L cuit approach (CIECA) to modeling of switchstages to achic

Vrs)/Vg(s) VW{(s)

A.1,i(1

511V<l)i(1

.$"IW'») - Ac!<1 + $IW:2}1(1 + 5/WQ +

S'JH."')j.

Under the assumption W'

2

that D1.

oz-o;

ing de-de converters

in continuous inductor

KILCtl

- 2DID2), response.

A. in the case of the boost converter, the buck and

buck boost converters 9.0 Conoluslon. exhibit two-pole

conduction mode. Internal Report, Sundstrand Advanced Technology Corporation, Rockford, -IL Z, Cherty, P.RK Current injected equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) to modeling of switch-

M()deiing switching converters using cmc.1\ has been extended to current programmed converters opera t inv. in rh l' C J C mode, To derrumstrate the approach, modeling is carried out lor huck. boost, lind buckboost n)l)\ r crters. Though the tonvertcrs exhihir single-pole response in the absence of a atabilizing artificial ramp. they ~xhibil well (over) dam ped t wo-pc le rosponse when the e If ect of an art ificial ramp is included. For the first time such an "1(,,,;( has been investigated. This inw,liga' Hen is hi~hjy significant and is very impurtant for hiJ1:h performance power processing systems. Thus the rruuleling developed for conve,i t '" in

109 de-de converters in discontinuous inductor conduction mode. Internal f(eport, Sundstrand
Advanced Technology Corporation, Rockford, It :l. Hsu, Si-P; Brown, A ...Rcn~;nk, I.., and Middlebrook, R_D. (197'1). Modeling and analysis of switching dt·..,to-ck converters in consram fn:quency current programmed mnde. fEriff B1wtf J~lI"r{rml in' S/Jf't rali.'i.f,~Cm!fi'ffl,rn' R"'I'tI',t/. 1~7~_ ·1. Capel, A .. Clique. M .. and 1'0;;.... 1\). (I!l1lIll, Current control modulators: gerlcr;tl1heol)' on specific designs. IHJw:/~ Powt, f.,'htdmnir 8prrioli"./, Cml/rr"n,." Record, IYM.

"'1.

CURHENT INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH TO MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PROGRAMMED SWITCHING DC-DC CONVERTERS (DISCONTINUOUS INDUCTOR CONDUCTION MODE)
The I'wn',ll
/0

iUjil"tni

rouicaient {'"it'(.'u"illlPP1l)(1f;h (Cf.t'CAJ

converter j}(_)w.er s!(Jj!}:S is eumded to ,~~!aj.,lfs

m(JiJl'litr.!? su.'il,~hlnK

(mdurtion Itlr"Jde, Todr'monslmtl'Ihr mi:lhmt. !;;.t fftVtlNir.g1·SClllri&t oa fur 1&1 &~dJ. fx.ost, ar,.a' brukboQsI amwrJers to oblain _WUIlJ 5ign(i.lli~!t'ftr equlml'i1f.! circuit tr'.odels th.J.t ~prt.5~'nl wlir i.",,1 (lM i)Ulpur p"'p<riks, 1'M roill/. O/IM;,' (~1epl'tsentP.d i11 the form .CJ.{ tinear tQutmitHt circuit mWfis as well ss t.rn1l..">ic1' /t.Mc:Jiol1s.

mtHil'l th« current pr(JJ[rammtld COnllCrif" POfl.!f:T {J{lNtlting in jtleJ /fl?Qlttnry di~{"~tj~uo~ induc/uf

converters has received considerable attention, and the effort has resulted in characterization of transfer
as well as input and output properties of basically nonlinear switching de-de converters in the Irequency domain. Among tbe various approaches M· tempted to attain this goal. the current inje1:led equivalent circuit approach (C1ECA) has Ill. merits of bath electronic equivalent circuit state "pace average approach and current injected control theOJry approach". " and its devoid of demerits.
@ I'Ill2 IEEE, R'printed v.ith permission Iroru /HiE T", ... <lio,,,",, l"du"try AppliCtIlj,,",,. VQUA·IS, No.3, Jl1). 295-29(1, May/June jg82.

.,.,/y...,

1.0 Introduction
In the last ten years, modeling of swttching dt-dc

33

This approach.

ha viog extended

to CUIT"ot pro"

-ammed converters operating in continuous induee conduction (CrC) made l, is now applied to Jdel the current programmed switching con.rters operating in discontinuous inductor ccndue.on (DlC) mode. The advantages of current - programming are already well known and are summarized below. Switching converter active component. are protected from excessive overload and stress: This allows controlled derating (If components. 2) Switching converters ..rhen current programmed behave basically as first-order system s. 3) Several COli ve rters can be opera led in parallel without load sharing problems. 4) Inductor sawtooth current waveform replaces ad vantageouslv the reference sawtooth necessary to generate the pulsewidth modulated control signal.
l)

teresting invesrigation that made, as in '. ls that the buck converter in this current programmed [)J C mode goes into oscillations under certain steadvstate operating conditions. The cause for this is discussed, and a remedy is suggested and implemented successfully to eliminate this potential instability in '. The final section presents conclusions Oll result" oJ the work

carried out.
2.0 Rt,view

The current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling switching conveners in duly ratio programmed mode has been developed'. '. Since this approach; is used in this paper fo~ modeling and analysis of converters operated in the fixed frequency mode. a brief review is presented here" Of course. the same approach can he also used in modeling : he converters operated in variable frequency mode. ' The followinll conventions and notations are followed in the modeling' and analyais.

Thu •. this paper is concerned with current programmed swit<:hing de-de converters operating in al'/); the interval during which the transistor is the fixed frequency discontinuous inductor conducturned On and the diode "is of~ tion mode. The main goal,"s in the previous work d2 T< the inlerval during which the transistor is '''. is to obtain the small signal equivalent uircuit " turned off and the diode is on models that represent both input and output protfJTs the interval during which the transistor is perties. whic h can then be em bedded in the model turned off and the diode is off. of a complete regulator system so that the overall dynamic properties and the stability can be d1 Ts + d2Ts + D3Ts T< analyzed and designed. The current injected equivalent circuit apand Ts Iii. proach ,., followed in this analysis and modeling is briefly reviewed in Section 2. Section 3 contains SWitching period. the detailed development of modeling for boost converrer. Follcwing the same approach, the modelThe capitalized quantities are used for steady" ing is carried out for buck and buckboos] converters .s tate values and the quantities with hats fOT tbe and the results are presented in Section 4. The small perturbations. results are compared with those obtained using The current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling con verters operating in the state space average electronic equivalent drcuit apdiscontinuous inductor conduction mode is butlined preach and current injected centro) theory apin the flowchart of Fig. 1, which", very general and proach. The salient feature of the current applicable to various power stages. The fir;t step programmed DIC mode is that the control-to-output in this process is to identify the non linear and lintrans function is basically a One pole. as in the ear parts of the converter circuit and linearize only current programmed CIC mode, One more in"

r~r

SWITCH[~G nc- DC e()HVERTERS

CONVERTER

EOO,","ONS

STEADYlIT.IlTE PROPERTIES
o.ri'YI1P¥1I

il

Derr~mh.. , 01 ioouetor "

CUJ"tlnt

II} Average Lnd:",aoi c-urtef\t in II switchrng pIlJiod

at irW:h.idot cunelll 0 vI-Vg

l1li

!iaYlI!'l iII~Ou'1pl".lf 'Yoltol~

" z
z:

('It) ~ I..,...' 1:Z::;;:;,mptdlinCII!! 0' OUlpul M1WOfIO

Ro(') ipt! dl~O' el2-02

-'.w.

PERTUR8ATlON • UNUR'ZAT'OI'< n1 :::;- + 01 d:2;02l'd2

OYNAIohC

PROPERTIES

'UNEAR EQUIVAlEItT 10.001)

CIllCUIT

C;'

..g .. Vg+~
'II

-:...V~~

j,[tVI';::-llIIv.

+iall&

P~rtufD~ICI'" p,oduCl.~S n.~glil!'cted 10 o:b-tam ence

I,

jnJ:kilt to c,ll,llpiJl tr.n .. f., 'ulK1ion to

Q:utpUI lurn;! Jon y

~iI!!,n IIr1(l'Olir Iy .. 'em

II) CgnlfQI I'.".!lfef

~'~ft
~1

• I"

1I1v

---.--4

--5

the nonlinear part of. ~"i,.' converter, as the remaining of the converter is inherently linear (box I). The nonlinear par! of the converter determines the average Curren I injected into lb,· linear pari, Now (box Z) a set of relationships is written referring to the converter diagram and current and voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 2_ 11 Volt-second balance on the inductor. 2) Average current (i.~) injected into the linear part in a switching period. 3) Relationship between average injected current and output voltage v w , (i,<,J)( (~), where l is the impedance of the liuear part of the con-

by the introduction 01 a small at: variation aver the steady-stale operating point. A. we know the independent dri~ing inputs are VI< and d, 51> perrurba tkJfl in tbese MO inputs cause the perturbation in i and v. Now making tbe small signal approximation, namely. the small ac variation from the steady-

the

verrer.
Now the steady-state solution is achieved by setting derivatives and perturbations to zero (box 3)_ Since the converter equations in box 2: are linear. superposition holds and car be_ perturbed (hex 4) Flg_ 2, T)'J>icalltodl.Kru>t <""onl bu<'< ecn... ~..._
ond

.oItago ....._m.

in

35

state operating point are negligible compared 10 the steady-state operating point values, i.e.,

VlV,VgIVg,3:tIDl ,321m ,7fT leach)

I.

Using the above approximations, nonlinear second-order terms are n.eglected ro obtain once again a linear set of eq uations, Now only the lie part is retained which describes the small signal low IT,,· quencv behavior of the converter. Using this set 01 equations, the input-to-output and control-to-output trans fer functions (box 5) are written. Using the same set of equations an equivalent circuit (box 6) is draw" which represents the input and OUtput small signal low frequency properties of the nonlinear converter.

Fig ••• InductOJ eutren1 and rro:ltagew3yelOrm5 Of 1M boosl

coevener.

put circuit during a switching

period is Riven by

where
current.

i...... = d2i i i~ I he av('n,JoW inductnr

3.0

Modeling of 800.t Converter

Volt-second

t,

VgdlTl

2L
balance on lhf~ inrlurtor i~~

(II

The current injected equivalent circuit approach to modeling con ..... erters reviewed in the prev ious section is applied to boost converter, current pro,grclmming being introduced in Ih{~nrocess. \oVith the assumption of ideal HVi!lteh(~s(no panlsll("!~ or storage time modulation df~·t=1 have been considered), the convert," diagram is shown in FiK. ~. I nductcr current aod voltage w a 'IIelnm1.'!-; for the. boost converter are shown in Fig. 4. The shaded portion snows !hlt amount uf current injected into the output linear circuit (parallel ii and C) 'U1d the ;1)1"".1 during which the current injected is (12'1';. The average inductor current injected into the outL

VI!(dl + ,t!.) ~ V • '/2. The. output vultR!!!"" is \ RI(I ~ .<;NOJ

(2)

where R/(I + SRI..) is [he impedance uII he output network. In the hunf.t converter, tilt' ll:fognlrnnwd current is actually the inductor current ~iIK't.' that is the current which Ilo 1'0'5 through the swi t cit w I".'~ it is turned on. 'Therefcre, constrain i wirh the ~Ul1trol-signal i, as ::. constrains i peak, i.. ~ i peak _ I'i, • (It 11;

L
This Can be rewritten vg R d} Vg (4) in terms 01 dl;

8""""
36

Fill. 3.

Boost coo.eMe, with oJl por .. Hio. and 010'_

neolooll3d.

tim.

The steady-state conditions can now be found by using (lHO and setting frequencv terms to zero and all other quantitiee to th~if sreadv-stas e values,

Therefore

the above equations

reduce to

2R(M (2M - 1)

11m Zrt)

__M_
2M - 1

Vg(s),

The line -to-output and control-to-output transfer fu""tkm" can be written from the above equation as (5)

v-

1 ave.

R,

l~g ~

if ( M). 2M'"=1'
(nJMklx:t2M -

1 1 ... s/wp

Equations (l H4) are perturbed around the sle<ldy-stat" operating point and second-order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain (he linear small "ign.1 model. V~ ---Ili: Vii ~'i'

t=
where Wzo

2\
=

I») 1
I I + s/",p

1~ ~ -til D2
4.

lJI -D/

~ d2

(6)

2M - 1 RC(M - I)

~:_

t DW2 j;"
R

tn ~-gil
(7)

1 + SRC
(8)

Eljminatin~ using (6), using (iI) and (7), and taking. the Laplace transform Ylt"ld~ the foUuwirllr£ simpli lied cqua l Lon:

,1,

,I!

V(,'{l

+ SRCiM-ll} (2,\1 - II

The s~1hclll fral ure {It I1w result .~ IWW il pparent, .HmJ\responses shew ~ingh~pr,.len'~pml~' <1.;-;' in I he duly ratio pTOwamm(~d converters ()p('raljn~ in r)lC mode t\n equivalent unear fin"Hi. morlvl is develop... -d usinq (fil-(H) 3-1.) •shown in FiK. !l which dt:~nLh~'s corupletclv Ihe input "IL(I output properties of til<' current proararnrned nULlI iucar boost Cllr'l'L:'~·n(·t"
operating in l)[C rnode.

Og

9-("")"1 t - 101:;92 "'I'M...) , \M-l

'~ 1.
R

Frg. S. linear equivakw'lt circuit model tor current pr<lgH,ml'l'l9d boost ('.oo-.,0119rl1 Die l'I"Ioru. i

37

I,... 4.0 aue)( and Suckboost Figs, 6(B) and 7(B) contain familiar current sources dri \111 g the R·Cnetwork. l.e., single pole response in both cases: the current modulation generators function of it. the control signal and the input modulation voltage and the filter C in parallel with load J? The result for the two transfer Iunctions of rnajnr interest, the line-to-ontpnt transfer Junction'and duty ratio-to-output transfer function are as follows. Far the buck converter:

The same method has been followed to model the current programmed buck and buckboost cone vsrters opera ..ing in the DIe mode. The converter and its equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. 6 for rhe buck and in Fig. 7 for the buckboost. In both Cases the switch current is the inductor current duro ing the interval dl Ts, The equivalent circuits of

''/J.

RJ

K(l 2 :!M

Ml)
I

1 + ,'/uJ/>

w, .... ,~cn.

2 - :1M M}

J'./~
Fig, 6, (AIB"c~ (6) II. small ign.llow s lino... qutvolent circuil mOOel.

M' .

""""'''lor.

1""I"""ey

V9T
vg

IYfil'
~R

Note rlMl as M is increased beyond two-thirds. 1.11"ule moves to the ri!oihth~li·plan" indicating that p

91

=0

92 = 0
rig. 7. {AI Bucko"".t
converter, (6) lIS &nail slgrlQlloW frequency linear equi.o1.nl

c,,,,,,ft mod.I ..

'38

the buck converter IDpen loop) becomes unstable. The physical reascni t'lg for this unstability to 0'CUI and a remedy to avoid the same has been presented to ;,

Conclusion
The c-urrent injected equivalent circuit approacb to modeling switching converters has been e xtended to current programmed con verters operating in the DIC mode. To demonstrate the approach, the modeling is carried out lor buck, boost, a nd buck boost convert. rs, The ana lysis has revealed a" instability in the buck convert" (open loop) when its output-to-input voltage ratio is equal to or greater than tw 0- thi rds, These analyses ha ve been presented in th is paper. In all the rhree converters, the salient feature gf the model for the current programmed COn· verters in 0 IC moo. is (hat it predicts bas ically a nne-pole responS€ f.or the control-to-output transfer [unction, This is to be expected because of either one of these Iwo reasons: l) the inductor cum", be" delinjte initial and final value oj zero. thereby los i,,~ ito st. te it self, or 2) in th is current prozramrncd converter IhR inductor receives current input rather than vnit:~1ft' input ;{.I:! in the lase of duty rati u programmed converters. Thus the model; n~ dev eloped f OT con vert ers in Ii xed 1requ ency cu rren t prog ra rn nit'd m C moot aud presented in this p~pt~T p~rIllils U:S to de~i;:rl

FQf the buckboosr con vert er:

V (M'K) f ~-2where

1+

s/",P

wp • _j_

Re

1!:....
sr,

II is inleres(ing 10 note tbal ij docs not depend upon ik in tb e case 01 curren t program m ed buck boost converter operating in Die mode.

Thus. in all throe 01 (he converters, the controlto-output transfer function is a single poJ(. response as in 1 he dut y rat io progra m med con verters ope rating in lit" Die mode. As m entioned in the introouction, the reduction ,-,1 the order nj the system greatly simplifies the design 01 a regulator loop_ The TO' .u IIs Q f the mOOfling a no an a lysis s presented above using the curren I iniccted equivalent circuit approach, i.e., I) rh.. transfer functions for buck. boost. buckboost are (he "arne a, these obtained by using Ihe electronic equivalent circuit slate space average approach' and the current injected control type approach '. and 2) the equivalent circuit models are the same as those obtained using the electronic equivalent circuitstare space average approach .', However, the C1ECA approach presented here is more clear (compa red to') and is not cumbersome (compared to '). ALso, the CrECA approach produces the linear equi va lent circuit diagrams lor nonlinear converters compared to current injected control theory approach (which could not produce) the equivalent circuit model. Thus, the CIECA has the merits of ele ctron ic equivalent circuit state space average approach and current .njected control theory approach and devoio of the derneri IS.

rC!(l.,llal.)f!;' U:U.,(I in ing t hesc conv erter power C

[{] achj~ve required pcrformaece.

il:4.l,FJ;(lS

R efef(!Ot;e~
1. 'f'_R_K_ Cherty. .'Curren! injected equivalent crrcui t approa ch (C ]EGA) [0 mod eling of 3wi~l'hing de-de converters in continuous indueto, condu crion mode." Sun dst ra nd Advanced Technology Corp., Rockford, Il., Internal Rep, 2. =, "Current injected equivalent circuit approach (CIECA) to modeling 01 switching dede converters jl~ discontinuous inductor cond uc: ion mode," Sundst ra nd Advanced Technologv COI'p .. Rockford. IL, lncernal Rep, ~~, -, "Current inje.cte.d equivalent circuit appreach In mod eli ng and anal ysis of current programL"ed switciling de-de convert er s (crmtLnw.'m~ inductcr conduction r]ll.me~, ,. ~Ultdstrand Advanced Tecnnclcgr Corp .. ".~'ki,'rd, IL, Internal R~p. 39

4. P.RK Chetty and R.D. Middlebrook, "Modeling and analysis of switching de-de converters in current Vrogrammed discontinuous conduction mode," California Institute of Technology,

Pasadena, CA, Internal Rep.

5. S. Cuk and RD. Middlebrook, "A general unified approach !Q modeli n.g switching de-tode converters in d iscontinnous conduction mode, "IEi>li 1''''''''1 Specialist. Conference, MODELING CURRENT

1977 Record, pp. 91}111. 6. A. Capel, :M. Clique and A.J. F ossard, "Cu rrent control mod ularors: General t heory and specific designs," fEEE Power Eke/ron;cs Specialists Conference, 19!1O Record. 7. A. Brown, "State Space Analysis uf Pulsewidth Modulated Switching Converters,", Power Electronics Group. California Institute of Technology, Tech, Note T,SS. Feb. 6. 1979.

USING
The

AND ANALYSIS OF CUK CONVERTER INJECTED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT APPROACH inductor conduction mode. The main goal of this modeling is to obtain the small signal equivalentcirruit models which represent both input and output propertie s. These "an then be embedded in the model of a complete regulatcr system "0 that the overall dynarnir properties and ,;(ahility can he analyzed and desizned, The current-injected ('Quivalctll-drcuil appreach followed in this. ;tna!ysis awl !11(]-(ldiTl~ i~ briefly reviewed in Section 2, Sf.'\,tion :l cuutains the (ldaill..'d cl<.·v.·]opmt"nl uf mnclr-I.n(.; fortht, Cuk (:nnverte-r. Tht~ n~S:UlfS i:lr~1 nunparl'd with tho~t" ohlaiu~'d U:;;i1IKrfu- S.t"Ui sparr average eh-crmmc t'QU i H kn (-('ircu il ~tprroach v '. 'l 'nt' linal se d iou presents th(' conclusions on !he results of rhe work carried nul. 2.0 Review

n;.,.".l1t-i"'j4-rttd t'{ju,100k}1I<irrurf (JPtnvcc)r /w..r;; ht..""r.m ~Je,It" "'ItNif{ill!! a'f!d unatysis ()f ,~It'tkh£n;; cir-di:rnn. 11I'"tt'f.~ (lPfd to' PJt'.J)· U:'1' •..;afilt:. Thr."itIPtm)Q~h mil' (JJ,~II t; (lppNrd .tilT "'14JdJ!'lingand Onlli~m_'i cf (.t.l',l1.lpl~·J' nmfl1!riNs or mg(ulm rmn~."" Tt~d..-m.r/Jf.JI'P7;n' IIwfJi'l!Jityl'l) ,r;wrom'nl ili)t'HfTi
l'f'{O/K'd

fq~iwJnt.t

rinuit

(lppYll{Jfh, thr ffw,/I'h,w fmt/ mtu("'J:I:;

.";11.'1';(il

(~"f1

<. -J~kcmwner

is f1J.ln~···d A s"u;l: out,

mlllid I~ IJPJawl'tj whj,'h j'('PTt'sNJlro btlll! jJmpnrin, (JI 'I!~' JJ/Hdnrm, (i<.I;tlj.--'11,pr.
/m',"-I'1'1 rl-!i

''quu.orirn,t-.a·,twil JtJp,iI and /lui/,ui

Th«
n'!iu.1J.~ m"dl'L~,
mol' (l,1

i)'l OU' ff,n~II)

li'JII':fJrf'ql(ir;alf'r.J

l"rn..'1!t';'

1,f'I'1J ,IS fmlH/rr

!iOf.f!lmL\·_

'.0
[11

Inlroduction

the last ten vcars, Iwuh.'lin,l{ nf switt~hill~ de-de conveners has rccc.vec considerable attention ht:{,Hu~e tilt" high performance n'qujrl'nl_enl~~ of o( power pr"C<'"in)< systems, The effort has resulted in the characterization of transfer as well as input Ii nd outpu l pn lp~rl ies 01 basica 11S nrmfinca r swi rc hin~ de-de converters in tile frequency domain. Amnng various approaches attempted to attain this ~oal. the current-injected equlvaleru-cirruit appreach is. vt!"ryversatile. This approach, having exhibit~t1 irs merits I.", is nuw applied to model complex converters. The Cuk converter IS modeled as an example, Thus. this paper is concerned with rbe modeling and analysis of a duty ratio-prcgrarnmed Cuk converter operating in fixed-frequency con tmu ous.:;;;1983 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from IEEE T,tlrISMliim.! 1m Ind",lnal Ekct"",i<s. \-'01.1£·30. :-10.1. pp. 56·59, feb 1983.

The current-iuje c-ted equivalent-circuit approach to modeling sw'tch;ng converters in the duty ratio-programmed mode has been developed J. ~. Since this approach , is used in tnis paper for I.he modeling and analysis of converters operated in the tixed- f req uency mod", a brief -re view of rh is aeproach is presented here. Of course, the same approach can be also used 10 modeling the converters operated in the variable frequency mode. The following con ventions and nota lion" are followed ill tbe modeling and analysis: dl Ts interval during which the transistor is rurned on and the diode' is off: interval <luring which the transistor is turned

d2 Ts

40

SWITCHING ee-oc CONVEJITERS

CONVERTe

A eQU ATIONS

STE AOYST A I ~ PROPEIITIES

j} O~rl'b'"tl V-& ~LJlUJn1

01

Il"'Idi,J1;(j10r

Oori'Y;cIII~ C! .... of j"dtlC'tOf

el)rrent =Q 'III!!: --V9 v·_V ::I_Rep:)

ii)

AVlltap inlJu ~tN" CLJf rtlnl in a 5witc!Ling p8_riod

('a\le)

Itil Outp ...i vO~ilge- (v}... :ia'Ve-~ (z :.:imp'llldilnC1l' at O'itPIJ!

neiW(if"k, /;

d,_DI <i2 ~D2

i;a.'oI!!-I.svf!o

I'E

RTUR8ATIO~ lINEAR~.L.QTION

&

OV::;~;()j>EATlES
i)lp.putUlo\ltput tr.~sllfr 11.11'111:''''''' ii>

I
:

J
ciaccn
/6

lINHR

EQU'¥ALE~T (BoCisn

d1 = 01 + d2~p<_+a2
'I'!jI'=Vy'l'v!1
y

a,

=V+;

i.fl",,(t=fg~1!I

+ T;ty(!

P~rturl:lifti'tln pI ceuc I lefm.$ n~J~U!'d IC!e tlll..lin once itg;lin line,,' s~:!It~m

Con tml
Lrlll(I:;.I'l"f

ro ou .pm
luiiCbDI""!

0:;11:1 'S

..

-;__.~

dll\

+ d'2h

off o1ind the cliodp i~ on; and - TI and H = 111-' ... Switching period.

The cap itilized quantities are used tor steady <state value" and the quantities with hats far "mall pert u rbations.

The current-iniecred

equivalent-circuit

ap-

proach to modeling converters operat ing in 'he continuous"; nd uctor condoct ion mode is OU t H ned in the flowchart "I ~·ig, I. which ts very gene", I. and applicable to various power stages, The fir1il S'f? in thig process is to identi f y rhe non] in ear and lin ~ ear parts (If the converter circuit and linearize only the nonlinear part of the converter a. t he rema inder of the converter is inherently linear (Boo: 1), The non linea r pa IT of the COnvener de terrnines [he average current injec ted into Ihe linear pa rt. Now (Box 2; a set of relationships are written referring to the converter diagram and current and voltage wa veforms shown in Fig. Z. under the assumption that the corner frequency of L&C Imter com" ponen Is) is much smaller than the switchin~ Ire-

i'''"" F
I I

~O,"O

I=="\T.----;-

h ,,"'TO
and

--=J
In

Fig. 2. Typicml iOOI.ll:lOf CUJf9tit buck conllle.rter.

vO~1age waveform'

41

ouencv V.). Till, is true in all practical converters to achieve smaller output voltage ripple. Thus, tile discontinuous nonlinear current is approximated as linear continuous current (Box 2). Now, the steady· stat e soluMon for the switching cir cuit is lound by setting derivatives to aero (Box 3). Since the converter equations in Box 2 are linear (at a particular operating point), superpoaition holds and the equations can be perturbed Iflex 4) by the introductinn of a small ac variation over the steadr-srate operating point. All we know, the independent driving inputs are '~gand d, The perturbation of these two input, causes the perturbation in i and v. Now. mak',ng the small signal approximation, namely, the small ac, variation. from the steady-state operating point are negligible compared to the steady-state operating point value". i.e., ;)/V. JIIDI. d2WZ, ill leach 1- Using the above approxirnations, second-order terms (product of (WI) limedependent quantities il or 3z and one of V. VII. D are neglected to obtain, once again. a linear set equations. Now, only the ac part is retained which describes the smau-signal Iow-treqeency behavior ol the converter. U,in)( [hi" set of equations, the input to output and control [0 output transfer tunclions (Bo" 5) ere written. U,ing the same "" of equations an equivalent circuit (B()l( 6) is drawn which represents the input and output small-signal low-frequency properties of lhe nonlinear converter.

"f(rt'".

"r

tion is applied to the Cui< converter ,. With the assumption of ideal switches (no parasirics or stcrage time modulation effects have been considered), the Cuk converter diagram is shown in Fig. 3, This converter is divided into two parts as shown in Fig. 3. for easy analysis. The first part is up to"" from the source I'g. which sees an efiedi" e I02rl of Re whose value is derived as the modeling and analysis progresses, A voltage of &1is developed across CI. The second part 01 the converter is from YJ to the output of the circuit, A. First Part of the Converter. The nonlinear portion of the circuit injects a current pulse into the linear part "I the circuit. i.e. Cl and Cl in tum supplies to Re. Inductor (LJ) current and voltage wa veforrns are shown in Fig, 4. The shad ed portion shows the amount of charge injected ;'110 the output linear circuit and the interval during which the current injected isd2Ts. The average inductor current injected (i,,,,,,l into the output circuit during" !;witchi11g period is given hy

i~,· .. ·1

112 • i1

(I)

3.0 Modeling 01 Cuk Converter

The current-injected equivalent 0;':' 'h to modeling converters reviewed in the previous sec-

,
I

"

1---"'IASTiII'''Jn~~~ i-----!!OECfJNIJ

F-.un~g~~-..j

FOg .3. Cuk convorter .. ~h all para,Woe arid ",or09O II ottecos neglected,

m.

Fig. 4. InducllJr

(L

1) currant

and voUag,e wa.,.,Elform1J,

42

where il is the average inductor (i,l) current. The derivative of the inductor (Ll) current given by

is

R Dl' + S • R • C1

J~

'"" (8)

.!d...:...@. dt

~ Ifg -

a.

VI.

(2) Equations (6){81 call then be simplified

-I-

The average current as expressed by (1) is iniected into C1. which in turn is supplied to an effective load of R." Thus. the voltage vi is given by

as shown by"

vi

. [ 1+ R (D1) SLl m
-

SILlCl]
(D2)'
S

,'1

'..-.,

'[5 .

R3

~"('1

lJ

fig

(3)

D2

v:
D
(~IJ

where Re/{ I + (S • Re • ('I)) is the impedance 01 the output network. ASSllming thai the second part oi the converter is ,deal which transforms power trorn its input 10 output with an diic;f'n('y or lOti percent and neticin~ that the second part the converter is. in fae,t, a bu r:k con V"ITer • l h. value "I the load see n by the r;_"'M part of the converter is givt:n by

or

Nr _

...!!...,
(dl)

(.1)

The stuadv-statc l'onlhtiOIlS- can now be fuuJ)d hy using (1 )-(11and setting r,,~qucn(')' t~nr" to zcrn and all other quantities to their steady-stare values, Therefore, the a buve equations reduce ["0 .!::l_ Vg

B. Second Part of (he Convert .. r-. '1'1", converter circuit from ;;-r to the output j;.;_ considered here. One can see tl"J::ut his is obviouslya blL~"k converter with HI heing th4,'input vl)Ua~{'. lnrlurtor (Lt!h:urrent !wd volOIiRt': waveforms fnr UH.' !'(\(.'~ unci part of the converter arc shewn in Fi)1;.:1_ Thrshaded pm"1ion ~hHW~ lhr' amount of ("wtrg~' inj,I('1('d into the output lim.-ar rirr-uit and thv interval duriI~1!;which the rurrcnt iUj,YINI is 1'" The ((\'l'raJ!.:{'

m
\I) fie

11

m
(5)

Rr • RIl)l-',

Equations (l)-{4) are perturbed around the steady-state operating point and second-order nonlinear terms (product of two time-dependent ac variadon quantities) are neglected to obtain the linear small-signal model. Alter taking the Laplace transform and nor; ng t ha t dZ ~ - 3'J

S -u . iI
{7} Flg_ 5. IndUClor (l2)

curren.1 and IJOIl3g@~a"ofort"l'ls 43

inductor (L2) current injected (I.,,,) into the output .circuit during a switching period is gi''en by

overall input to output and control to output transfer functioas which are glven by

(10)

'where 12 is average inductor current. ~ The derivative 01 the inductor (L2) current given by L2 • ai2 01 = V1 - d] - V'l

the

Pg

Vz _ (PI)
\D2

is

[+_5 WlQI
V2 T-

+L][] W2'
(

+.....L...+L]
W2Q2 )

11'2'

(11)

m . D2

V2

where ~'2 is the output voltage, The volt ~ge v2 is gi ven by

.2

= ,.....

[1 .•RSRC2 ]

(12)

The steady-slate conditions can now be found by using' (JOH12) and setting frequency terms to zero and other quantities to their steady-stale Therefore. m e a bove equat ions reduce

S [ 1+--' !-VIQI

;:, ]
WI' -

[1+

_$ W2Q2

+L ]
W2'

( 18)
1.\. CI

"01,,"".

an

I"

.ss:
Ll - (.'"2 IYl

wt' _
(13)
"'~l2 =

t:t:'7l
l:.l
8

Equations (10)-(12) are perturbed around the steady-state operating point, and second-order nonlinear terms are neglected once again to obtain the linear small-signal model. Alter taking the laplace transform. (14) Vl + VI •

_1__ _ l_~ WzQ. W1QJ _1 __ W2Q2 L2

(g~f

If

dl -

1"2 (15\

An equivalent linear circuit model is developed using (6)-(8), (10-06) as shown in Fig. 6, which

(14)-(16) are simplified

-~ +

as shown by

+ S'L2C2

liz ~ Dl : ~'1 +
VI - dl_ (17) to get the
F~. 6. line-8( CIC mode.
&quiVAlenl

Now, (9)

ana

circull

model

(17) are combined

for Cuk COIWIH1er in

44

describe. completely the input and output properties of the duty ratio-programmed nonlinear Cuk converter operating in the continuous inductor conduction mode. 4,0 Conclu .. ons

circuit

approach

(CIECA) mode," IEEE

to modeling

of

switching de-de converters in continuous inductor conduction Trans. Auosp.

Electron. 5vst" vol, AES·17, no, 6. Nov, 1981.. .. 2. P.R.K. chetey, "Current injected equivalent
circuit approach (CIECA) to modeling of

The current-injected equivalent -circuit approach has been applied to the modeling ot Cuk converter to demonstrate its ability to easily model even complex converters or cascaded converters. One can see that the modeling and analysis is v~ simple, The resul ts of the modef ng ,a.re the ~ame as those obtained using electronic equivalent-circuit stale space average appro. ch. The two approaches are es se ntially the same and it is primarily the averaging that is done differently, Thus, the modeling developed for a duty ratio programmed Cuk converter operating in the fixerlfrequency connnuous-mductor conduction mode and presented in this paper permits us to design rezulators conl<1ining Cuk converter p"w,'r to achieve the: desired performance. References I. P.R.K. Cheuy, "Current injected equivak'''1

switching de-de converters in discontinuous in- , ductor conduction mode," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electro« .. vol1£-29, no. a, Aug, 1952.
3. P,R.K. Cherty, "Current injected equivalent circuit approach to the mode l;n,o;0"1current programmed switching de-de converters," Internal Rep., accepted for publicarlon ill IEEE Trans. At'1Vspace end Electronic S...... tems. ·1. P.R,K. (hetty, "Current injected equivalent circuit approach ro the modeling and analysis of Current programmed switching de-de COnverters (Discontinuou, s; inductor conduction . model," f£t-:F. Trans. Ind. App/iml, vel. IA·18.

,I.",,"

M. :1. Mayl June 1982.

S. Slobodan Cuk and R.O, Middlebrook, "/\ new optimum topo1oJ,{\' switchinl!, fk-to·oc to.nverter;" in P,'c, 1977 fEEE nnw/' "'rein",,,,> S,,,,,inli.</, Conf.. pp. lIi0·179.

45

Chapter 3

Design and Measurements

MDCt.Hng .nd .,..Ign o' Switching RegulatO,. 48 60 Regulator T,.natlH'

CIoHd Loops.-on Track for Teatlng Switch.,.

M... urament 01 M80nltudeo and Ph_ Functions and LOOp G8ln 69

of Switching

MODEI..ING ANO DESIGN

OF

SWITCHING REGULATORS
Thus the main purpose 01 tbis paper is tbe modeling and design of switching regulators. Section 2 describes switching mode regulators. Section 3 presents the modeling of the various building blocks, Section 4 gives stability criteria, a step-bystep procedure fOf designing the compensation, two illustrative examples, and different networks [or compensation and their transfer functions,

Va,i.", lIItildi~g bl.<k of a ,,,';khjllg ,«,,1Ido,- art' desen'bed ill deta il and matkematicat mtxhts are ikm/oped
, y all building. blocks in terms of tnJ>f'("- funclirm.s, ~ich elUlbk one to M..ill'l a switr;hi~g •.,gukItur for .J1bility, desirable bandwidth, !inc rejlXlitm, alia Im"- siiir.1 "'-spmse, A sup-ny·step {mXe<iure 10 desill" com· pensatwn is i/lus/yakd "$ing Iw() •."u"np-Ies VOI'.1tS

... tworks /M IXJmptllsalion aM their mm,kr Junc/inns

aNi pre$.H wh,;c}I tile author hope. wiLl I>e 10 USI1 and ,diU h","""" the reference SO"TC",

r,a

''''Y

Irmuly

2.0 SwitchIng Reguilltors

Switching regulators operate on the principle M,t(lring energy in an inductor durmg one portion oi the cycle and then transferring th.e stored induetive energy to a capacitor in another portion of the cycle. This is in contrast to the series dissipative rr.gulat()rs where, [0 keep the output constant, the difference oltage between input ao.d output is dropped across a variable resistor (a transistor in linear or conduction mode uf uperation). As the transistor in a ~witching regulator is np(~ratf'ri either in saturation or {'ulolf (and irle"lly in<iudor and capacitor arc lnssless]. the switching regulators possess high efficiency. A block schematic of a typical sw;tchinK regulator is ::;hOWLl lfi F~. l , This consists of switr- hillp; dc-t o-d c con vert er which is th e er stage, a volt:lge divider network, ~ stable voltage reference, a n error am pi j [ier, a com pensatio» network, a pulsewidth modulator, and a driver stage: The reduced output VO\l<lK" ;$ corn pared with the reference; an ermr ,ignal is amplified and fed into the pulsewidth modulator which drives the power stage to determine the required output quantities. Having already established the small signal low frequency model for the power stage ',other building blocks now remain ior modeling,

have received considerable attention because of the high performance requirements of power processing systems. Switching mod e regulators have almost replaced the conventional dissipative series regulators because of their inner e nt superior characteristics, i.e .. high efficiency, small size and weight, low volume, low weigbt, and equal reliability, These regulators are very useful in deto-de, dc-to-ac, and ac-to-ac conversions and tn huck or boosr the voltag. levels with isolation. Switching mode regulators h"ve to lie well under stood befure one can aim for optimum performance. Modeling and analysis 01 switchi nil mode regulators is v.11' j mportanr, but t he design of switc IIing regulators for stability, desirable bandwidth, better transient response, and better line rejection has not had much coverage in the literature. Hence, various building blocks of switching regulators are described, mathematical models are developed for each building block, and finally a complete model tor a switching' regulator is obtained. A step-by-step procedure for designing the compensation ;s described and two examples are given as an illusrration. The compensation is realized using appropriate networks. Various networks for compensation are also presented along witb their transfer functions. © 1982 IEEE. Reprinted with permission from lEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELEC· TRONIC SYSTEMS, Vol. AES·18, No.3, pp, 333·33(, May 1982·.

1,0 IntrodU(;tlon In the last ten years, switching regulators

pc'""

A. PO,",'''f Stage or Switching De-De Converter. Switching de-de ccnveriers are the
power stages Jor s Nitchin~ regulators. Buck, boost, and buck-boost converters are the basic Iundamental con ve rters (F; g ,. 2). All other converters (Fig, 3) are derived from these basic converters. For ex, ample, the forward converter [Fig, 3(A)] is the buck converter with input-output isolation and the quasisquare wave push-pull converter [FiJI. :J(fll) is the

48

~:rS1age

v --1----'

i
i

"
G

"

o
49

-,

Vg

!len
L~'G
j
..

:L__
50

:L.n_____"
Fl.,__ Ie)

f1~, 3. CQn"'~Of .>c1 ...... iQn. (A) Forward """".~er (91 Puoh-pull quali·aqua" ,"IMI OO"""rI" CUI< co_~ ... (E) Wlrint.org convel1e< IF) 9811 Lab ""nWlner «(;1 Venable ocnvel1l>r.

Fly,,,,,. oon"""r

(D)

two-phase forward converter derived to share the power han dling capacity by two power transistor switches instead of one. The flyback converter [Fig. 3(C)) is the buck-boost converter ,,;th input-output isolation. The Cuk converter [Fig, 3(0)) is a simplified cascaded boost-buck converter utili.ing a minimum number of switches. Basically these converters are nonlinear. 3.0 M.odellng

Converters.

The following conventions and notations are followed in the modeling and analysis,
dT

,,

dT 2,

interval during which is turned On and the interval during which is turned off and the + Ii, T, ~T, and. 1", ~ 1//,

the transistor diode is off; the transistor diode is on; is the switching

period,
For several years. modeling and analysis of such nonlinear switching de -dc converters has been carried out. This means that a partial solution to the problem is oi'eady available. Among the dif· ferenr approaches to modeling switching de-de corverters is the current injected equivalent circuit approach (c)F-CA)' which is hriefly reviewed here because 01 its merits over the other approaches. A. Power 818g.,,, In the discussion. the capitalizal quantities-are used for steady state values and the quantities with carets are used for small perturbations. Modeling converters operating in continuous inductor conduction mode according to CIECA is outlined in the flowchart of Fig. 4. which is very gen.er-Ji and applicabje to various power stages. Thefirst step in this process is to identify the nonlin ea t and lineal- parts oj the converter circuit and to lincarixc only tlu .. nonlinear part of the converter '

or Switching

De-De

CO~:~Jn"E~ EQUATIONl
I~ Ol'll;oat I"e ot ~ndiu:ctQr cuere-rt

STEAOl'STAT'E

PROPEFITlE-5

()erlWHU .....
1)1 i_fldut;IDr

11\,. .lwitc:'hing. pe:r 19od {' ... .I iii I OUIP\l1 wOll.,ge ("l = i.....Z
(:l"I~td.tlc.e I'Httwcrlt. 01 oulpUI

ill "''''1-1'1'IgI fndUe10.f i;:'JH~

'

.c~Jl'lm' =0 w'ii! _vg w --V z ._ Ref.!} i~_lnlJ!o en ,_01 .2 ..-D2

PERTURBATION UNEARUAlION

&

d1 'l1'1li
\I

Il"

d2

D1

-t-

=
Il!! ....

O ...Og

01

~~h P"e,rt.t.llrtu.lion
ib
I;JIbf. iPl cncl! .

I)'''H~~IC

PAOP£ATIES

LIN EAR EQUIVAI.ENT

CIAClIIT

180•• ,)
I) Inpl.llto ttanl!iMr III COntf~ fti!lo~tI oulp:U1 1un,ction to output 11... ttetion

p,C»d.u_ct term .. ntgl!CiU!I!d to.

=V+'v

ft1ol.=I .....e

+i,vI'

alJo8in linfllf &Va1l1m

F~ .. 4. Flowe-hart Hiuliltraling mOdeling -of SiMlchln.g ec-ce (:on~s (CIt:CA).

using current I"Je<:led equivaJent circuit 'PPfQIEICh

51

as the remainder of the converter is inherently linear (b<J'" 1). TIle nonline ar part of the converter determines the average current injected into lhe linear part. Now (box 2) a set of relationships are writ.ten referring to the converter diagram and current and voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 5. average. current fi.. ,i injected into the linear part in a switching period; 2) derivative of the inductor current function of the va lue of the inductor, the voltage across that in a switching period; 3) relationship between average injected current and output voltage 1) z~ where z is the impedance of the linear part of the converter.
1)

t.;

Now st ea dy stat e solution is achieved by setl;nj( denvatives and perturbations to zero (rox 3). Since the converter equations in box 2 arc linear, scperposition holds and can be perturbed 11>..." ) ~ hy 'h~ int rod uction of a "man ac va r iation over the steady stat" operating point. As we knew, the independent driving inputs Ore vKand d, and Ihe parturbation in these two inputs ".~S(S the perturbation in ; and .'. Now making tho small signa! approximation, namely, the small ac variarion from the steady state operating point values, i.e., vlV, v)i'IVg. !I,tD" iJ} (each) s i Using t he a hove approximations, nonlinear second order terms are neg leered to obtain (he linear set 01 equa-

r:=--':~~--h.iTo-=:!

1--jif:'

I I I I

Fig. 5. TVpic" inductor voftl!lgs and current waveforms switching oe-cc cOtlvtn1er.

3,m"

lions al(3in. Only the 3{, p~rt is retained, which describes th e small signal, low frequency behavior 01 the converter, \)"i"1< thi~ set of equations. the input-to-output and coutrol-to-nutput transfer funcnons (box 5) are written. Ihing the same set of equations. an equivalent circuit (box 5) is drawn ....tich represents the input and output "mall signal, l low frequency properties olille nonlinear converter.

B. Modeling of Buck, BooB!, lind BuckBoost Converte ra, Modeling converters accor-

. ".g

52

v "

I.e:!

"
c

"g v

ding to C! ECA i~reviewed Ilbove and applied to buck, boost, and buck-boost converters, and (he important results. i.e., input-to-output and duty ratiot.O"'OutT)I1t transfer functions. are presented here .loll)( with their ~maJi signal, low fr,'que"',y equivalent circuits (Fig<- fHI)

Vr.)I[i,M
(I

(VIV,l

((I

SUR ~l/

+ SUR D,' + S'LCll:+;lI-

fj,,,:k-/wo,,/

Um oerter:
+
L

\lM/VP(_;} ~ 1),1/), (I .. S'J .CI[~)

SIJR IY,

Bu.ck

0>"""/,,,..V(sJ/Vrrt,)

vr,'J!d,(s) "_ (\1m,

(I
/),

+ SUR

V;

D) i I . ,~I.I/( 11'11 I + Y f.(jlF,1

(1 ..

SUN

"PL(_)' ,
'j

V(S)fJ,(.<) ~ rvllJ} (I + S'LIH /km$' C;"",,'ler: V(l)/flgl&! 0,

I

,91.( ..) -,

C. EnQr A..,pli!ier and Compousarion, f j!(UIe t) shows ~ IYpi co I error am p 1ifi~, and remp~nsa t ion n e lWOr k, The reduced out put vo lm~e i~ coropa red w ilh a sta ble reference and t he error volt-

(l

+ SUR I}; + S~/.I..'lfi')"'

/\

l.d

"
c
A

53

Fig. 9. vc>t.g<> divider neI_~ and errer ampliHer"

age L.S amplified with proper compensation. Since the circuit is linear, the transfer function can be written easily as given below, Depending upon the power stage and other requirements. the compensation bas to be designed. Far a voltage divider network,

For

all

error amplifier.

D. pu lsewldth Modulator. The pulsewidth modulator converts an analog control voltage into a duty ratio which drives the switch. Figure lOlA) shows a typical pulsewidth modulator. The amplified error voltage is compared with a sawtooth waveform and a pulsewidth modulated signal is produced. From the waveform shown in me figure. it can be seen that if the amplified error voltage is equal to the height of the sawtooth ramp. then the duty ratio is 100 percent. Thus !h~ transfer [unction i~ .Hive-a by

V/sJ/V,M -

Z, iZi, ~ .4(s).

~P~

v;::;-l/~~M

n_n__rl_r

'Nt~/j···-1
I.

_j

LJ
PWM

U'··

---··----1
I VC~'T:'
I

1/"I -~ ~_J
I ___J--...

v_

Fig. 10. T)'l)Ic:01 wks9 widlh modul.lOr (AI 8V.o,"""",,oI5<ngl&

ramp (8) Triangular earnp

(el With sample and hold.

54

There are other pulsewidth

modulators used in
"8~riOUS

specific drcumsta nee. for

reasons, A

blocks of switching regulators. The loop gain T is gi yen by T~

pulsewidth modulator followed by a sample and hold [Fig. 10(01 is employed if the signal is 100 noisy or varying fast, Figura-l is redrawn as shown in Fig. 11 by removing the modulator and showing' its effect on the voltage and current-dependent generators directly. Thus Fig. 11 shows the general small signal ac equivalent linear circuit model for the nonlinear switching mode regulator. The principal performance specifications of a regulator are concerned with its de regulation. output unpedance. transient response, and line rejection (audio susceptibility). AU these properties are closely related 10 the regulator loop ga.in ~The loop ga in is simply t.l\e product ul the gains of all the building blocks and the phase shift is the Sum of the phase shift. of all the buildinll" blocks. The loop gain and its phase dicrates the stability against oscilla lion. Thus all these properties are determined by th.~ various building

rV(s}ld,MJ

K A(s) H~(s).

(1)

For the converter shown in Fig, L,

WfDJ

(1

+ SLIR .. SZLCi-1 [R,f(RI y-! A(s).

..

R,)J
(2)

lnput-to-outpur transfer function (Une rejection) (open loop) for the buck converter example is give" by

F ~ DI (1 .. SUR .. S'LC)-'. VI'll." the loop is dosed around the convener,

(3)

f;"J_ ....1 • ,
4_0

F',,,..,,,,p/ll

.. 7).

(4)

St.blllty Crlterl.

For a system to he stable, the loop gain must Ialt below unity by tile rime the totJJ phase shift has

V_

f~
J
Error Amplltle, Comp"na8llon &

55

reached 360 deg. The gain margin is defined as the amount of gain below unity when tbe. total phase shift is 360 deg. The phase margin is dl'fi""d as the difference between the actual plrase shift w ben the loop gaill 'is unity and 360 deg. (Fig. 12). Stability i.e sometl me. described in terms of 180 deg. of phase shift. Th is is be cause even at de, the feedback is negative. i.e., there is a phase inversion of 180 deg, Now a step-by-step procedure (or dcsigni"ll" the compensation is prese nted with two examples. A. E:<ample I. Equation (1) gives the loop gain of the reg ulator. Now let us start. assumin g tha t the gain of the error amplifier is 1 and that ;1 does not contain any frequency terms. The compensat ion is designed at the end. The de gain is given by de gain
=

(WD) IR,I(H,

R,)I V",'

I.

selecting the component values in the de gain term. Say ~ d1I down in the 0 dB line. A double-Sided arrow IIIliTk acruss the 0 dB line (Fig. 13O~ rs that there is fle>:ibiliry to move the 0 d D line up or down. either by selecting a de gain term or by adjusting the ga.in of the err", amplifier to the required level. The system oscillates if the loop is dosed without an, compensation as the phase shift i.l60 deg. at dB CI(OlSOver. Therefore 3 pole is placed as shown in Fig. 13(D). Again, the double-sided arrow nwk across - 20 dB slope line indicates that. dependi!\g upon the PO le frequency f,' it can be moved {(I left or right. If it is moved to the left, the bandwidth wi n be less but t he system wi II be "til ble, However. since the band width is small, the trans;' nt response wilt be poor. Hence the pole is moved towards the right side so tool it cu ts the dB line at a freouency i~, 1",-", than the corner trequencv of the power stage filter /" as shown in Fig, 13(£), The system will be sta b Ie "" the loop gain crosses tit e 0 dB line

Because of ure power stage, there is - 40 dB slope starting at. frequency equal to the comer frequency of the POW"" stage r;ll~r, This is shown in F ij(, tJ(.",j. The val ue of (he :o",d n,~i"t ance, parasiucs accompanied with J~ anile'. anti characteristic resistance of the filter determine the damping 01 the filter (value of the Q-f'C!(lrj [Fig, 13tBn A GdB line is placed as desired hy properly

with - 20 dB s lope. Th~ ga in and pbase margin.

can hE dt'!'t ermi nert easi 1y _ The. 1ra nsient r~~ponse ui the aystern will be rel"tiy"ly I..d,l.," a" the bandwi dt n has increased. Howeve r a turt her increase i n b~nd width ;, not poss ible ill this a POrOO ell because the corner frequency of the power stage 'iller OCCurS in the neighborhood ()I Ihe I~,which immediately adds n ~() deg. phase sbilt at/;,. An
r

--~

------,8arodwldlh~ Phase Margin ----~

i~-"
__
I
I

--FreqlJt'ncy
Gairo Margin

o· ~---~--------L!-T----~i------~~-+l--------'--Frequency
-1110'
Fig, 12_ St."ilil)' OofiniM<lS-g.i n m" rgtn, ph morgln. and _Idth. •••

i\

"""-..

56

(~!'II)!

I[ r
L_

.,

~r: ~
: !
loCi:l~

j
I

..... ~--j--" ~
o

I T--- -:- ·'r-'·---I I

IQ 1l;1li ')1: '.

'

-+-._"''---; I
:

'-~'
I

,. ., Ll

--1---1 i
,-_J

I
~

F..tqU.flC:Y In CyCIc:aJS.c

I __ i

Fig, 13, Gal"

'Of .....

freq .... rw;y-Compe"

... 1.... lor ..... m pie 1,

57

alternative approach is discussed in the second example. A further improvement in the loop gain is achieved by placing a pole-zero such that the zero f, frequency is lower than the f~(Fig. 13(F)). This increases the low frequency gain, which results in improved line regulation and load regulation. Figure 13(G) gives the loop gain induding complete compensation. The compensation is realized using practical circuits. From experience. the dominant pole is achieved by adding a capacitor appropriately to the voltage divider networ k and pole-zero by mod ifying the error amplifi er as shown in Fig. 14. This

transfer function is given by

V/V, - [R.I(R + R.,JJ \1 + ViP, ~ (1 + SR,C,)lSR,C,.

A

SC,(R,IRs)]-'

Such a compensation has been successfully implemented for a 2 kW quasi-aquare wave puah -pull
converter regulator. bandwidth is limited by the comer

B. Example 2. A. mentioned in Example 1,

the achievable

frequency of the power stage filler. Further

itt-

crea se in ba ndwid th is attempted he re Again sta rt with Fig. l3(A). Now" zero is placed as shown in

V1 V

• .ss:
V1
A

1 + SR2C2 SR1C2

58

'Il

..

t.

11

.20)

",.
/

,.

"r-,
•
I

f'

+2'01)

b.I .......__
I

,.

",e .._ "

._- r--

1"-.

Fig. 15. Gain V8f9us frequency---compeft5Still::Ul

tor elCample

1'"
2. ample 1 by placing a pol e-zero such that the ze ro (f..) frequency is lower than j" [Fill· J5(D)J. Th;s increases the low frequency &,ain which results in improved line regulation and load regulation. Figure I5(E) gives the look gain including complete compensation. The compensation is realized us;ng the circuit shown in Fig. 1&, whose transfer func-

Fig. 151M Depending upon tire zero frequency I", the + 20 dB slope line can be moved toward the left or the right. Selecting zero frequency f,. to be equa I to the corner frequency of the power stage filter I" results in a single pole ( ,- 20 dB slope) as shewn in Fig. 15(B). Adjusting the gain, the 0 dB line ;s placed such that the required bandwidth is achieved. It is better not to aUow hi gh frequency components after zero crossover and hence a pole is added to tbe system at a frequency higher than tile zero crossover frequency [Fig. 15(C)]. Further improvement in the loop gain is achieved as in Ex-

tion is

v/v.

{(l

SR,C,ySC,fi,R"J

((J + SR,C,l!

[1 + SC, (B, iR,,)]):59

To make such circuits handy, various networks for compensation and their tr"lJ.Sler functions are given in Table 1. The author hCJl)esthat this information will be helpful as a reference to realize various compeasstion scheme s. Conclusions
A

1--

ve

(' + Se,lI11
ISC, (11,

+ R,,)I

['

[' + sc,RlJ + se, (R, II R,,)I

~_///::~I;=) t
IC.RF lelR,
Fi g. '6. Com~nsa' ion ne4 """~

fo, ••• mpie 2.

Such a com pens" linn has been success fully irnplemcnted [Of a buck converter-regulator with a peak POW"' capability of 10 kW. These two examples gi\·" a good idea about ,iesi~ninl( proper compensatiun achieve stable regulator operation with a "'!)Ie bandwidth and gain to meet If a [lsi ent respo Else and Ii t1 e re ject inn require m eT1 Is. Though the ci rcojts [0 re a lize [he co mpensati on have been rightly se lected at once in the above examples. in practice it requires some experience.

The object of chis paper has been 10 model the complete s\l-itching regulator and 10 present vari <JUS networks for compensarion which a re handy to use. After a brief description of switch ing regulators in Section 2, modeling of switching regulator building blocks was presented in Section 3. A step- by -step procedure lor de signing th.e cornpensation was presented with two examples in S(oc,;on 1 Such designs have been successfully i mplernented on switching regulators at the 2 kW to 10 kW level, Varlous networks (or compensation and their transfer functions were presented for easy reference. Relsrence.
]_ Cherty, 1'_R_ K _. (I Yll I) Current injected equivalentcircuit approach (CIECA) to modeling of switching de-de converters in continuous

'0

Oil

ind uctor condu rtion mod ~. lEJ-;I,; Tra. ...""I""'_' A~roSJ>aceElectronics tmd .Sy"/em_'. Nov.
1961, AES·17. 802·808 SWITCHERS

CLOSED LOOPS-ON

TRACt< FOfI TESTING

Mea.'~rini! jretj_ry re.ponfi(!is til< i><'Y «'<fl· '" 'Mra<1t!"-c a <",il,hi"g·i"'-'!h />JI>'(CY 'I<Pp/y. A c/Jwd·/tJoPoPfmJd<"-",,,,,,,
time and mm~ry by Lt.~ing 11 sw.ndard £u"~1tII".d)t..

Probably th€ most difftcul[ task facing today's OEM designer of switching-mode power supplies ;3 c nee ki ng out a COm plet ed un iI to ve dty wheth e r
it meets the design. specifications. Experi.ellce shows that a supply's basic chararxeristics can be best deterrnm ed by measuring freq ue ncy response , gain, and phase, preferably when tbe supply is in its uorrnel conftgurarion=that is. a closed loop. Closed-loop frequency measurements. however, uSUJlly require speci • I, and costly, equipment because the"es)"St. ms a re inherently nonlinear and produce noise ill the 'switching process. Bot a new

approach tllllL employ. a standard current probe si 'l1Plifies the testing. as w~1Ias reducing both time ana cosr With 'his approach. characreristics such as stability. switcbing-transient response. and noise rejection can be accurately found in short order. A switching-mode power supply in a closedloop C<inf;guration comprises a de-to-de converter (whi,r. serves as the power stage). voltage-divider network, stable vol\agt: reference, error amplifier,

compcnsauon network. pulse·width modulator. ruld

driver stage (Fig. 1). r n operation. a portion 01 the

R.printed wit h ;>em:!i,,;O" from ti1tClmo i< Dts~, Vol. 3\. No. 15, Jill>' 7, 1~1IJ; copyr;ghtH.:lyde" PulJhh;"gCo_. lnc.. \!1SJ.

60

rcTWORIC

.:

TA ilNSFEp:t FUN ~TIOH

--./V,--,,........

o.

,
I

~"Z

-_"_'~1

Fr.!

-----~------+--------

--'-1*51111101:.1

--~(------_~R1

",

r~·~i,r.
0..,. z.. u ,,~ Z:wo
IFr~i,':"

____

.. __ ._l_ .. L.

,-NV'v---------'

"'

___..~l:.~:
~~( .I'-.J~~'.-.-[_.__
~n~
';

<'U

el

fl.,

------------------O,..l*.j)A~fl.~
1 ()Il~ p~ ~t

:/

CI
+

l"SR~1

::,p,

"'J~'--;'

"'"'1"" ,.

-- ...~

r- ----r'!'
~b ~

h. ::.

2"~{R 1 ... I ~>:i:llt:»

61

_]l°l·····<···-~~"···~ .. =

~~I I'".-...·~ ~I ~._-" .

... )~<~~<~
• =_ ..=._=. :;;;---

+---.---+~==w~~

~1.
..

'-"~'T.Jik.-

--~.-~

~""",,,,,.-,.~
~

~~,.:_::.~--

Modeling

II

Switching-MOde Supply

Power

Swirching_modereguiatorsoperalebystoring energyinaninductorduringOIlehalrofapower cycleandrhenlrallSferringilloacapacitorinlhe following half. In cont,-a1;l. dissipative'series re!(l1larOTsdropthedifferencein"oltagebetween the input and output acros.~ a variable ,es;stor (a IramistorinitBl;ncarorconduclionregion)tokeep the nutpul COt\.tant.ilecal1se the transistOr in a "witched-mode regulator i, op.;rated either in saturationorCUIOrf,a1\dbecauseitsinductors~nd capacitor. ideally have 1\0 loss, s"~tching rcgu\lllors are highly efficient Modelingaidsthed~sigoerinsettinglhesupply's loop gain and oondwidtitand aUows the deter· mination of its transient response and li""'noise rejection The first sr~p in design is to develop small· "ignal,low'fr~uencyequiV1l1enlcircuitsfareach 01 the blocksMd thcntodelerminetheirindividual transierfunctions.FQrdrcuitssuchaspulse·width mooulators. error amplifiers, and volrage-divider networks, tne traosfer function may be written v;r· tuatly from in.pection (see the figure). The tr.n,fer functions for (he baoic de·to-dc converters are generally known. (If unknown. however. they can

be derived by performing a four-tenninal measurement On the devic ••. } Themajorta.k then left fora d""igner i. !<) deV(!lopa.uitablecompensalingnetwor~toensure rhallheentiresystemwillbe.rable.Oncetharis d<>n theexactloopgainisthendelerminedby •. mulliplying the gain5 of all the building blocks Sim;!arly.thephaseshif!isthesurnofallrhepha!e .hifts of all the blocks. The s"itcher's b.lsic proJ}<:rtic.-which include de regulation. trAn.ient response, and noise rejection-can be fou"d from thf. f;n~1 I{ain equation. They om ~Isn he determindlfrom;nspe<:tionofthegainvsfrequcr>cYl'lol or gnin'margin vs phase-margin curve shown in too fiSUre. Al(hvughit isa.mall part of the circuit,thl< compensating network is the key 10 achieving system 'lability. In designing such a network, lUlSumethe gain of the error amptifier to be unity and assume initiaUy it does not CO<ItJin any fNquency-<lepeodentlenns.The-dcloopgainnfthe "yStcm is given by

The response of the power~tage

use-d in a

CO!1'

,'entional supply provide •• powerstaj!e slope of -40dB from an initial frequency equal to the cor· nerfrequcncyofthepowerstage'sftlter_Notethat th~ value of theloodresimance, the L and C,and the characteristic resistance of the filter detennille thefiker'sdampinglactor,Al).dBorreferenceline can bcset to define the system's operatingpoinl 0I1tllegainvslrequencyplotbyproperlyselecting the resislorvalues in the de ~ain term, Let x dB d~finetheO-<lBline,Adoubl.,..idedarrowacross that line shows that the line can be moved up or down either by varying the de !!i'in l-Cnn or by rais· ing tl1e gam 01 t.he error amplifier 10 the required level. The system willosci]late if the loop is dosed :i~I~U.t ~~h:o~~:sn~~:~~:~lth~~!';e7o;:,i~ pole (fp) with a -20·dBJde.:ad~ rulloff is placed as

:~~na~oe::~=~~~~~~~'sio:i7i~t:~~:~; that the pole f''''luency may b"moved to the left o~ right. If it is moved to the left, the band"'idth

~~tg§t;i~~~!;i;;,; :-.... ""';- ...

O'~I~EEmJ
V,jsJ i+(SUR) ...S'LC l~ af~~ ~10sed'IOOP' the line-reje.:tioh function is F' " ""'"

F ~ V../S)

D_,_

v '. -'~_,_"

:~:i~t~~~;llo~t~:"';~,:,.:!~~:

l~~~~a;~·~: :~:

.. ~
""

O'dB line with -20.(lH ~lol'''' and the gain and pha&e margins "an he easily det~rmined_ More over, the transiwt response oi the system will be !Jt,t t~rbccausethebandwidthhasincreased. However, a further increase in bandwidth is nol possible in 'hi~ca""becausethecomcrfre<auencyofthepowe. ",~gc's filter is m th~ roeighbo)rhood of frequency f,., An additional improvement in the loop gain c'nbl'xdievedbyplaciogapole'reropairwiththe tf.)lr~qucnc,-Iowerth:ln rp_This increa..es t.he low fre<jucncygain,which.esultsinimprovedlineand load regulation. From the frequency plot,il can be seen thaI tbe dominant pole can be set practically by adding an apprOpriate capacitor to the voltag~ divider network, The feedback loop of Ihe error amplifier mUll! be modified accordingly_ The sp<:<;ific loop gain ofthe.upply is thus

>0

'00

'>0

10""

' .. ""

"

' ' ,!XXI

linear circuits in the supply (see "Modeling a Switching-Mode Power Supply"). Ifthecircuitillustrnted;nFig.lis~rawnto showtheacequivaientoflllepOWer.tage.thea!>" prepnate lra.n~fer functions lhat characterize the supply caD be derived_It will then beappareDt lhat alloftheprincipalpropertiesofa~guJator,that is,dcrel(Ula\ion,oulputimped.nce,lrnns;ent~ sponSf,and line rejection, are closely relaled 10 the loop gain of the circuit. In other words, the magnitude and phase of the toop ~a;n must be measured accuralely to verify the regulalor'. ba. siceharacteri!llics. ThusmeasuringfTequency ...... spOnsewill,ultimate!)".re"ealasySlem'sstabiliry, abilitytorejK"tinpulnoiseandripple,andtransieDt respOnse. Open·loop tc.tingrepre.entsan inexPl'osive approach to making frequenCY'response measurements, Althoughil is not ae accurate as ctOlled-I""p driving, it r~"so""bly precis" ap' proach. One simple te<;linique was devcloped by Hewl-.!I.Paekard' using a method oftenemployffi forteslinglin .... rfeoobacksy.tem •. ·Rased ona ph.sor·lriangle technique, the melhod Il.'le\I frequency.,;elective.narrow·bandV(ltuneterslo!ind the magnilude of the inpUland OutPUI voltages Gain and phase are lhendelermine<l from th""" readingl;.

i."

Fig, 1."'COo'lV8nI;"".1 SwilchingModePOWO,SuPpl1oo· c l.in •• Ouclc,_,"'b""k_coow&<t.r~owo'Stagel. ane"","'mpMer,andapo.olsewiCllhmod<o'.",,.,.,dollgner pIy,Onc.,hBli.doo&.lhOsuWly'.OhtI,.c,.rIoIi<:s(dc reguIation.l ...... ionl'_n ... OI<:,j.'.CIe1O<mi_

~":~~=::~~C:i~c~~=':~~
Drlving.n

Open Loop

outputvoitageiseomparedwilharefcrclICevolt· age thruUKh lheerror amplifier in the feedback syst~.There$ultanrefTorsignal;~amplifiedsuf· ficientlytndriveamodula",rthaldeliversaPWM output voltage back to the power siage 1.0 TheThreeConver1.rBlockil

The power .tag<' may be configured as a buck. boo6t. or l:uck-b;Jost converter. Anotnerconverte", aTe derived from these three Iypes. BasK:ally I>Olllinurdevices.iheco.ov..-ten!levenbelesshaye reialivelysimpleequivaientcircuilll,udolheother

In an OI!<m'loopapproath, a ",ea.urem.nti. made by Iirst opening the loop of a ~}'!IIem with negal;vefe«tbar.""ndconm'ctinga",,"dim~ Ihatsimulatcsthcdosed·!oopimpet!anceallhat point. A signal is then injected in the forward palh, re.""ltingina voltage.l the output. The ratio of these IwO volla~csyieldsthe loop gain fora par licular frCijUCIICY, fcouNe,looPR'ainand O phase wil!varyasthefrequencyoftheinjeCledsil[llali. swep' over thr. range of interest. An open·loop test jig (Fig. 2) employs a wave analyter 10 generate a test signa! al a given fre quencyinordeitodri,'ethes .. ilChing~gulaIOXS. Themagnilude~dphaseofr"'pOnseofsignalB with~spectto;nputsignalAaredeterminedby

~
~ __ -_ w..... _ ..
oItlle

Fig.2.M un~1hOOp8MOOpl,_,.,,_ ....

ouppIrlOY9nly~."""'act_wlll)'itoIdKeU'.'._ inn",."! dra .. Dacl<S, ThMe Inol~~.

;~::t~:~~::'~·OO~~:~~~d=~;
moln1Oining 'he

i'potIOrm8<lcatefUly_Theopenloop_tIod._.has

an oscilloscoPf_Thesetwo "iUllals,Adncl B(i.e V;,andV"",),a",proces~d(hroughad\l.ll-<:hannel prClt1IlplifierinllleOCOpe,whkhprovideswmeb<ain conlrol. The preamplifier'. re!lponse. which is a.ail~bleattheocope·svenicaloulpul. ;. then ap' plied tothea"alytcr'svoltmeter. U.ingtheinstru· me"t's selector and invert~r sw;t~hcs, thc' magnitud~~"f .igr.als A, B, A+ B, or A- B can he measured NetwOl'k Analyzers Step In

for g,eater accuracy of I'hHM measurements, Ihe preamplifier gains for signals A and Bshould be indi"id""ny adjusted "'thaI the m:>gnitudesof bolhsignal."';lIbefiluaI.Thusme'''",""m~nlof phaseangleswillbemOTeaccuralc.1ti."bsoIutely cs..'k!ntialtuuseanarrow-bilndvoltmetersothatthe low·amplitude test sign.l will nO! r.erompietdy ~wamped by the swi,chin~ noi"c. Although such mere"" are available, it is betlertoem~loyanin· strumenteay. awaveanaly.er,th~t combines an osciU.torandnarrow·bandvoltmeterinsuchaway lhat the filteraulOmat;ca!ly Iracks llle frequency oflheoscillator. AsweepO<ScilL1to.-with !eveled output. com· bined with a narrow-bond frequency-oeleuive vollmetercapable of lockmg On to theosciUator.

can also be used to measure V~ and V", in dB Thalmeasurement,,;UgiyellOtonlyV_.f\' ... but al.., the phase of V_ with respe<:t to V", VoltmeteN,,,,,illatofOarecontainedininstruments like!heHPJOoIOAandlheRAFC0916Hfrcqucncy' re"pOl).e analyz~r. These inslrunl~nts. howeyer, canbt;u.edtogreateradvantageinc!osed·loop measurement systems As mentioned, a narrow·band tra,king voltmeter i. required because a j~rg~ amount of switching ooise is produced in Ihe 8upply. Further. ilsoutputr.onrainshigh-<>rdcrharmonic.ofthe switchillllfrequency.plus~ .. riousmodul"tioncom· ]XInentscausedbj"tbemixingoflhesignalfre 'luency with the noise. Note that a frequency sele<;tivev"llrnelerisrequireddespilethefacttMt th"vowerstage'$ output lilter (corner lrequency I~picajl)" onNenlh Or on~-tw~n!icllo th~ "wilching fTt,qu~n~y) aU~nu"tc" most h;:i.rmonics. A stand .loncvollmetersimplyc"nnOt~i"!ingl!ishbetween 'llecornponemsofth~inje<:tcdfrcqucncyandthe "witc~illll Irequencies lnadditiontothesedifficulties.theloophasto be m3int3ined 31,he.ameopernting voint at ali time •. lnadditiuI!.ilisverydifficull,ifnOlimpoosi· ble. to lesthigh-g;>in systems in Ih~<)!>"n I""pas they eilher ""turnte or ru! oif. Aiso, matching or determining lhcdosc<l·loop imped"nce(which has 10 be connected when [he loop is op~ned) i~diffi culL And if th~ "y'l~m has large bandwidth:;, say. in 1"-: neighborhood of h.ill of the s"'~tcbing fre quency. there can bea difference in the me"£u~mem5 between o!>"p loop and dosed loop because of Jarge ripple voltagu.

Magnetic: Injectlcma Closed·loop te8tinH, which ha~ none "I these drawback., is obviou.ly the preferred approach Mor~over. because a loop does not h.,·~ to be opened,m""surementscanbemadeinaverysmall amaun,oflime.Astloted,upuntilnowtheclosed· loop approach required special equipmen!. But a method known as vtlitage inje<:lion uses a readily 3v3ilable rurrem probe to in&rt a signal into the f.~dback loop. introducing il at 3 point whert' the

signal isoonfined to a single path_ What's more, tlteLUrTI'ntprobedoosnotalterthefeedbackloop ~ince it has a very low output impedance. In an alternative approach, call.,,) current injection, a f1""tingacvoltage5<luree(whosefrequencycanbe swept over ... nge)can be etmn..:ted at any point in the feedback loop where the oulput impcdance is mucb !ess th.n the input impedance ineitherease.theeqlli"alentootputirnpedance ofthedeviu: t.Mt the probe i. connected CO should be much smaller 1!tAn the input impcdanceat !hat p<>intof;njection, Both signal injecringtochniques are ~v~n applicable to switchin;< regulatora with mulliple feedback loops because the feedback sign31 from the modulator. withdutyratio,dlsee Fig.l,again),istheonlycontro\inputtothepower stage. Moreover,;Ut the feedback .i"""ls are "ummed up 31 One inpllt to drive the pulse-width modulator. Th~ "umming jUl,etion usually ""tisfies theimpedaru:e re<jllirements and hence isan ideal place to inject a signal. In most switching regulators, the point that USUl!lIy m",,1S these criteria is either ;mmedidt~ly following the error amplifier(i" series with the control voltage to the modulator) or immf>diately following r.h~nutpul fittercapacitor(inserieswiththeinpultotheerror amplifier) Oncethu",,!.Tit"ri"h~"ebeenmet,fre<luenq' respoosemc",ureme11tscanlJclakcn, Lt,t the injectioo voltage (~ign<!t) he V" which results in" signa! voltage, 1;., at the;nput (forward path), V .. passes throua:h the pO"'~r stage and the error alnplifi~r and re"utto in A voltage of V~". These three ,,"Iul~e", V;"' V"" and V, form a vector triangle, The loop gain is then V...f\'~,provided thaI tbe input and ""tput impedance criteria ~re meL At !ow fr"'luern;ics, the Joopgain is high and V,."ts much higher than V"' Al high frcqucndes, (he loopg.in is normally low, and V"" is much 8malier than V~_ From the "ector triangle, the angiebttwcen V... and V... can easily be determined by using the well-known geometrical rela!ionshipa' ... b'-2ab(cos9) .. c,wberea. V",b • V"ande. V~,.Asthcv"\u .. ofallthe"ide" are already known, the phaaetaO be determined without any trauhle,

Tempu'

Fuglt

C\osed-lropmeasurements(Fig,3)aremoreac· curate because this ~pprr>;"chtakes ad,'antage of the automatic swept-fr~quency capabilities of the test equipment. Further, me~suremcnts with the open loop jig usually tak~, ae ..'end days because it is a mat1ual1ysetsystem.Howev~r,thecl(l!;ed·loop$C! up needs only a few minu{es10 periorm the test. In the ciosf>d·laop"ppcaach,the gain of the loop ts fQund,directJy in decibels. hy "uhtr.!cting the in put signa!. A, fromtht'output rC9poTlse, B, The equipment can al50 display B_A,ifdesired,and can measure tne phase dilference hetwe..n the two inputs. Additionally. tbe output of the ph~",,· det..:tingcin:uitean be connected 10 an X·Y·Z plott.... to.ltowm.gnirude~slrequencyandphasevs frequencyplo!stobtobtained,.ryquic!dy The two important transfer functions 10 be mc¥~urcd ar~ His) = vcrv,~ and d/V_, The form .... yields info(OIa{ion 00 t",,"biiily of the 6r cuitlorejfC!inputnoigeorripple,Tht'latter.whic:h ;stheduly-<:yde-tooQutputresponse,yieldsinformation 011"oriations in the output as a functinn of YMiaTions in Ihe. width of an input pulse, (In a

AII.3.CbledIoap_~.,..&MtellinV_Supo i>lYdo!'Cl!taee""~"'_MIh""""loopd""" irlV,Mor..,...r,~u"III.Ioop,_n._.Ih8I""t

Dquipmen' can runchecO.quicklYlIlcau{cmotlcoUI'. ,_h_re"",o.j~

11&~1
=- ~~~
• .~ Yo ~-

......, ...

»; .-"'IIU

m_

"oJ

""iOoP_ ... ::'!!,~nd,,:~:'::.:.~=,,_'~,eanbe"sily

m.jcrtr.""l.rTuncUoo.,U,.If'lj)Utrooulputf_
... nd ... rejoc1ion,ond

Two

dosed·loops).,;t~m.thedutyratioisdetcnnine<lby the compensated and amplified error·feedback signa!.) This system can mea,ure both transler functions. rnordertodctcrmineth~lirst.lhecluly cycle must be held constant. Thes~ondcan be IOWl~ by holding the input supply voltage IV,) constant

Re'ett!nGe. 1. "A Quick.Conveniem Method lor Measuring Loop Gain." Hewldt·Paclmrdfournal. \'01. 14 january-February 196J.pp, 5·8. 2. R. D_ Middlebrook. "Improved Accurncy f'haseAo.:u"'cyMca.uremcnt."lnt~ti/}7lol ]"'mwlojElrclronia;.Vol..JO,No_l.January. 1976,pp.H

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNITUDE AND PHASE OF SWITCHING REGULATOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND LOOP GAtN

Inthel96Os,Mmandso/fhespaceprugram.led tothedeveJopmentoihighl)'reli.ble.eflicientand ligh[w~il!ht electrical power sys!"ms for spacecrdhs. Despile limited supply of "v"il~bl~ cuerg),onboard the "pacr.cr"fts, engineers found innov"tivc oolutions for phwer processing and manag.ment 01 the elec:trical poweronooard the spac",,"'r., Thesehelpedushcrinlhe~"'ofmod ern power clectrooics. TOO3),. similar limitations on sources 01 available energy arc bccoming a prime design consideration in e,'eryd.,y electric po ...erpr~smg P(>WN electronic. is entirel), devoted to ""'itched n,ooepoweTcon"crsillf1 .ndde.ls "'ilh modem problems in analySis, design an~ synthe~is ()Itlectro"ic~ircuitsasappliedtoelficient conver· sion. control. ~n~ regul.tion of eleclrical encrgy Design and optimization of dc-ro-dc CQnv~ners wlrichofiersthehigheslpow~refficiency,"mal1sile and weight, and high perfom,."ce arc alw induded inpowert.lectronics. These dc-tordc converteTs with isolation tnmsformcrscanh<l\'~multipleoU!pulsof"arious m.gnilude< ~nd pol~rilie", Regulaled power sup plyo/thi~type has wid~ applications, Darticularl), inco!1lpulersy:;tem.,""I~re;nlowvoltagehil!h"wl'C'!1 powersuppl)'w;th low output ripple and fa.t lrans;"n! response ore mandatory. In addition.

dlTs~lh. interval during which the transistor is tum"u on ~mllh~ diude io off and d2T5~th" interval during which the lran"islori" tumedoffandthediodeiso!! Besides, thecapilaiized4uanlilie'are ",'erlfor s(ead;'Slal~ v.lue""nd lh. quantities with dots for

FOg. I.

FIOwCf".<tOlcu",,,,tinjecl<od

.quiva"~oirc"itappro.ch

lomodelingSW~Ohi"9

do",oconve"erSin

CIC

m"".

< -c 1.Usingtheaboveapproxim.tion,nIr.I-nnear second.ordertennsareneglecloldtuubtainonce apin iinearsetofequation8. Thus, onty the ac part i.,..,lIlinedwhichdescribesthesmalisignallowfre· quency behavior of the converter. U$ingthesesct ofequations,tileinp!lttooutputandcontroltoout· put tnmsferf\lnc!ions (Box 5) n" ...Titten. Using the9aJTle set oiequations,an equivaientcin:uit (Box 6) is drawn wbich represenll! the input andourput ~mal!.ignallowfreq""ncyproperti~softlH-non· linear converter
ModelingofB\H:II,Boo8t .nd 8uekbooet COn ....

:I~:~,a;,.~::;: ~~g~I~~~~~ '::;,~(!,:c~;

inputsarevgandd,theperturhation;nt~two inpulScausetheperturbatiooiandv_Now,moke the small signal approximation, namely. the .maIl

0.0].

rt.'.

Fig.4.IAlBooe! O'On... rter_IB) IlnearequwalontOircuftmodsl

·Urn]
~ •• m.tl.lgn.II""'I'eq .... ncy

The current injected equivAlent circuit ap proachtomodelingmnveneTllreviewcdaboveis applied 10 buck. boosland buckbooSlcon"enern andlheimportamresullSi_~_,inpultO(lUlputand dut~ ratiotoOlltput tran<f~r funaiO<1sare P"'8entcd 310!11( with their small signal low frequency equivalent circuits (Figs. 3,.1 and 5)

8uckCOnv.rt.r v(s) vl/f.<} ~ CDI) 1+ I §!:_ .. S'LC R ;\~~ • (~) I +§!:_1+ R .91.C

1_

'WeIl
Fig.3.(AI6uckooovorter_IBjlto"",1IIo1vr)Oi!owlrequoncy 11 ... req"".lonicircuitmodol

V) m

2!:_ R(m}l

1 .. ....!i!::.._+.§2!}_ R({)2)' (1)2)'

• -0].
Fi9.5.(~)BuokboooslCOl1_.IB)~.tm"I.lgn"lDwfr quency " __ ivalentcifc"i,

The outpul of switching dc-t<Kk: converter is regui;lted by dosing the laopwith proper eompensalion nshown in Fig. 6. The tnn.fer functions fo<vanousbuiklinghlockllofsw;tchingreiUlator' are given below: For Voltagl D!vld.r Network
~K(>ay)

,rn.OJfH _I

£!!!j_a~
f;(s) Rl.R2 For Error Amplifier
~ t:(sJ

Z/
= -

...

"1M

=A(s)(say)

::(~

(~)_Grn(s)(>aY)

Now, lhe loop gain is given by

Gm(.,) Forthecon,utcrshown given by in Fig. 6,loopgain is

, ~(X.)(-'-)(-""-)-'-AM \D
\l+¥+::'~LC Rl+R2 Vm

wherein the open and closed loop measurements resul\$in!;amefrequencyre5ponse Becauseoftllese reason~.dosedloopfrequency response mp.asuremenl5 are preferred. Injection of a lest signal into the dosed loop enable, gain and phase measufements without opening the loop Closed Loop Frequency Response

Me •• urelTlllnh;

AllthedemerilSofopen \oop measurements are o~ercome by making the measurelMnts without openingtheloop.Consequ~ntly.themeasurements canbemadcinaverysmallamountoftillleCOI1l' p;1,ed to the open loop method. Thi~ method 01 makinl( loup g.in mea""r~menlS utili.cs the magnelic coupling eap.bilil)'o!th~ currenl probe ina!<SOCiation wilh a freqllency snur~e to insert a signal ioto Ihe fced· back loop (without ol"'ning it) b)' simply clipping itatanaDPropriateJlOint(wher~!hesignaliscon· fined 10" siogle palh) in Ihecir<;uit (Fij(. 81. The cUl"Tffill'robed""so<l(allcrlhcfccdt.lckloopsino;: it has very low outpul impedance. This is known as voltage injection, Altem~lely," fI,"'tin~acvolt· alre source. whose frequcncy can I1C~",ept Over a range, can be connected alany poinl in the fee<l hack 1"01' where the ,)"tpul impo:dKnc<:i~ ",ud, 1= than the input impedance. Thi" is k"own as Cur· rent injection (Fig. 9). Point of Injedlon Determlntltlon neilher

F'og,9.CIoosedIOOp!""Iu"""l'"""""""m"""",emon"uoingcu".ntOljec1iOO'l

If the injected signal-js to be effeclive.

Loop Gain end Phase Determination Let th~ injedio~ volt~!le (si~nal) he Y, r~suhing in a sil1nal voltage Y., at the input (fo, ward path), Y-.. passes through the power stage an<l tneerror amplifier and results ina voltage V. a" ~hvwn jn Fig. 8. The loop gain is V IV m pr".. ,'ided the inpUi and output impedances criten.. are met_ A1 low frequency. loop gain is high and V. is mucb higher than V .. _ The three voltages V ... Y•. V,l'nakesa ~e<:tortn..ngle(Fig_ 12,1.)_At high frequ;,ncy, loop gain i, normall)' I(>wand V.is much

Fig. 11. S>gnal i"joc~on

in

a ...

itohing regu""or wil~ m"lllpll fftdbad< 100",

G
Fog_12_V"""""'angIe5""m<tdbyl ... ltJ_"",gn~"""'m"""_1_0I'I""".fli"IJreguI ..orlA).'IowI,oquoone1
(6) at hi9h k&q""""y Ie) v~.oo V,are ma<!o equal by ",","",,1"0 .pp<op'ia1.1J'liil.1OfV~ on<! Vo

smalierthanV",,'\lIa;n,theseth...,..voltagesmake a vector triangie(Fig. 12B). The angle between V"and V,ca" "a9ily be de.ermim:d by using the geometrical relalionship. A$ the values of all the sides ar~ already known by measurement, the phase can be determi,,~'<i ea.~y. Me .. uretnentSet-up 1

The meaSUTement s.,,·up is shown in Fig. 13 wherein a Iel;! ~igrullal • given frequencydri'~s the nitchil\j! regulator and the. magnitude and phase of signa! B wilh respect toa signal A ,are 10 be determined. The""lwo"ignal"areprocessedthrough~dual channel oscilloscope preamplifier tha, provide. some gain control. The preamplifier output availablealth~""ci\loscopeverticalontputsocket is applied to a magnitude voltmeter. Using the .elector and jnvert switches, the magnitudes of signaf. A. B, A+ R or A_B ~re measured

('or better .ecura,,)' ofpha"e me"surem~ntl;. the preamp(ifier gains for signal Aand Beaobe different~uchlMttheirmagnitude$areequaL In tnisease. the plwle triangle isan isosceles triangl~ and a phase measurement becomes more accurate (Fig.12C) The equipment needed for the above measuremenl are oocilloocope and wave analy ...... The oscilloscope can be Tektronix 500 ""ries Or Tektronix 7000 series. ~-or measurements On ~witching regutalOrs. it is absolutely essential to have narrowband vollmeter to avoid the !mIlIll re.st signal being completely swarnped by the switching noi&e. Allhoughsuch voltmeters,," available, it is b<:Uer 10 use an instrument that combines an oodllalorandnarrowband\·oltrnet..,.;nsuchaway thatthev()ltmeternarrowbandfilterautnrn~iieally Iracksthe frequency of the oocillalQr. Such in.[rurnonls are Hewlett-Packard wave ,oaly.of'S 3(l2A, JII)A. 312A. 3590A aoo 3581A.

FoQ.

1.,

Experl"""'''''OlII-<Op,c_looplroq''''''''r'Gspon

..

"""","",m.","""amlcllingfllQul.tor

,.=.f.Ifij5tn
--0·.. •
"".~·I;

li.. J.

j_

€I

eo..,,...... n
An introduction to power electronics .and a re-

view o! modeling of switching converters. and regulators are presented. The need for making
measurements. to 8witchirlg The earfler regulators method extension of measurement method regulators have been briefly discussed. method used to open the loop fo-r carnave been briefly discussed. The earlier

rying out the measurement method w switching

used to open the loop for carrying 0111 the measurements with some practical pro-blems. These problems are overcome by making measurements without opening tne loop. Besides,

R" .... noel 1. (betty PRJ( 1981 IEEE TronsactUm, "" A~ ElEctrcmiu and Syt:1ems 17 \6) 2. M>ldlebrook RD and c.J< Slobodan 1976 IEEE Power Elcclnmu:s SPt'dalists Omfey~ 18-34. 3_ Hewlen-PackaraJournfJ./ 1963 JanuaryFebruary 5-8. 'I Hewlett-Packard APP/iaxl~1n Noli! No 59 1965

January.

5. Middlebrook RD 1975 lntematWnaljqunwl oj Elt.ctnmics 3S (4) 485-52L 6. Middlebrook RD 1976 b:lt~tnatWnal}(lurnal of Electronics 40 (1) 1-4.
7. Cherty vanced ?RK [1J'~ntal

loop gain and phase determination measurement set-ups art' described.

and two

Design of Su,.r."fcJung RegIllators

Technology

RefJOr'l <.l1:! Madillng (Sundsrrand Ulinol!;J,

and Ad-

Corporation, 1965 june 40·41.

8. Etectnmic Design

81

Chapter 4

computer Aided Design

SPICE·2 Introduction

CAD

PACKAGE

FOR

THE

DESIGN

OF SWITCHING

REGULATORS

An etflclent computer aided I.eclmiquc for the

design of switching regulators described here provides designers with great advantage for avoiding the- costly and time consuming In,,,1 and error laboratory practical approach. This computer aided

be properly frequency shaped. Zc determines the transient response. A lowe. vii-lui!of Z ami its
non-peaking nature results

in

best

tr.J~ent

re-

sponse. On the otherhand its peaking nature results MOWS its ability output.

higher

value

of Z~ and

in large overrundersbocta plus it takes more time to reach steadvstere. F

for closed loop regulator to pre-

design technique accelerates in analY2ing and evaluating the performance of switching regulators. The switching regulatOf'll. have gained best place in
the field of power electronics and have almost re-

vent tine vouage variations hom appearing in tbe Z, is important ill determining the modified regulator properties when an input filter is added
In the followlnK section
II

placed their dissipative linear counterparts because of the best performance advantages like small size,
higher nonlinear efficiency.
I

sv.ritching

regulator quan-

bas been

simulated

and the above

described

small

volume, techniques'

equal

rcli.abllity,

etc. Though

tneae regulators

are

inherently
in

die modeling

developed

titles of principal rntereat are predicted ll-no cornpared with practical measurements made in:!. Thi s type of computer aided design (CAD) ~ckage is
very useful Thus, Iheand bandy for power supply designers.

the past few years resulted in successfully producing a linear equivajent circuit model .... lid a1 low a frequency small signal level including input and

main goal of this paper is to show the

out-

put properties. The important quanti lies that arc of main concern. for the design of :switching regulators' are:

usefulness of SPICE·2 CAD package for the design of the switching regulators. Also SPICE-2 circuit analysis simulate package offers an easy approach to the switching regulators with the help of

presenny
frequency inherently

Z..,

He(s)

_
_

Low Input (ilter Output filter

pass filter characteristic

impedance impedance to nutput to of the low flII/l.&

available modeling approaches using I()\I.' small signallinear equivalent circuit Inr non-linear switching regulators

Z""

of the low pass transfer function function which are !he fouowof principal

S'mulatlon
For verification purposes a LO volt, 1 amp switching regulator drcuit~ as shown in Fig, 1 is simulated. This is a buck switching regulator operating at a frequency of 100 kHz and the rCSult~ will be compared with the pracrica! measurements Figure 2 gives the equivalent circuit ready for SPICE·2 input. Figure ::1 gives the SPICE inpu{i including eubcircuirs.

=, _ Input
v/d These ing quantities are

Control
open represent

output transfer

modified once the loop is closed,

interest in the de.sign and analysis regulators:

I!)OIl nuaetines Hence the properties

of [he s w;cching

T Z, Z~ '"
F

Loop gain and Phase Va frequency Dosed loop input impedance of the regulator

R .. utta
Loop
tOu9h and Response. 10"9£

to

LEX and CEX are set to perform an ac open loop

Closed loolJ output impedance of the regulator

Closed loop input fcncnon to Output transfer

analysis at the eloseo locp de oper(lliug point. This adjustment opens the loop for 3<::: analysis. Source VEX injects of the power in 1

vac

signal

at the duty ratio in put

stage,

The: loop gain is the voltage

Loop gain shall have enccgb

de gain and shall

the node 15. tile output (If control in Fig. 4 along with Middlebrook':">

Ie ano

at

is shown rneasuremcntr

64

VINPUT

RIN

CONTROL CIRCUIT

Fig. t. 10 \1'011. 1 1mp-:n"ilCf'lirJg rvguJalor-circuil.

The cross-over frequency and the phase margin match very well. Effect of Low Frequency Gain on De ReguJiltiod. CF a-ndRFcontrol [he low frequency gain once the input r·ui$tanco@ or the impedance is

fixed. Also note that the frequency of the "ZERO (lead)" depends upon CF and RF_ Effect on output voltage as a function of CF value is shown in Table 4·1. Output Impedance. Delete VEX and CEX.

RS

FkjJ.

2. Equ.......,,1

ci~LriI

Of

Fig'.

rNdy

tor

SPtCE-2

inp~.

85

&--l~D_~
lropu! Liglin9

1-C"D'• • 3 31

vz
7

==

V,

:l2

G,

~~ O"T I
• $IJBCKTSC,1524 -r",lIlUS lO,,",SUS

01 .. N.DJ~

:c

" " ,
vt,

vs

;, ::'c ~< i~C

,u~ , " anc , 00, , , :1 o , ltu o " ~2':

c r '''oaf'D'j

~L~~," :;;l~
"

~'l

. .~~:~ou
5
MI~4fU

I~

" '"

, ",n , os

'!.!tCl AC
O.(A5~.~I ..

"

"' " " '." ", ct " " " "c , .0 " " " " v. " " ain ox " "" ac o " os nc :~ " va " " oc • V. " "., e os
or
0'
0,

.. .. ..
0

..
1K

rS"".5US

ea

"
1...... O.QT

EP"J.SV

"

"

lS9P 0'

5MEG

GO D.

O'
VP

..
so
§1

..
n

0 0

DC

DC

S"

lO"

0 u 0 o

,G

DC D<

0.7
0.6

v.

'Mooe!

·Ench.SG.152-4

os "" "

"

DC

DC

O(.RS~.I)

D.

... S

us

• 5UBCl':T PWMxFM ,n .3Z RO 36() 1MEa FlO .J6 :33 0.1 'Cil 31 ,)2 POL'!' [2) 36 E2 3$ :l4 POLY 12) )! • EnC!!. PWM~FM \lAC EAC .~AC -OpUonl • OpliorJl 'OpllorJ~ 'OpI'O~' 51 61l 0 6,. II DC S 10 -1<1 -(I

.n

:104

~S

33

az

lS
35

0 0

, "

ee

:~~~J~,~m~~J. 1~~1
~~c
Tun
Trill'" • ?rinl

U$I A;EL.TOL,.1M ABSTOL..1U I"fLl=15Q IlL2=:50 ITl5= 1000 CH[;TOL.= 1Ll VOS(4)

..... NTOI. .. ru LvL TIM"" VP(14) I{'I"L) YDBlti) VP(6)

"P1ot

Tr.r1

1,'161
"'I Hi)

V(6)

V(U)!

10'(15)

V(14;

~lo'Sl

~en"
FiQ. 3, SPICE input lor F'9-

.~~

(: il\Cluding

'SYccircuits.

Add an ac voltage
SA, ac coupled
2:

NOSe) source as shown in Fig with a large capacitor' (eL,. ) .and zero voltage source VNAM, Figure 5B shows the open loop output admittance. As VOSC. IV, current through VNAM is the admittance LEX .. in mhos. For

dosed

in addition to lP. Now the current through VNAM is the closed loop output admittance in mhos. From the admittance, imloop output admatence.
VEX and CEX. change deleting pedance can be computed Figure 50 shows easily. SPICE Figure output' 5C shows of closed

predicted Vg measured closed loop output impedance.

~~ ,---------~~
\

loop admittance as it is. Input Impedance. An ac vonage S01.{l'Cf> (VOSC) is added in series with the existing input
de voltage jVS), A zero voltage a'S shown Delete ac source (VNAi\1) the

is: alae
input

added current.

in Fig. 6A to measure

VEX and CEX for open loop

\ \

,
OUtPut

a~

..
I:'

FIg.

SA. Addition

01 ac ¥OttaGO

source

10 me

~\

··,_---------I~JI

ttnicfo

Cf" \I'M... F)

Geh'I.1 1 Hlz O\IqXII: .. ~1Jw..d (de) (Volts)

~ 11i! 10 13.B823

o
0.0047 0.047 •1

".5
S ...

..... ..
e.sese

~
•

)
loop outPlIt aclminanc&

,
Fig. 58. Ope" Vs IreqlJ9ncy

87

."

Fill.

5C.

P~ICI.ed

Ind

1I18I1liI11KI

closed

loop

cctput

im.

ped.l:ilctl.

~I

J!
~~. Fig 50_ CIo!wId

'1-'
~~il -.~Fig. 69. Open
loop

input iodmittancil VI Il""EKIuefI¢)'.

...~ ..

....
"

-"':.~" ~ .~

loop

output admittance

VI

treqllfllncy.

lD

input admittance prediction. A~ VOSC",_ 1V. the current through the VN&\i is the input admittance in moos. Figure 68 shows the open loop input admittance (output of SP1CE;u; it ~s).Now the input impedance can be enmputed easily from input admittance, Figure 6C shows the vpen loolil1orrp1It impedance along with measured values. For closed loop input admittance in addition to deleting VEX and CEK, change LEX>=,IP. Now Fig. 6D shows tbe dosed loop inpul admlnance. Line-traol!Jmjs¥wn Cbaracrertstle, F, To predict line transmission characteristic, an ac voltage sOUT~e (VQSC) is added in series w-ith input de S8

:~,~::_~~ , "~;_J'~'
Fig. ec. PrlildiChilC1.rld ped.n~ e. mtIMuro8d Qpon loop Input 1m-

voltage sourc-e as shewn in Fig_ 7A. Delete VEX and CEX for open loop line transmission characteristic. F. As VOSC=lV, the voltage at node 6 give! the open loop line transmission characteristic and is shewn in Fig. 18. For closed loop line transmission characteristic in addition to

CD

®
Fig, 7A.

E-t,· ",
@ ~

Fiit. 7C. CIOMd iIXIp quenqr.

liM

tron.smiuion

oi'l!lfacl.r1,li(l VI

tre-

c,Jlc.---!IOLIrca

A<l4i1:lon 01

....

ac voltage

to

the

in~

"1===------

i F~. 78.
quen<y.

~c·--"~'-,~
,0)11 ~ ..:.:

, -\j

....

F.g_ Pre(lidlld I.ndm'''lJrK! c~ 70. aion c::r.ar6¢l11;$UC.

loop~rHI (ranlnl.... .

deleting VEX and CEX, change LEX", lP Now Fig. 7C shows the dosed loop line transmission characteristic of the SPICE output as it is. whereas Fig. 7D shows the predicted and measured closed loop line transmission characteristic. Ouput Load Step Response. Dctete VEX
V8

OJ)II.n ~

lin.

trANlmi

.. jon chAl'K1«1IUc

rr.

and CEX. Change

LEX=-lP_

Dejere "AC

'card

and

Insert "TRAN" and "Ie" cards. 89

• TRA N

IOU 6

lOOOU

OU 1U rc PWUO 0 IOU 0.2)

voltage voltage response dips by

Figure

SA shows

the output

to a step load or O.2A.

The

output

overshoots by 0.8% and s.eltles in microeec. Figure 8B shows the control voltage

L26%.

370
re-

sponse to a step of 0.595 increases

load.

The steadystate duty ratio

dips to 0.585 and set-

to 0.6316.

~ 1\

tles in 370 micrceec to a ee .....steadyarate value of 0.5974. VoJtage drops are proportional to current

and hence duty ratio has to increase by a small amount to meet new current demand. while
regulating vice-versa the output voltage at the same value. A will happen whc'tl the load decreases. is modified to achieve

:1\
•
.; Flg.

Now the compensation

·V'v
."

large bandwidth by using the control scheme shown jn Fig. 9A. Figure she .... the joop gain andphase -s

!:In

400

SOO

liDO

V$

frequency. margin than

[t bas a bandwidth of

of 10 kHz tue step

with of re

(.. s.cl

phase

45

degrees

and gain margin

ee.

Control \I'O~lage r"~n. 10 e Slop 10M

more

30 dB,

Figure

9C shows

sponse i.e., uodersbcot cf t.15%, overshoot of 1.1% and settles in 860 microsec. This indicates that although the bs ..nd w idth has increased. [he transient

response has not been improved. This is because

output impedance has a peak. In such a case, the system has to be damped. .Tbus, the response can be improved by damping the filter (Fig_ lOA) and Fig. tOB snows the step load response for damped

2[-

system. The undershoot is 0.94,%.

(J,6% and settles toad response in about has improved

the overshoot Thus

is

290 microsec. significantly.

the

_I~------------~

COr\clualon,
An efficient and higMy useful computer paper de-de aided which

---I
rj,

design simulates

has

been

presented

in this

the nrmlinear

switching'

converter

to study its properties of principal interest in the design of modem ~witch·moo~ power supplies, fOT detailed pT'~(:tical measurement of proper' tie-s-of switch mode de-de converter regulators, see

100

seo

300

.. 00

500

eoc
(.. """I

90

~,---------------,

~~.~---------------1

~!

oH +---t

Fig.

99_ Loop

Q8.1n

.rod

pM-A

v:II Ir~

Fig. 108, Sl(1P load

response

with

a damped

fI"I'.

the reference' _ Reference> dealt with switching regulator analysis whereas the present paper provided a Sf'ICE-2 CAD package to analyse and design the power supplies more efticientlv.

""f........
RilI- 91.'::. OiJ'tpul r89poflM pvnKlticn ootWOI1<

tv

II ~

lOad ","In.

mod~ed

C«I'I-

1. P.R.K Cheuy, "Modeling and Design of Switching Regulators,' IEEE Trnft3lJcUcms oj AIirfJ.~pace'/md Ekctnmic SYS!t'fflS, Vol·A.E5-1S. N~).3, May I~82. 2. R.D. Middlebrook. "Input Filter Considerations in Design and Applications of Switching Regulators", TEEE Industry Aplliic.aLlons Society Annual Meeting. 1976 Record. pp. 366-382. 3. Vim:ent Bello, "Computer Program adds SPICE to SW-t[cning Regulator Analy,~i"," Electronic Design. Ml1TCh 31,1981, lJ11. 8!'-~5. 4. P.R.K. Cheny, "Closed Loops-On Track for Testing Switchers." ElectrOnic Dt>siglt. July 7.
1983, pp. 135--140.

Fig. lOA. FiHar damping

Motwork.

91

Chapter 5

Practical Design Examples

DMIgn
vertet

of • 2.8 kW OII·Llne Swltche. lIsI~ M

PWM Pu.... Pull Con-

MleroproceNO...controlied M"l1Iph... o.dc

Dlwllal Shunt Hogu_r

S.If.OocHI.Ii~

lOS Hog"lator 118

LlnNr_~
Conwrtor _

ap.raIfon ot

Swltchl~ 12a

High Elflcltncy 127

fIIIproWnIe .... 10 Po,"'

Supplle. 128