Differentiate between IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4: Addresses are 32 bits in length and provides a maximum of 232 addresses. IPv6: Addresses are 128 bits in length and provides a maximum of 2128 addresses. IPv4: Notations used are binary and dotted decimal notation. Eg: 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010 (Binary notation) 117.149.29.2 (Dotted decimal notation) - 4 byte address Each byte is one octet, ranges from 0 to 255. IPv6: Notations used is Hexadecimal colon notation. Eg: 11 11 11 01 11 10 11 00 128 bits are divided into 8 sections. Each 2 bytes in length. 2 bytes in hexadecimal notation requires 4 hexadecimal digits separated colon FDEC : 0074 : 0000 : 0000 : 0000 : B0FF : 0000 : FFFF

Write short notes on flooding technique.

In Flooding, a router receives a packet and without even looking at the destination address sends it out to all the other nodes except from the one it was received. This is a broadcast and not a multicast. The problem with flooding is that it creates loops. (A packet that has left the router may come back again from another node to the same node and be forwarded again). Some protocols keep a copy of the packet for a while and discard any duplicates to avoid loops.

Explain any routing algorithm in brief.

a.) Distance vector routing algorithm/ Bellman Ford algorithm: In this, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum distance. As the name implies, each node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distances to every other node. The table at each node also guides the packets to the desired node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).

b.) Link state routing algorithm: Each node in the domain has the entire topology of the domain. The list of nodes and links, how they are connected including the type, cost(metric) and condition of the links. The node can use Dijkstras algorithm to build a routing table. This routing table changes dynamically as the topology changes.

Explain Jitter Control.

For applications such as audio and video streaming it does not matter if the packets take 20msec or 30msec to be delivered, as long as the transit time is constant. But if it takes more time than this it will give an uneven quality to the sound or movie. This delay in packets arrival time is called JITTER.

a.) High jitter b.) Low Jitter.

What is peer-to-peer Network?

In peer-to-peer networks the nodes are connected through permanent wired connections to the internet through which the resources can be shared. Peer-to-peer systems are totally distributed. All nodes are symmetric and there is no central control. Each file has an ASCII string name, the user to access this file should know this ASCII string name and the IP address where it is present.

Example of transfer protocols.

a.) HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol. This used to enable communication between client and the server. HTTP is an application layer protocol.
b.) FTP: File Transfer Protocol. This is used to transfer file from one host to another host

over the TCP based network. FTP is an application layer protocol. c.) NCP: Netware Core Protocol. This protocol is used in the products of Novell, Inc. It is used to access file, print, directory, clock synchronization, messaging, remote command execution and other network service functions. It is a session layer protocol. d.) ARP: Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to associate a logical address with a physical address. It is a data link layer protocol.
e.) RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. It allows a host to discover its internet

address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted. f.) ICMP:Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages. It is a Network Layer Protocol. g.) IGMP: Internet Group Message Protocol. It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients. It is a Network Layer Protocol. h.) Telnet: is used on Internet or LAN to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection. i.) NNTP : Net New Transfer Protocol. It is a TCP/IP protocol used to transfer articles between servers as well as to read and post articles. It is an application layer protocol. j.) SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is an internet standard for electronic mail transmission across the Internet Protocol Networks. SMTP is used only for sending messages and POP/IMAP is used for receiving the messages.

What is congestion ?

When too many packets are present in the subnet, performance degrades. This situation is called CONGESTION. If all of a sudden, streams of packets begin arriving on 3 or 4 input lines and all need the same output line, a queue will be formed. If there is insufficient memory to hold all of them, packets will be lost.

Explain Internet Multicasting.

For multicasting in the Internet we need routers that are able to route multicast packets. The routing tables of these routers must be updated by using one of the multicast routing protocols. IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that manages group membership. The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information about the membership status of hosts (routers) connected to the network. IGMP helps the multicast router create and update a list of groups in the network for which there is at least one loyal member.

What is crash Recovery?

If hosts and routers are subject to crashes, recovery from these crashes becomes an issue. If the transport entity is entirely within the hosts, recovery from network and router crashes is straightforward. If the network layer provides datagram service, the transport entities expect lost TPDUs all the time and know how to cope with them. If the network layer provides connectionoriented service, then loss of a virtual circuit is handled by establishing a new one and then probing the remote transport entity to ask it which TPDUs it has received and which ones it has not received. The latter ones can be retransmitted.

What is TCP Timer Management?

TCP uses multiple timers.
a.)

Retransmission timer: When a segment is sent, a retransmission timer is started. If the segment is acknowledged before the timer expires, the timer is stopped. If, on the other hand, the timer goes off before the acknowledgement comes in, the segment is retransmitted. Persistence timer: It is designed to prevent the following deadlock. The receiver sends an acknowledgement with a window size of 0, telling the sender to wait. Later, the receiver updates the window, but the packet with the update is lost. Now both the sender and the receiver are waiting for each other to do something. When the persistence timer goes off, the sender transmits a probe to the receiver. The response to the probe gives the window size. If it is still zero, the persistence timer is set again and the cycle repeats. If it is nonzero, data can now be sent. Keepalive timer: When a connection has been idle for a long time, the keepalive timer may go off to cause one side to check whether the other side is still there. If it fails to respond, the connection is terminated. The last timer used on each TCP connection is the one used in the TIMED WAIT state while closing. It runs for twice the maximum packet lifetime to make sure that when a connection is closed, all packets created by it have died off.

b.)

c.)

d.)

What is multi protocol router?

In the network layer, we have routers that can connect two networks. If two networks have dissimilar network layers, the router may be able to translate between the packet formats, although packet translation is now increasingly rare. A router that can handle multiple protocols is called a multiprotocol router.

What is Tunnelling?
Tunneling is a strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to communicate with each other and the packet must pass through a region that uses IPv4. To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address. So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters the region, and it leaves its capsule when it exits the region. It seems as if the IPv6 packet goes through a tunnel at one end and emerges at the other end.

What are subnets?

A portion of a network that shares a common address component. On TCP/IP networks, subnets are defined as all devices whose IP addresses\ have the same prefix. For example, all devices with IP addresses that start with 100.100.100. would be part of the same subnet. Dividing a network into subnets is useful for both security and performance reasons. IP networks are divided using a subnet mask.

What is ARP?
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.

List the elements of Transport protocol?

Addressing Connection Establishment Connection Release Flow Control and Buffering Multiplexing Crash Recovery

What is upward and downward multiplexing?

In the transport layer the need for multiplexing can arise in a number of ways. For example, if only one network address is available on a host, all transport connections on that machine have to use it. When a TPDU comes in, some way is needed to tell which process to give it to. This situation, called upward multiplexing

(a) Upward multiplexing. (b) Downward multiplexing. Multiplexing can also be useful in the transport layer for another reason. Suppose, for example, that a subnet uses virtual circuits internally and imposes a maximum data rate on each one. If a user needs more bandwidth than one virtual circuit can provide, a way out is to open multiple network connections and distribute the traffic among them on a round-robin basis. This modus operandi is called downward multiplexing.

Define in one sentence.

a)

Adaptive Algorithm : change their routing decisions to reflect changes in the topology,
and usually the traffic as well. Adaptive algorithms differ in where they get their information (e.g., locally, from adjacent routers, or from all routers), when they change the routes, and what metric is used for optimization. These are called dynamic routing.

b)

Non Adaptive Algorithm : do not base their routing decisions on measurements or

estimates of the current traffic and topology. Instead, the choice of the route to use to get from I to J (for all I and J) is computed in advance, off-line, and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted. This procedure is sometimes called static routing.

Name any five well known ports used with UDP? PORT 7 8 11 13 17 PROTOCOL Echo Discard Users Daytime Quote DESCRIPTION Echoes a received datagram back to the sender. Discards any datagram that is received. Active users. Returns the date and the time. Returns a quote of the day.

19 53 67 68 69 111 123 161 162

Chargen Nameserver BOOTPs BOOTPc TFTP RPC NTP SNMP SNMP

Returns a string of characters. Domain Name Service Server port to download boostrap information. Client port to download bootsrap information. Trivial File Transfer Protocol Remote Procedure Call Network Time Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol(trap)

Name any five well known ports used with TCP? PORT 7 9 11 13 17 19 20 21 23 25 53
67

PROTOCOL Echo Discard Users Daytime Quote Chargen FIP, Data FIP, Control TELNET SMTP DNS
BOOTP

DESCRIPTION Echoes a received datagram back to the sender. Discards any datagram that is received. Active users. Returns the date and the time. Returns a quote of the day. Returns a string of characters. File Transfer Protocol (data connection) File Transfer Protocol (control connection) Tenninal Network Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Domain Name Service
Bootstrap Protocol

79

Finger

Finger

80 111

HTTP RPC

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Remote Procedure Call

List out the techniques for achieving the good quality of network services.
Overprovisioning Buffering Traffic Shaping The Leaky Bucket Algorithm The Token Bucket Algorithm Resource Reservation Admission Control Proportional Routing Packet Scheduling

Define session routing and forwarding.

The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer software responsible for deciding which output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on. If the subnet uses datagrams internally, this decision must be made anew for every arriving data packet since the best route may have changed since last time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing decisions are made only when a new virtual circuit is being set up. Thereafter, data packets just follow the previously-established route. The latter case is sometimes called session routing because a route remains in force for an entire user session (e.g., a login session at a terminal or a file transfer). It is sometimes useful to make a distinction between routing, which is making the decision which routes to use, and forwarding, which is what happens when a packet arrives. One can think of a router as having two processes inside it. One of them handles each packet as it arrives, looking up the outgoing line to use for it in the routing tables. This process is forwarding. The other process is responsible for filling in and updating the routing tables.

Expand

IGMP: The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a communications protocol used by hosts and adjacent routers on IP networks to establish multicast group memberships. IPX: Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) is the OSI-model Network layer protocol in the IPX/SPX protocol stack.The IPX/SPXM protocol stack is supported by Novell's

NetWare network operating system. Because of Netware's popularity through the late 1980s into the mid 1990s, IPX became a popular internetworking protocol. Novell derived IPX from Xerox Network Systems' IDP protocol. But IPX was not scalable enough for large networks such as the internet. ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages. It is a Network Layer Protocol. MPLS :

What are the major differences between TCP and UDP?

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
1) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection oriented protocol, which means the devices should open a connection before transmitting data and should close the connection gracefully after transmitting the data. 2) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) assure reliable delivery of data to the destination. 3) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocol provides extensive error checking mechanisms such as flow control and acknowledgment of data. 4) Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). 5) Delivery of data is guaranteed if you are using Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). 6) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is comparatively slow because of these extensive error checking mechanisms 7) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is possible in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) using TCP port numbers. 8) Retransmission of lost packets is possible in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

1) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is Datagram oriented protocol with no overhead for opening, maintaining, and closing a connection. 2) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is efficient for broadcast/multicast transmission. 3) User Datagram protocol (UDP) has only the basic error checking mechanism using checksums. 4) There is no sequencing of data in User Datagram protocol (UDP) . 5) The delivery of data cannot be guaranteed in User Datagram protocol (UDP) .

6) User Datagram protocol (UDP) is faster, simpler and more efficient than TCP. However, User Datagram protocol (UDP) it is less robust then TCP 7) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is possible in User Datagram Protcol (UDP) using UDP port numbers. 8) There is no retransmission of lost packets in User Datagram Protcol (UDP).

Explain the purpose of ARP.

We need protocols to create a mapping between physical and logical addresses. IP packets use logical (host-to-host) addresses. These packets, however, need to be encapsulated in a frame, which needs physical addresses (node-to-node). A protocol called ARP, the Address Resolution Protocol, is designed for this purpose.

Explain the difference between congestion control and flow control.

Congestion control has to do with making sure the subnet is able to carry the offered traffic. It is a global issue, involving the behaviour of all the hosts, all the routers, the store-and-forwarding processing within the routers, and all the other factors that tend to diminish the carrying capacity of the subnet. Flow control, in contrast, relates to the point-to-point traffic between a given sender and a given receiver. Its job is to make sure that a fast sender cannot continually transmit data faster than the receiver is able to absorb it. Flow control frequently involves some direct feedback from the receiver to the sender to tell the sender how things are doing at the other end.

Name all the layers of TCP/IP

The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.

Explain the difference between ARP and RARP

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known. The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or when a diskless computer is booted.

Describe Internetworking.
The main purpose of internetworking is to interconnect different types of networks that allow the users of different networks to communicate and access the data from any of them.

NNTP stands for Network News Transfer Protocol and works in Application layer.

What are performance criteria of routing algorithm?

Correctness Simplicity Robustness Stability Fairness Optimality

Significance of choke packet in congestion detection and recovery.

A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of congestion. The warning is from the router, which has encountered congestion, to the source station directly.

Write down 4 supporting protocols of internetworking protocol.

TCP/IP defines 3 protocols at Transport Layer TCP: Transmission Control Protocol. UDP: User Datagram Protocol SCTP : Stream Control Transmission Protocol

At the Network Layer TCP/IP supports internetworking protocol (IP). IP in turn uses 4 protocols ARP: Address Resolution Protocol. RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol IGMP: Internet Group Message Protocol.

What are the uses of UDP?

The following lists some uses of the UDP protocol:

UDP is suitable for a process that requires simple request-response communication with little concern for flow and error control. It is not usually used for a process that needs to send bulk data. UDP is suitable for a process with internal flow and error control mechanisms. For example, the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) process includes flow and error control. It can easily use UDP.

UDP is a suitable transport protocol for multicasting. Multicasting capability is embedded in the UDP software but not in the TCP software. UDP is used for management processes such as SNMP UDP is used for some route updating protocols such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Convert the IP address whose hexadecimal representation is C22F1582 to dotted decimal notation.
C2 194 2F 47 15 21 82 130 The dotted decimal notation is 194.47.21.130

What is the role of network layer in Internet?

The role of network layer in the Internet is to provide best-efforts to transport datagrams from source to destination, without regard to whether these machines are on the same network or whether there are other networks in between them.

UDP is a Connectionless oriented protocol. Explain about Label Switching.

In Label switching, a label is added in front of each packet and the routing is based on the label rather than on the destination address.

Explain MPLS.
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) is a mechanism I high-performance telecommunication networks that directs data from one network node to the next base on short path labels.

In a block of address, we know the address of one host is 25.34.12.56/16 a) What is the network address in this block? b) What is the cast address? c) What is the number of addresses in this block?
a.) First/Network address: Convert the host value to binary 25.34.12.56 00011001 00100010 00001100 00111000

Set the rightmost 32-n bits to 0. Here n=16

32-16= 16 00011001 00100010 00000000 00000000

Convert it to decimal value 25.34.0.0

b.) Last/Cast address: Convert the host value to binary 25.34.12.56 00011001 00100010 00001100 00111000

Set the rightmost 32-n bits to 1. Here n=16 32-16= 16 00011001 00100010 11111111 11111111

Convert it to decimal value. 25.34.255.255

c.) Number of addresses in the block: Find the difference between the first address and the last address or use the formula 232-n

232-16 = 216 = 65536.

Find the class of the following IP address. a.) 11110111 11110011 10000111 11011101 b.) 10101111 11000000 11110000 00011101 c.) 11011111 10110000 00011111 01011101
Check the first bits of the first byte. If it begins with 0 If it begins with 10 Class A Class B Class C Class D

If it begins with 110 If it begins with 1110 -

If it begins with 1111 -

Class E

a.) Class E b.) Class B c.) Class C