Chart fundamentals

Whats a nautical chart?

A special-purpose map or book or a specially compiled database from which such a map or book is derived that is issued by or on the authority of a government, authorised hydrographic office or other relevant government institutions, and is designed to meet the requirements of marine navigation Shows: water depth, shoreline, topographic features, aids to navigation (buoys & lights), hazards to navigation (wrecks), other navigational information Work area: o Plots courses o Ascertains positions o Relationship of ship to surrounding area Assists in avoiding dangers & arriving safely CONTINUOUSLY CORRECTED Different forms o Paper charts Traditional British Admiralty: > 3000 paper charts Major activity: position plots at regular intervals o ARCS = Admiralty Raster Chart Services Digitally scanning of paper chart Displayed in ECDIS (= Electronic Charts Display Information Station) together with position derived from e.g. GPS No intelligence Same accuracy and reliability as paper chart o ENCs = Electronic Navigation Charts New navigation methodology Vector charts compiled from database Intelligent: systems can be set up to give warning of danger Only vector charts that may be used in place of paper charts

A little history of charts

Earliest maps: clay-maps from Babylon (3 500 years ago) Ancient Greeks developed geographic science and cartography 650 BC: Mediterranean = centre of world Twelfth century: charts created by mariners by plotting coastlines along constant compass bearings = portolan charts (no curvature of earth; network of direction lines (rhumbs); great deal of detail on coasts) Fifteenth century: means of sailing out of sight of land => 2 problems: longitude + projection on plane surface Sixteenth century: Mercator chart

Geographical coordinates
Earth is 3-dimensional => other coordinates than x- and y-axes Meridians (longitude + converge at poles) and parallels (latitude + parallel to each other) Great circles: all meridians + equator (divides earth in two exact halves) Small circles: remaining parallels Geodesy = branch of earth sciences or the scientific discipline that deal with the measurement and representation of the earth o Geoid: Reference surface for heights/depths Imaginary surface perpendicular to plumb line Coincides on average with mean sea level VERTICAL DATUM o Ellipsoid Reference surface for locations HORIZONTAL DATUM

Chart projections
Introduction Different types Desirable properties of projection: o True shape of physical features o Correct angular relationship (= conformal / orthomorphic) o Areas in correct relative proportions o Constant scale values o Great circles as straight lines o Rhumb lines as straight lines Some are mutually exclusive

Types of projections Type of developable surface determines classification Further classification depends on centre Name indicates type and principal features

Cylindrical projections Mercator projection Cylinder around earth, tangent along equator & planes of meridians extended Lines of projection equidistant from each other (meridians are parallel) Parallels perpendicular to meridians and of same diameter DISTORTION (bigger near to poles) Meridional parts: o At equator: degree of longitude = degree of latitude o As distance increases: degrees of latitude the same, degrees of longitude shorter o On Mercator: degrees of longitude the same => increase length of meridians o Distance must be increased by same amount the actual length of parallel has been extended o Expansion = secant of latitude => e . sec l = g OR increased meridian length = latitude x sec latitude o New length of meridians is called meridional parts (lc) & expressed in minutes Disadvantages Mercator projection o Projection cannot include poles o Great circle tracks = curved lines o Small areas in correct shape but increased in size Advantages Mercator projection o Conformal, expansion same in all directions & angles are true o Direction measured directly o Distances measured directly o Rhumb lines (= lines of constant heading) = straight lines Transverse Mercator projection Cylinder tangent along meridian Tangent great circle is fictitious equator Actual meridians and parallels appear as curved lines Straight line same angle with fictitious meridians, not with terrestrial meridians Used for representing small area in exact shape Star charts Oblique Mercator projection Cylinder tangent along great circle other than equator or meridian Depict are near vicinity of great circle Rectangular projection Uniform spacing of parallel Where distortion is not important Star chart

Conic projections Simple conic projection Single tangent cone Meridians as straight lines converging toward nearer pole Standard parallel (tangent to cone) as arc of circle with centre in apex of cone Other parallels concentric circles Distance along meridian between consecutive parallels is in correct relation with distance on earth Circle represents pole Scale is correct along any meridian and standard parallel Other parallels too long NOT CONFORMAL Mapping area with large spread of longitude and narrow band of latitude Lambert conformal projection Secant cone intersecting at 2 standard parallels => increases useful latitude Area between standard parallels = compressed, beyond = expanded Spacing of parallels altered => distortion same among parallels as meridians => CONFORMAL Great circle = very approximately straight line Aeronautical charts & polar region Polyconic projection Series of cones Each parallel base of tangent cone Scale correct along any parallel & central meridian Other meridian: scale increases Parallels as non-concentric circles, meridians as curved lines converging to pole Used in atlases NOT CONFORMAL Azimuthal projections Points projected directly Bearing of any point from point of tangency is correct Simplest case: plane tangent at one pole, meridians straight lines, parallels concentric circles Gnomonic projection Plane tangent to earth Points projected geometrically from centre When oblique o Meridians as straight lines converging to nearer pole o Parallels except equator as curves o Distance scale changes rapidly o NOT CONFORMAL NOR EQUAL AREA Distortion very great Any great circle as straight line Ocean passages!

Stereographic projection Tangent plane Projection from point on surface opposite to point of tangency Scale increases, but more slowly Entire hemisphere without excessive distortion Great circles through point of tangency as straight lines, others as circles or arcs of it Polar region Orthographic projection Projection from infinity to tangent plane NOT CONFORMAL NOR EQUAL AREA Used in navigational astronomy Useful illustrating and solving navigational triangle Equator and parallels appear as straight lines (if plane is tangent at point on equator) Meridians as ellipses, except through point of tangency Azimuthal equidistant projection An azimuthal equidistant projection is an azimuthal projection in which the distance scale along any great circle through the point of tangency is constant If pole point of tangency => meridians as straight lines & parallels equally spaced concentric circles Other point => concentric circles represent distances from point, meridians & parallels as curves NOT CONFORMAL NOR EQUAL AREA Entire earth can be shown Used for star finder Polar projections Principal considerations o Conformality (angles shown correctly) o Great circle representation (great circles as straight lines, more useful at high latitudes) o Scale variation (constant scale) o Meridian representation (straight meridians) o Limits (small area) Modified Lambert conformal projection o Parallel very near pole as higher standard parallel o Little stretching to complete circle of parallels o Nearly conformal o Great circle almost a straight line o Scale distortion little if carried out about 25 or 30 Polar stereographic projection o Conformal o Straight line closely approximates a great circle o Scale distortion not excessive but greater than modified Lambert conformal projcetion

Syntax Mercator projection Advantages Conformal Constant scale Rhumb lines as straight lines Positions can be read Gnomonic projection Advantages Great circles as straight lines Azimuth is the same Polar stereographic projection Advantages Conformal Great circles as straight lines Keeps azimuth Constant scale Meridians as straight lines Daily navigation Disadvantages Great circle track as curved lines No poles No equal area Crossing oceans / passage planning Disadvantages Not conformal Not equal area No constant scale Rhumb lines as curved lines Polar navigation Disadvantages Rhumb lines as curved lines Distortion

Chart information
Chart scales
Scale is ratio of a given distance on the chart to the actual distance, which it represents on the earth Small-scale chart: large area, for route planning & offshore navigation Large-scale chart: small area, used as vessel approaches land British Admiralty classification o Sailing charts Smallest scale Planning, fixing position at sea, plotting dead reckoning on long voyage < 1:600,000 Shoreline and topography generalized Shown: offshore soundings, principal navigational lights, outer buoys and landmarks visible at considerable distance o General charts Coastwise navigation outside of outlying reefs and shoals Between 1:150,000 & 1:600,000 o Coastal charts Inshore coastwise navigation, entering and leaving bays & harbours of considerable width, navigating large inland waterways

 Between 1:50,000 & 1:150,000 o Harbour charts Navigation and anchorage in harbours & small waterways > 1:50,000

Factors relating to accuracy

Accuracy depends upon accuracy hydrographic surveys Source notes given in the title refer to those surveys Based upon very old surveys => caution Number of soundings and their spacing indicates completeness of survey NAVIGATOR SHOULD USE THE LARGEST SCALE CHART AVAILABLE FOR THE AREA IN WHICH HE IS OPERATING, ESPECIALLY WHEN OPERATING IN THE VICINITY OF HAZARDS

Colours
At least 4 colours, other colours may be used for buoys and indicating light sectors o Pale gold: land areas on metric Mercator chart o Darker gold: more urban areas o Grey: land areas on fathom chart o Black: most symbols, printed information (title block, chart number ) & all borders o Magenta: multi-use colour because shows well under red light, attracting attention (routeing measures, safety zones, ice limits, compass roses, lights and light ranges, radio reporting points, caution notes) o Blue: water areas => how darker the blue, how shallower the water o Green: drying heights

Soundings Drying heights Heights Title block Information in the chart Chart symbols

Plotting and piloting

Introduction Dead reckoning Lines of position The position fix Chart principles Running fix The estimated position Relative bearing Danger bearing Turn bearing Double angle fix Four-point fix Special angle fix

Tides and currents

Origin of the tides Chart datums Tides and tidal predictions
Information from the chart Information from tide tables Information from tidal curves

Tidal stream versus current

Tidal streams Currents

Co-tidal / co-range charts