Pneumatic Systems

Operation, maintenance, troubleshooting

Prolific Systems & Technologies Pvt Ltd

PNEUMATICS
Pneumatics is the system of fluid power that transmits and controls energy through the use of pressurised gas. Fluid power: the transmission of force by the movement of a fluid. Why Automation Is Required? In order to increase the productivity, industries are spending more and more on automation. This can be accomplished by: Speed up of production process Material handling Manufacturing processes Safety of Personnel

Fluid Power:
The fluid power is a backbone of automation. It offers the following advantages: With the application of smaller force at one point within the system, a force of several hundred tonnes can be produced at some other location efficiently. With the use of simple levers and knobs the fluid power system can be started, stopped, speed up, slow down the operations easily and accurately. The fluid power system provides a constant torque or force irrespective of the change in the speed.

What Can Pneumatics Do? The applications for compressed air are limitless. Operation of system valves for air, water or chemicals. Operation of heavy or hot doors. Crop spraying and operation of other tractor equipments. Lifting and moving in slab moulding machine. Spray painting. Soft welding machines Riveting Bottling and filling machines Wood working machinery drives and feeds Test rigs Machine tool, work or tool feeding Components and material conveyor transfer Pneumatic robots Vacuum lifting of thin sheets Dental drills And much more

Properties of Compressed Air:

Some important reasons for the wild use of compressed air in industry are: Availability: Most factories and industrial plants have a compressed air supply in working areas and portable compressors can serve more remote situations. Storage: It is easily stored in large volumes if required. Simplicity of design of control: Pneumatic components are of simple design and are easily fitted to provide extensive automated systems with comparatively simple control. Choice of movement: It offers both linear movement and angular rotation with simple and continuously variable operational speeds. Economy: Installation is of relatively low cost due to modest component cost. There is also a low maintenance cost due to long life without service. Reliability: Pneumatic components have a long working life resulting In high system reliability. Environmentally clean: It is clean and with proper exhaust air treatment
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and can be installed to clean room standards. Safety: It is not a fire hazard in high-risk areas and the system is unaffected by overload as actuators simply stall or slip. Pneumatic actuators do not produce heat.

The Basic Pneumatic System:

Basic pneumatic system consists of two main sections. The air production and distribution system The air consuming system

The Pneumatic System:

The system uses the compressed air as working fluid. An air compressor can be driven by IC engine or electric motor, sucks an air from the atmosphere and compresses it to high pressure (more than the atmospheric pressure). The compressed air is supplied through a pipe to the cylinder via Filter, Regulator, lubricator and DC valves.

Air Production System:

Compressor: Air taken in at atmospheric pressure is compressed and delivered at high pressure to the pneumatic system. It transforms mechanical energy into pneumatic energy Electric motor: Supplies the mechanical power to the compressor. It transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy Pressure switch: Controls the electric motor by sensing the pressure into the tank. It is set to a max pressure at which it stops the motor and min pressure at which it restarts the electric motor. Check valve: Lets the compressed air from the compressor into the tank and prevents it leaking back when the compressor is stopped. Tank: Stores the compressed air. Its size is defined by the capacity of the compressor. The larger the volume the longer the intervals between compressor runs. Pressure gauge: Pressure gauge indicates the tank pressure. Auto drain: Drains all the water condensed in the tank without supervision.

The Air Consuming System:

Air take-off: For consumption, the air is taken off from the top of the main pipe to allow occasional condensate to stay in the line, when it reaches a low point a water from beneath the pipe will flow in to an automatic drain and the condensate will be removed. Auto drain: Every descending tube should have a drain at its lowest point. The most efficient method is an auto drain, which prevents water from remaining in the tube. Air service unit: Conditions the compressed air to provide clean air at optimum pressure and occasionally adds lubricants to increase the life of all those components that need lubrication.
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Directional valve: Alternately exhausts cylinder connection to control the direction of movement. Actuator: Transfers the potential energy of the compressed air into mechanical work. Speed controllers: Allows an easy and step less speed adjustment of the actuator movement.

Non metric units:

Magnitude Mass Length Metric unit (m) Kg g M M Mm English (e) pound ounce foot yard inch F sq. ft sq. inch cu. yard cu.inch cu. ft Factor M e 2.205 0.03527 3.281 1.094 0.03937 Factor e M 0.4535 28.3527 0.3048 0.914 25.4

Temperature C Area, section Volume m cm m cm dm

1.8 C +32 (F 32)/1.8 10.76 0.155 1.308 0.06102 0.03531 35.31 0.03531 0.2248 14.5 0.0929 6.4516 0.7645 16.388 28.32 0.02832 28.32 4.4484 0.06895

Volume flow Force pressure

mn/min scfm dmn /min scfm (l/min) N pound force (lbf) bar lbf.sq.inch (psi)

Startin g Unit Pascal Dyne/c m2 Bar Psi

Pasc al 1 0.1 105

Dyne/c m2 10 1 106 6.89 104 9.81 105 2.49 103 1.333 103

Bar 10-5 10-6 1 x 6.89 x 10-2 x 0.981 x 2.49 x 10-3 x 1.333 x 10-3

Psi

6.89 x 103 Kgf/cm2 9.81 x 104 Inch of 2.49 x H2O 102 Mm of 1.333 Hg x 102

Inch of H2O 1.45 x 1.02 x 4.02 10-4 10-5 x10 -3 1.45 1.02 x 4.02 x x10-5 10-6 10-4 14.5 1.02 4.02 x 10-2 1 7.03 x 27.67 10-2 14.22 1 3.293 7 x 10 3.61 x 2.54 x 1 10-2 10-3 0.019 1.359 0.535 -3 34 x 10 2

Kgf/c m2

Mm of Hg 7.5 x10-3 7.5 x10-4 7.5 x 102 51.75 1 7.356 x 102 1.868 1

Conversion of Pressure:

Air Compressor: A compressor converts the mechanical energy of an electric motor into the potential energy of compressed air.

Air compressors:
Reciprocating Piston Single stage Double stage Diaphragm Rotary Vane Screw

Single Stage Piston Compressor:

Two Stage Piston Compressor:

Air is taken in at atmospheric pressure is compressed in two stages to the final pressure. The first stage normally compresses the air to approximately 3 bar, after which it is cooled. The cooled air is fed into the second stage cylinder, which compresses it to 7bar. The compressed air enters the second stage cylinder at greatly reduced temperature after passing through the intercooler, thus improving the efficiency compared to that of a single stage unit.

Diaphragm Compressor:

The diaphragm provides a change in the chamber volume. This allows the air intake in the down stroke and compression in the up stroke. Diaphragm compressor provides compressed air in the 3-5 bar range totally free of oil and are therefore widely used by food, pharmaceutical and similar industries.

Vane Compressor (Rotary):

This is an eccentrically mounted rotor having a series of vanes sliding in various slots. As the rotor rotates centrifugal force holds the vanes in contact with the stator wall and the space between the adjacent blades decreases from the air inlet to outlet, so compressing the air. Provides pulse
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free delivery.

Screw Compressor:

Two meshing helical rotors rotate in opposite directions. The free space between them decreases axially in volume and this compresses the air trapped between the rotors. Oil flooding provides the lubrication and sealing between the two rotating rotors. Oil separator removes this oil from outlet air. Flow rate: 400 m3/min. pressure: 10 bar can be obtained

Compressor Rating:
The compressor capacity or output is stated as Standard Volume Flow, given in m3/s, or /min, dm3/s or litres/min. the capacity may also be described as displaced volume or theoretical intake volume. For a piston compressor it is based on: Q (l/min) = piston area in dm2 X stroke length in dm X No. Of first stage cylinders X rpm. In case of two stage cylinders only the first stage cylinder should be considered. The effective delivery is always less due to volumetric and thermal losses.

Volumetric Efficiency:
The ratio of free air delivered and displacement is known as volumetric efficiency and will vary with the size, type and make of the machine, number of stages and final pressure The volumetric efficiency of a two stage compressor is less than that of a single stage type as both first and second stage cylinders have dead
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volumes.

Thermal and Overall Efficiency:

Total Efficiency

90 80 70 60 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Final Pressure

A compressor, working at almost full capacity accumulates great heat and loses efficiency. In a two-stage compressor, the compression ratio per stage is less and the air, partially compressed in a first stage cylinder is cooled in an inter-cooler before compression to final pressure in a second cylinder. As an average figure, it can be assumed that 1KW of electrical energy is needed for the production of 120 150 l/min for a working pressure of 7 bar (Single Stage; Two Stage)

Compressor Accessories: Air Receiver:

Its main function is to store sufficient air to meet temporary heavy demands in excess of compressor capacity and minimise frequent loading and unloading of the compressor. The vessel should be fitted with a safety valve, pressure gauge, drain and inspection covers for checking and cleaning inside. The receivers are sized according to compressor output, size of the system and constant or variable demands. Electrically driven compressors in industrial plants, supply a network and are automatically switched on/off frequently this needs certain minimum receiver volume to avoid such frequent switching. Mobile compressor with combustion engine is not stopped when a maximum pressure is reached. These are fitted with relief valves.
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Air Receiver Sizing:

For industrial plants, the rule of thumb for the size of the reservoir is: Air receiver capacity = compressor output of compressed air per min. (Not free air delivery) Ex: compressor delivery = 18 m3/min, average line pressure = 7bar. Therefore compressed air output per minute = 18000/7 = 2500 lit approx. A tank with a volume of 2750 lit is probably be an available and convenient size.

Air Filters:
A typical city atmosphere may contain 40 million solid particles (dust, dirt or pollen) per m3. If this air is compressed to 7 bar, the concentration would be 320 million parts/m3. An important condition for reliability and durability of a compressor is that it must be provided with suitable and efficient filters to prevent excessive wear of cylinders, pistons rings etc, which is caused mainly by the abrasive effect of these impurities. The filter must not be too fine as the compressor efficiency decreases due to high resistance to airflow, and so every small particles (2-5) cannot be removed. To remove the moisture, air must be dehydrated.

Air Dehydration: After-coolers:

After final compression the air will be hot and when cooled, will deposit water in considerable quantities in the airline systems, which would be avoided. The most effective way to remove the major part of this condensate is to subject the air to after-cooling, immediately after compression. After-coolers are heat exchangers, being either air-cooled or water-cooled.

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Air Dryers:
After coolers cool the air to within 10-150C of the cooling medium. The drying of the air is lowering its dew point that is the temperature at which the air is fully saturated with moisture (100% humidity). The lower the dew point, the less moisture remains in the air. There are three main types of air dryers Absorption Adsorption Refrigeration

Absorption (Deliquescent) Dryer

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The compressed air is forced through a drying agent such as dehydrated chalk or magnesium chloride, which remains in solid form lithium chloride or calcium chloride, which reacts with the moisture to form a solution, which is drained from the bottom of the vessel. The drying agent must be replenished at regular intervals as the dew point increases.

Adsorption (Desiccant) Dryer

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A chemical such as silica gel or activated aluminium in granular form is contained in chamber to physically absorb moisture from the compressed air passing through it. When the drying agent becomes saturated it is regenerated by drying, heating or by a flow of previously dried air. Wet compressed air is supplied through a direction control valve and passes through desiccant column 1. The dried air flows to the outlet port. 10-20% of dried air passes through orifice O2 and column 2 in reverse direction to reabsorb moisture from the desiccant to regenerate it. The regenerating airflow then goes to exhaust. The DC valve can be switched periodically and alternately by a timer.

Refrigerant Dryer:

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This is a mechanical unit incorporating a refrigeration circuit and two heat exchangers. Humid hot air is pre cooled in the first heat exchanger 1 then it cooled by the refrigeration principle of heat extraction as a result of evaporating Freon gas in the refrigerator circuit in heat exchanger 2.

Refrigerant Dryer:
The moisture and oil mist condenses and are drained automatically. The cooled dry air passes through air heat exchanger 1 and gains heat from the incoming hot air. This prevents dew forming on the discharge outlet. The cost of drying compressed air may be 10-20% of the cost of compressing air.

Air Distribution:
The air main is a permanently installed distribution system carrying the air to the various consumers. There are two main layout configurations. Dead End Line Ring Main

Dead End Line:

To assist drainage, the pipe work should have a slope of about 1 in 100 in the direction of flow and it should be adequately drained. At suitable places the main can be brought back to its original height by using two long sweep right angle bends and arranging a drain leg at the low point.
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Ring Main:

In a ring main system air can be fed from two sides to a point of high consumption. This will reduce pressure drop. However this drive condensate in any direction and sufficient water take-offs with auto drains should be provided. Isolating valves can be installed to divide the air main into sections. This limits the area that will be shut down during periods of maintenance or repair.

Secondary Lines:

Unless an after cooler and air dryer are installed the compressed air distribution pipe-work acts as a cooling surface and water and oil will
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accumulate through its length. Therefore the branch lines are often taken off the top of the main to prevent water entering them instead of drainage tubes, which are taken from the bottom of the main pipe at each low point.

Auto Drains:
Two types of auto drains are in use, Float type Electrically operated type Auto drains are more expensive to install, but this is off-set by the manhours saved in the operation of manual type. With manual draining neglect leads to compound problems due to contamination of the main.

Air Treatment:

The air treatment includes Filtering the compressed air, Pressure Regulation and occasionally Lubrication. All the atmospheric air carries both dust and moisture. After compression the moisture condenses out in the after-cooler and air receiver, but there will always be some, which will be carried over. All of this is likely to have injurious effects on pneumatic equipments by increased seal and component wear, seal expansion and sticking valves. To remove all these contaminants, the air should be cleaned or treated as near as possible to the point of use.

Filtering:

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The standard branch line filter is combined with water separator and filter. The water separation occurs mainly by a rapid rotation of the air, caused by the deflector at the in let. The heavier particles of dirt, water and oil are thrown outward to impact on the walls of the filter bowl before running down to collect at the bottom. The liquid can be drained off through a manual drain cock or an automatic drain. The filter element removes the finer particles of dust, rust scale and carbonised oil as the air flows through to the outlet. The standard element will remove all contamination particles down to 5 microns in size. The element can be easily removed, cleaned and reused a number of times before needing to be replaced because of excessive pressure drop. If the condensate accumulate at high rate, it is desirable to provide automatic draining.

Micro Filters:

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Where contamination by oil is undesirable, a micro filter is used. The air flows from the inlet to the centre of the filter cartridge then outwards through the outlet. Dust is trapped within the micro filter element, the oil vapour and water mist is converted into liquid by coalescing action within the filter material, forming drops on the filter cartridge to collect at the bottom of the bowl.

Sub-micro Filters:
A Sub-micro filter will remove virtually all oil and water and also fine particles down to 0.01 of a micron, to provide maximum protection for pneumatic precision measuring devices, electronic spray painting, cleaning and drying of electronic assemblies etc. The principle of operation is the same as a micro filter, but its filter element has additional layers with a higher filtration efficiency.

Filter Selection:
The size of air filter that is required for a particular application is dependent on two factors: The maximum flow of compressed air used by the pneumatic equipment. The maximum acceptable pressure drop for the application. Manufacturers provide flow/pressure diagrams to enable correct sizing.

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Air Quality:
Different levels of air quality for various uses are divided into three main branches: Branch 1&2 provides air direct from the receiver, branch 3-6 provide air conditioned by a refrigerated type of dryer.; branch 7 incorporates an additional dryer of the adsorption type.

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Pressure Regulator:
Construction: Pressure regulators have a piston or diaphragm to balance the output pressure against an adjustable spring force. The important pats are: Adjusting knob Adjusting spindle Setting spring Relieving seat Diaphragm Flow compensation chamber Flow compensation tube Valve Valve spring

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Function: The secondary pressure P2 is set by the adjusting screw, loading the setting spring to hold the main valve open, allowing flow from primary pressure P1 inlet port to the secondary pressure P2 outlet port. The pressure in the circuit connected to outlet rises and acts on the diaphragm, creating a lift force against the spring load.

When consumption starts, P2 will initially drop and momentarily the spring force acting on the diaphragm opens the valve. If the consumption rate drops, P2 will slightly increase, this increases the force on the diaphragm against the spring force, diaphragm and valve will then lift until the spring force is equalled again.

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The airflow through the valve will be reduced until it matches the consumption rate and the output pressure is maintained. If the consumption rate increases, P2 and the force on the diaphragm against the spring will decrease and the valve drops until spring force is equal again. This increases the airflow through the valve to match the consumption rate.

Filter Regulator:
The most important is the flow / P2 Diagram. The figure shows how P2 decreases with increasing flow. The curve gives three distinctive portions: The inrush, with a small gap on the valve that does not yet allow real regulation. The regulation range

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The saturation range, the valve is wide open and further regulation is not possible.

Sizing of Regulators & Filters: FRL elements have to be sized in accordance with the required flow capacity. For regulators, the average volume flow should be the one in the middle of the regulating range. The size of the filter is defined by the pressure drop. For a standard filter /separator (not a line filter) a minimum pressure drop of about 0.2 bar is required to ensure functioning. With maximum flow, p should however be kept below 1 bar.

The size is therefore defined by the required flow, not by the

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connection size of the component. Modular systems give the capability to adapt the connection thread to the available tube size.

Compressed Air Lubricator

Lubrication is no longer a necessity for the majority of modern pneumatic components. They are available pre-lubricated for life. The advantages of non-lube systems include: Saving in the cost of lubrication equipment, lubricating oil and maintaining oil levels. Cleaner and more hygienic systems, used mainly in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Oil-free atmosphere, for a healthier, safer working environment.

Proportional lubricators:
In this a pressure drop between inlet and outlet directly proportional to the flow rate is created and oil is lifted from the bowl into the sight feed dome. With a fixed size of restriction, a greatly increased flow would create

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an excessive pressure drop and produce an air/oil mixture that had too much oil, flooding the pneumatic system. Conversely a decreased flow rate may not create sufficient pressure drop, resulting in a mixture, which is too lean. To over come this problem, lubricators must have self-adjusting cross section to produce a constant mixture.

Direction Control Valves:

A direction control valve determines the flow of air between its ports by opening, closing or changing its internal connections. The valves are described in terms of the number of ports, the number of switching positions, its normal (not operated) position, and the method of operation. The first two points are normally expressed in the terms 5/2, 3/2 or 2/2 etc. the first figure relates to the number of ports (excluding pilot ports ) and the second to the number of positions. Port Identification: The identification of the ports are not uniform, originally the codes previously used the older hydraulic nomenclature. P for the supply port comes from pump, the hydraulic source of fluid energy. The outlet of 2/2 or 3/2 valve has always been A, the second output port B. The exhaust is invariably R from the return (to the oil tank). The second exhaust port in 5/2 valves was then named S, or the former R1 and the latter R2. The pilot port initiating the power connection to port A was originally coded Z (the two extreme letters in the alphabet belong together) and the other Y. After 20 years of bargaining about pneumatic and hydraulic symbols one of the ISO/work groups had the idea that port should have numbers instead of letters. Supply should be 1, the outputs 2 and 4, the pilot ports connecting 1 with 2 is then 12 .

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Direction Control Valves:

Supply NC Output NO Output Exhaust of NC Exhaust of NO Pilot for NC Pilot for NO

P P P 1

A A A 2

B B B 4

R R1 EA 3

S R2 EB 5

Z Z PA 12

Y Y PB 14

Direction Control Valves:

Direction Control Valves

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Direction Control Valves

Puppet Valves Spool Valve

Sliding Valves

Rotary Valve

Plane Sliding Valve

Elastomer Seals

Metal Seals

Spool Valves:
A spool valve slides longitudinally in the valve body with the air flowing at right angles to the spool movement. Spools have equal sealing areas and are pressure balanced. O-rings are fitted in grooves on the spool and move in a metal sleeve. Two of them are crossing output ports, which are divided into a great number of small holes in the sleeve.

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Spool valve with sleeve has seals fitted in the valve body, which are kept in position by means of sectional spacers.

In the spool with oval rings, non of them have to cross a port, but just need to open or close its own seat. This design provides a leak free seal with minimum friction and therefore an extremely long life.

Spool valve with metal seal: Lapped and matched metal spool and sleeve valves have vary low frictional resistance, rapid cycling and exceptionally long working life. But even with a minimal clearance of 0.003 mm, a small internal leakage rate of about 1 dcl/min occurs. This is of no consequence as long as the cylinder does not need to be held in position by a 5/3 valve with closed centre for some time.

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Rotary Direction Control Valves:

A metal ported disc is manually rotated to interconnect the ports in the valve body. Pressure imbalance is employed to force the disc against its mating surface to minimise leakage. The pressure supply is above the disc.

DC Valve Operation
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Mechanical operation: On an automated machine, mechanically operated valves can detect moving parts to provide signals for the automatic control of the working cycle.

Care must be taken when using cams to operate roller lever valves. The utilised portion of the rollers total travel should not go to end of the stroke. The slope of a cam should have an angle of about 300; steeper slopes will produce mechanical stresses on the lever.

Manual Operation:

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Manual operation is generally obtained by attaching an operator head suitable for manual control, onto a mechanically operated valve.

Manually operated, mono-stable (spring returned) valves are generally used for starting, stopping and otherwise controlling a pneumatic control unit. For many applications it is more convenient if the valve maintains its position (bi-stable).

Air Operation:

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A mono stable air operated valve is switched by air pressure acting directly on one side of the spool or on a piston and returned to its normal position by spring force. But it can also be operated by a air spring by applying supply pressure to the spool end, opposite to the pilot port, or a combination of both. In the latter case, the pilot side requires a bigger effective area, which is provided by a piston.

Auxiliary Valves:
The various auxiliary valves are: Non-return valves Speed Controllers Shuttle Valves Quick exhaust valves Non-return valves: A non-return valve allows free airflow in one direction and seals it off in the opposite. These valves are also referred to as check valves. No return valves are incorporated in speed controllers and self seal fittings.

Speed Controllers:

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A speed controller consist of a check valve and a variable throttle in one housing. In fig. a air flows freely in one direction and in fig. b it flows back to the exhaust port of the valve with a restricted flow.

Shuttle valve: This is a three-ported valve with two-signal pressure inlet and one outlet. The outlet is connected to either signal input. If only one input is pressurised, the shuttle prevents the signal pressure from escaping through the exhausted signal port on the opposite side.

Quick Exhaust Valve:

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This component permits a maximum out stroking piston speed by exhausting the cylinder directly at its port with a great flow capacity, instead of through the tube and valve.

The rubber disc closes off the exhaust port on the bottom as the supply air flows to the cylinder. When the direction control valve, connected to the inlet port on top is reserved, the supply tube is exhausted and the disc lifted by the cylinder pressure. It then closes the inlet port and automatically opens the wide exhaust port.

Actuators:

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Actuators are the components which converts fluid energy into mechanical energy. These are the output devices. Work done by pneumatic actuators can be linear or rotary and are so classified into: Linear actuators Single acting cylinders Double acting cylinders Rotary actuators Vane-type actuators Rack & pistons-type actuators Special actuators

Single Acting Cylinder:

Single acting cylinder has one air inlet to produce a power stroke in one direction. It develops thrust in one direction only. The piston rod is returned by a fitted spring or by external force from the load. In single acting cylinder there is a reduction in thrust due to opposing spring force, and so a longer bore may be required. Also accommodating the spring results in a longer overall length and limited stroke length.

Double Acting Cylinder:

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With this actuator thrust is developed in both extending and retracting directions as air pressure is applied alternately to opposite sides of a piston. The thrust available on a the retracting stroke is reduced due to smaller effective piston area, but is only a considerable if the cylinder is to pull the same load in both directions.

Special Cylinder:
Double Rod: Double rod makes a cylinder stronger against a side load, as it has two bearings distance possible. This type of cylinder is often mounted with the rods fixed and the cylinder itself moving to displace a part.

Flat Cylinder:

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Flat cylinder normally has square covers, and generally a round cylinder. By stretching the piston cylinder to a long rectangular shape with round ends, it achieves the same force as a conventional one

Tandem cylinder: A tandem cylinder is two double acting cylinders joined together with a common piston rod to form a single unit. By simultaneously both cylinder chambers the output force is almost double (not due to the area of the piston rod) that of standard cylinder of the same diameter. It offers a higher force from a given diameter of a cylinder, therefore it can be used where installation place is restricted.

Multi Position Cylinder: The two end pistons of a standard cylinder provide two fixed positions.
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If more than two fixed positions are required, a combination of two double acting cylinders may be used.

There are two principles: For three positions, the assembly at the left is required; it enables users to fix cylinder. It is vary suitable for vertical movements (for handling devices). The second is to mount two independent cylinders together back to back. This allows four different positions, but the cylinder cannot be fixed. A combination with three cylinders of different stroke length give 8 positions (one with 4 cylinders give 16 positions), but a rather unusual structure is required and the movements when cylinders run in the opposite directions, is very unstable.

Cylinder Sizing:
Linear cylinders have the following standard as recommended in
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ISO.8,10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 140, 160, 200, 250, 320 mm. The theoretical force developed by a cylinder is a function of the piston diameter, the operating air pressure and the frictional resistance. As the frictional force is negligible, the theoretical force is calculated by using the formulae. Force (N) = air pressure (N/m2) X piston area (m2) Or =P X ( D2)/4 Force (lbf) = air pressure (lbf/in2) X piston area (in2) Or = P X ( D2)/4 Thus for a double acting cylinder: Extending stroke: Fe = P X ( /4) X D2 Where D = piston head diameter, P = gauge pressure; Retracting stroke: Fr = P X ( /4) X (D2_ d2) Where d = piston rod diameter. Thus for a single acting cylinder: Fes = P X ( /4) X D2 Fs) Where Fs = spring force at the end of the stroke) Example: Determine the theoretical size of a cylinder operating at a pressure of 6 bar that would generate a clamping force of 1600 N. Assuming this an extending stroke: Fe=P X ( /4) X D2 Transposing : D = {(4 Fe)/( P)}1/2 = {(4 X 1600)N/( X 600000 N/m2)}1/2 = 0.0583m =58.3mm A 63 mm dia. cylinder would be selected, a larger size providing extra force to overcome frictional resistance.

Rotary Actuators:
Rack and Pinion type:
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The output shaft has an integral pinion gear driven by a rack attached to a double piston. Standard degrees of rotation are 900 or 1800.

Vane type:
Air pressure acts on a vane, which is attached to the output shaft. A rubber seal or elastomer coating seals the vane against leakage. A special three-dimensional seal seals the stopper against the shaft and the housing. The size of the stopper defines the rotation angle of 900, 1800 or 2700. Adjustable stop may be provided to adjust any angle of rotation of the unit.

Hollow Rod Cylinders: These actuators are used specially for pick and place applications.

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Rotating cylinders: A so-called rotating cylinder is an assembly of a linear cylinder with a rotary actuator. A rotating arm can be attached to the shaft and be equipped with a gripper or a vacuum pad to pick up work pieces and deposit them in another location after rotating the arm. This gives a complete pick and place unit for materials handling.

Air chuck (Gripper):

An actuator designed to grip components in robotic type applications. The type shown, has two opposing pistons, to open and close the jaws. Symbols

Basic Symbols:
The symbols for fluid power systems and components are
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standardized in ISO 1219. The standard combines hydraulic and pneumatic components symbols show the function of a component, but do not indicate the construction.

ISO symbols for Air treatment Equipment

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Valve Operators:

Valve Operators:

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Pumps and Motors:

Instruments:

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Fluid Cylinders:

ISO Symbols for Actuators:

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How to combine valve symbols

Hydraulic Circuits:
Basic rules: A circuit diagram is drawn in the rest position of the controlled machine, with the supply under pressure. But in the case of mixed circuits, without
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electric power, all components must be drawn in the positions resulting from these assumptions.

Circuit Layout: In a circuit diagram, the flow of the working energy is drawn from the bottom to the top and the sequence of the working cycle left to right. Consequently, the air supply (FRL) unit is situated in the lower left corner, the cylinder that performs the first stroke of the cycle, in the upper left corner etc. The power valves are drawn directly below their cylinders, each power unit is then coded with capital letters, as given in the figure. In purely pneumatic circuits, 3/2 roller / lever valves controlling the end position of the cylinder driven machine parts, are situated in the lower level.

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Trouble shooting
Poorly maintained compressor with a faulty relief valve Devices operated at excessive pressures which may cause them to explode High pressure systems with bad connections or fittings, which could allow a hose to spring loose, jump around and hit a nearby person A hose to spring loose, jump around and hit a nearby person Electrically related heat from power cables or from too little air circulating around the compressor. Trouble Shooting Receiver: SYMPTOMS Air receiver pressure fails to rise. POSSIBLE CAUSE Leak from the piping point. Compressor unloading sys failure. Safety valve leakage. Air receiver inlet blockage. Air receiver Compressor unloading pressure system failure. abnormally high Air receiver outlet blocked. Safety valve malfunctioning. Air receiver Automatic drain often blocked or contains damaged. large amount of water and malfunction s. REMEDY Inspect and repair. ----As above---Inspect and replace. Inspect and clean. Inspect & repair.

Inspect and clean. Inspect and replace. Inspect, clean or repair.

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SYMPTOMS Valve fail to operate either open or close

POSSIBLE CAUSE Low supply voltage or Coil breakage Signal failure Contamination Damaged valve

REMEDY Check & adjust Replace coil Trouble shoots control system. Inspect & clean Inspect, repair or replace. Adjust voltage level & replace coil. Inspect, clean or replace. Check manufacturers specification for operating environment. Adjust voltage. Inspect, clean or repair. Inspect, repair or replace Inspect & clean. Replace parts. Tighten connections Adjust voltage level & replace coil.

Heat coil

damaged Supply voltage too high. Iron core malfunction due to contamination. High ambient core temp.

Solenoid plunger Low supply voltage. oscillates Core contamination. Damaged solenoid or valve. Leakage (in / out Valve seals side) contaminated. Worn components. Loose connections Heat damaged Supply voltage too coil high.

Iron core malfunction Inspect, clean or replace. due to contamination. High ambient core Check manufacturers temp specification for operating environment.

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