Environmental Mid-Term Notes Chapter 1 Environmental science is the study of: 1. How the natural world works 2.

How the environment affects humans and vice versa. All the things around us with which we interact: Living things Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc. Nonliving things Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks Our built environment Buildings, human-created living centers Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for survival Renewable resources: Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy Renew themselves over short periods: timber, water, soil These can be destroyed Nonrenewable resources: can be depleted Oil, coal, minerals Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earths capacity Environment impacts Humans Environmental science The pursuit of knowledge about the natural world Scientists try to remain objective

Environmentalism A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural world Science: A systematic process for learning about the world and testing our understanding of it A dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery

The accumulated body of knowledge that results from this process

A scientist makes an observation and asks questions of some phenomenon The scientist formulates a hypothesis, a statement that attempts to explain the scientific question. The hypothesis is used to generate predictions, which are specific statements that can be directly and unequivocally tested. The test results either support or reject the hypothesis Manipulative experiments yield the strongest evidence But, lots of things cant be manipulated Natural or correlational tests show real-world complexity Results are not so neat and clean, so answers arent simply black and white Many people think environmental conditions are better Cornucopians: Human ingenuity will solve any problem

Some think things are much worse in the world Cassandras: predict doom and disaster

Chapter 2 Culture = knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people Worldview = a persons or groups beliefs about the meaning, purpose, operation, and essence of the world Ethics = the study of good and bad, right and wrong Relativists = ethics varies with social context Universalists = right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations

Ethical standards = criteria that help differentiate right from wrong Classical standard = virtue The golden rule Utility = something right produces the most benefits for the most people

Environmental ethics = application of ethical standards to relationships between human and non-human entities Anthropocentrism = only humans have rights Biocentrism = certain living things also have value Ecocentrism = whole ecological systems have value Holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections

Transcendentalism = nature is a manifestation of the divine Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau

Deep ecology = humans are inseparable from nature Since all living things have equal value, they should be protected

Ecofeminism = male-dominated societies have degraded women and the environment through fear and hate Female worldview = cooperation

Environmental justice = the fair and equitable treatment of all people regarding environmental issues Wealthy nations dump hazardous waste in poorer nations with uninformed residents

Economy = a social system that converts resources into Goods: manufactured materials that are bought, and Services: work done for others as a form of business Subsistence economy = people get their daily needs directly from nature; they do not purchase or trade Capitalist market economy = buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and services Centrally planned economy = the government determines how to allocate resources Mixed economy = governments intervene to some extent

Ecosystem services = essential services support the life that makes economic activities possible *Soil formation *Water purification *Climate regulation *Pollination *Nutrient cycling *Waste treatment

Discounting = short-term costs and benefits are more important than long-term costs and benefits Ecological economists = civilizations cannot overcome environmental limitations Steady state economies should mirror natural ecological systems

Calls for revolution Environmental economists = unsustainable economies have high population growth and inefficient resource use Modify neoclassical economics to increase efficiency Calls for reform

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = total monetary value of final goods and services produced Does not account for nonmarket values Pollution increases GDP

Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) = differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity Chapter 3 Policy = a formal set of general plans and principles to address problems and guide decisions Public Policy = policy made by governments that consists of laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and practices Environmental Policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment Regulates resource use or reduce pollution Policy = a formal set of general plans and principles to address problems and guide decisions Public Policy = policy made by governments that consists of laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and practices Environmental Policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment Regulates resource use or reduce pollution Free Riders = reducing pollution tempts any one person to cheat Private voluntary efforts are less effective than mandated efforts External Cost = harmful impacts result from market transaction but are borne by people not involved in the transaction Legislative branch = creates statutory law

Executive branch = enacts or vetoes legislation Issues executive orders Judicial branch = interprets laws Administrative agencies = the fourth branch Customary law = practices or customs held by most cultures Conventional law = from conventions or treaties United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) = helps nations understand and solve environmental problems The European Union seeks to promote Europes unity and economic and social progress Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) = entities that influence international policy The World Bank = one of the worlds largest funding sources for development Risk assessment = judging risks a problem poses to health or the environment Risk management = developing strategies to minimize risk Lobbying = spending time and money to influence a politician Environmental advocates are not the most influential lobbyists Political Action Committees (PACs) = raise money for political campaigns The revolving door = the movement of people between the private sector and government Intimate knowledge of an issue or conflict of interest? Command-and-control approach: environmental policy sets rules or limits and threatens punishment for violators Tax breaks = encourage desirable industries or activities Subsidy = a government giveaway of cash or resources to encourage a particular activity Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful activities Permit trading = government-created market in permits Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits Emissions trading system = government-issued permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with other polluters

Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties Chapter 4 Bioremediation= pollution cleanup through enhanced natural biodegradation Matter = all material in the universe that has mass and occupies space Element = a fundamental type of matter, with a given set of properties Atoms = the smallest components that maintain an elements chemical properties The atoms nucleus has protons (positively charged particles) and neutrons (particles lacking electric charge) Atomic number = the defined number of protons Electrons = negatively charged particles surrounding the nucleus Balances the positively charged protons

Isotopes = atoms with differing numbers of neutrons Mass number = the combined number of protons and neutrons Isotopes of an element behave differently Chapter 5 Biological evolution = genetic change in populations of organisms across generations May be random or directed by natural selection

Natural Selection = the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently to future generations than those that do not Adaptive Trait (Adaptation) = a trait that promotes reproductive success Mutations = accidental changes in DNA that may be passed on to the next generation Directional selection = drives a feature in one direction Stabilizing selection = produces intermediate traits, preserving the status quo Disruptive selection = traits diverge in two or more directions Artificial Selection = the process of selection conducted under human direction Biological Diversity = An areas sum total of all organisms The diversity of species Their genes Their populations Their communities Species = a population or group of populations whose members share characteristics and can freely breed with one another and produce fertile offspring Population = a group of individuals of a species that live in the same area Allopatric speciation = species formation due to physical separation of populations Sympatric speciation = species form from populations that become reproductively isolated within the same area Phylogenetic trees (Cladograms) = Represents the history of species divergence Extinction = the disappearance of a species from Earth Occurs when a species cannot adapt quickly enough to a changing environment Speciation and extinction affect species numbers Endemic species = a species only exists in a certain, specialized area Very susceptible to extinction These species usually have small populations Many other factors also cause extinction

Severe weather New species Specialized species Endemic species = a species only exists in a certain, specialized area Very susceptible to extinction These species usually have small populations Many other factors also cause extinction Severe weather New species Specialized species Biosphere = the total living things on Earth and the areas they inhabit Ecosystem = communities and the nonliving material and forces they interact with Community = interacting species that live in the same area Population ecology = investigates the quantitative dynamics of how individuals within a species interact Community ecology = focuses on interactions among species Ecosystem ecology = studies living and nonliving components of systems to reveal patterns Nutrient and energy flows Habitat = the environment in which an organism lives Includes living and nonliving elements Scale-dependent: from square meters to miles Habitat use = each organism thrives in certain habitats, but not in others Habitat selection = the process by which organisms actively select habitats in which to live Availability and quality of habitat are crucial to an organisms well-being Human developments conflict with this process Niche = an organisms use of resources and its functional role in a community

Habitat use, food selection, role in energy and nutrient flow Interactions with other individuals Specialists = species with narrow niches and very specific requirements Extremely good at what they do, but vulnerable to change Generalists = species with broad niches that can use a wide array of habitats and resources Able to live in many different places Population size = the number of individual organisms present at a given time Population distribution (dispersion) = spatial arrangement of organisms within an area Natality = births within the population Mortality = deaths within the population Immigration = arrival of individuals from outside the population Emigration = departure of individuals from the population Growth rate formula = (Crude birth rate + immigration rate) - (Crude death rate + emigration rate) = Growth rate exponential population growth Something increases by a fixed percent Graphed as a J-shaped curve Limiting factors = physical, chemical and biological characteristics that restrain population growth Water, space, food, predators, and disease Environmental resistance = All limiting factors taken together Carrying capacity = the maximum population size of a species that its environment can sustain An S-shaped logistic growth curve Limiting factors slow and stop exponential growth Carrying capacity changes

Density-dependent factors = limiting factors whose influence is affected by population density Increased risk of predation and competition for mates occurs with increased density Density-independent factors = limiting factors whose influence is not affected by population density Events such as floods, fires, and landslides Chapter 6 Species interactions are the backbone of communities Most important categories Competition = both species are harmed Predation, parasitism, and herbivory = one species benefits and the other is harmed Mutualism = both species benefit Competition = relationship where multiple organisms seek the same limited resources they need to survive: Food Space Mates - Water - Shelter - Sunlight

Intraspecific competition = between members of the same species High population density = increased competition Interspecific competition = between members of 2 or more species Leads to competitive exclusion or species coexistence Competitive exclusion = one species completely excludes another species from using the resource Species coexistence = neither species fully excludes the other from resources, so both live side by side Fundamental niche = when an individual fulfills its entire role by using all the available resources Realized niche = the portion of the fundamental niche that is actually filled

Resource partitioning = when species divide shared resources by specializing in different ways Character displacement = competing species evolve physical characteristics that reflect their reliance on the portion of the resource they use Exploitation = one member exploits another for its own gain Predation, parasitism, herbivory Predation = process by which individuals of one species (predators) capture, kill, and consume individuals of another species (prey) Parasitism = a relationship in which one organism (parasite) depends on another (host) for nourishment or other benefit Coevolution = hosts and parasites become locked in a duel of escalating adaptations Symbiosis = mutualism in which the organisms live in close physical contact Microbes within digestive tracts Plants and fungi Pollination = bees, bats, birds and others transfer pollen from one flower to another, fertilizing its eggs Amensalism = a relationship in which one organism is harmed while the other is unaffected Difficult to confirm, because usually one organism benefits from harming another Allelopathy = certain plants release harmful chemicals Or, is this competition? Commensalism = a relationship in which one organism benefits, while the other remains unaffected Facilitation = plants that create shade and leaf litter allow seedlings to grow Community = an assemblage of species living in the same place at the same time Members interact with each other Interactions determine the structure, function, and species composition of the community Community ecologists = people interested in how: Species coexist and relate to one another

Communities change, and why patterns exist Trophic levels = rank in the feeding hierarchy Producers Consumers Detritivores and Decomposers Autotrophs (self-feeders) = organisms that capture solar energy for photosynthesis to produce sugars Green Plants Cyanobacteria Algae Chemosynthetic bacteria use the geothermal energy in hot springs or deep-sea vents to produce their food Primary consumers = second trophic level Organisms that consume producers Herbivores consume plants Deer, grasshoppers Secondary consumers = third trophic level Organisms that prey on primary consumers Carnivores consume meat Wolves, rodents Tertiary Consumers = fourth trophic level Predators at the highest trophic level Consume secondary consumers Are also carnivores Hawks, owls

Omnivores = consumers that eat both plants and animals Detritivores = scavenge waste products or dead bodies Millipedes Decomposers = break down leaf litter and other non-living material Fungi, bacteria Enhance topsoil and recycle nutrients Food chain = the relationship of how energy is transferred up the trophic levels Food web = a visual map of feeding relationships and energy flow Includes many different organisms at all the various levels Greatly simplified; leaves out the majority of species Keystone Species = has a strong or wide-reaching impact far out of proportion to its abundance Trophic Cascade = predators at high trophic levels can indirectly affect populations of organisms at low trophic levels by keeping species at intermediate trophic levels in check Resistance = community of organisms resists change and remains stable despite the disturbance Resilience = a community changes in response to a disturbance, but later returns to its original state Succession = the predictable series of changes in a community following a disturbance Primary succession = disturbance eliminates all vegetation and/or soil life Glaciers, drying lakes, volcanic lava

Pioneer species = the first species to arrive in a primary succession area (ex, lichens) Secondary succession = a disturbance dramatically alters, but does not destroy, all local organisms The remaining organisms form building blocks for the next population species Fires, hurricanes, farming, logging Climax community = the community resulting from successful succession

Remains stable until another disturbance restarts succession Invasive species = non-native (exotic) organisms that spread widely and become dominant in a community Ecological restoration = returning an area to unchanged conditions Deciduous trees lose their leaves each fall and remain dormant during winter Chapter 7 Hypoxia = low concentrations of dissolved oxygen water System = a network of relationships among parts elements or components that interact with and influence one another Feedback loop = a systems output serves as input to that same system Negative feedback loop = output that results from a system moving in one direction acts as input that moves the system in the other direction. Positive feedback loop = instead of stabilizing a system, it drives it further toward one extreme or another Dynamic equilibrium = system processes move in opposing directions at equivalent rates, balancing their effects Homeostasis = a system maintains constant or stable internal conditions Emergent properties = system characteristics not evident in the components alone Lithosphere = rock and sediment Atmosphere = the air Hydrosphere = liquid, solid or vapor water Biosphere = all the planets living organisms and the abiotic portions of the environment Ecosystem = all organisms and nonliving entities that occur and interact in a particular area at the same time Primary production = conversion of solar energy to chemical energy by autotrophs Gross primary production (GPP) = assimilation of energy by autotrophs

Net primary production (NPP) = energy remaining after respiration, and is used to generate biomass Available for heterotrophs Secondary production = biomass generated by heterotrophs High net primary productivity = ecosystems whose plants rapidly convert solar energy to biomass Nutrients = elements and compounds required for survival that are consume by organisms Macronutrients = nutrients required in relative large amounts Nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus Micronutrients = nutrients needed in smaller amounts Stimulate plant production Nitrogen and phosphorus are important for plant and algal growth Ecotones = transitional zones between two ecosystems in which elements of different ecosystems mix Landscape ecology = the study of landscape structure and how it affects the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms Helpful for sustainable regional development Patches = form the landscape, and are distributed spatially in complex patterns (a mosaic) Landscape = larger than an ecosystem and smaller than a biome Metapopulation = a network of subpopulations Most members stay within patches but may move among patches or mate with those of other patches Individuals in small patches risk extinction Conservation biologists = study the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity Habitat fragmentation = breaking habitat into small, isolated patches due to human impact Geographic information system (GIS) = computer software used in landscape ecology research Nutrient (biogeochemical) cycle = the movement of nutrients through ecosystems Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere Pools (reservoirs) = where nutrients reside for varying amounts of time Flux = movement of nutrients among pools, which change over time and are influenced by human activities Sources = pools that release more nutrients than they accept Sinks = accept more nutrients than they release Carbon cycle = describes the routes that carbon atoms take through the environment

The carbon cycle

Humans affect the carbon cycle Burning fossil fuels moves carbon from the ground to the air Cutting forests and burning fields moves carbon from organisms to the air Todays atmospheric carbon dioxide reservoir is the largest in the past 650,000 years The driving force behind climate change

The missing carbon sink: 1-2 billion metric tons of carbon are unaccounted for It may be the plants or soils of northern temperate and boreal forests

Phosphorus cycle = describes the routes that phosphorus atoms take through the environment No significant atmospheric component Most phosphorus is within rocks and is released by weathering With naturally low environmental concentrations, phosphorus is a limiting factor for plant growth

Humans affect the phosphorus cycle Mining rocks for fertilizer moves phosphorus from the soil to water systems Wastewater discharge also releases phosphorus

Runoff containing phosphorus causes eutrophication of aquatic system

The nitrogen cycle Nitrogen comprises 78% of our atmosphere, and is contained in proteins, DNA and RNA Nitrogen cycle = describes the routes that nitrogen atoms take through the environment

Nitrogen gas is inert and cannot be used by organisms

Nitrogen fixation = Nitrogen gas is combined (fixed) with hydrogen by nitrogen-fixing bacteria to become ammonium Which can be used by plants

Nitrification = bacteria that convert ammonium ions first into nitrite ions then into nitrate ions Plants can take up these ions Animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants or other animals Denitrifying bacteria = convert nitrates in soil or water to gaseous nitrogen, releasing it back into the atmosphere

Humans affect the nitrogen cycle Haber-Bosch process = synthetic production of fertilizers by combining nitrogen and hydrogen to synthesize ammonia Dramatically changed the nitrogen cycle Humans are fixing as much nitrogen as nature does Increased emissions of nitrogen-containing greenhouse gases Calcium and potassium in soil washed out by fertilizers Acidified water and soils Moved more nitrogen into plants and terrestrial systems Reduced biodiversity of plants adapted to low-nitrogen soils Changed estuaries and coastal ecosystems and fisheries The hydrologic cycle Water is essential for biochemical reactions and is involved in nearly every environmental system Hydrologic cycle = summarizes how liquid, gaseous and solid water flows through the environment Oceans are the main reservoir Evaporation = water moves from aquatic and land systems to air Transpiration = release of water vapor by plants Precipitation = condensation of water vapor as rain or snow Aquifers = underground reservoirs of sponge-like regions of rock and soil that hold Groundwater = water found underground beneath layers of soil Water table = the upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer

Human impacts on hydrologic cycle Damming rivers increases evaporation and infiltration Altering the surface and vegetation increases runoff and erosion Spreading water on agricultural fields depletes rivers, lakes and streams Removing forests and vegetation reduces transpiration and lowers water tables Emitting pollutants changes the nature of precipitation The most threatening impact is overdrawing groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use The rock cycle Rock cycle = The heating, melting, cooling, breaking and reassembling of rocks and minerals Rocks help determine soil chemistry, which influences ecosystems Helps us appreciate the formation and conservation of soils, mineral resources, fossil fuels, and other natural resources

Igneous rock Magma = the molten, liquid state of rock Lava = magma released from the lithosphere Igneous rock = forms when magma cools Intrusive rock = magma that cools slowly well below Earths surface (i.e., granite) Extrusive rock = magma ejected from a volcano (i.e., basalt) Sedimentary rock Sediments = particles of rock are blown by wind or washed away by water Sedimentary rock = dissolved minerals seep through sediment layers and crystallize and bind sediment particles together Lithification = formation of rock through the processes of compaction, binding, and crystallization Formation of sedimentary rock Some rock is formed by chemical means when rocks dissolve and their components crystallize to form new rock Limestone and rock salt

Other rocks are formed when layers of sediment compress and physically bond to one another Conglomerate, sandstone, shale

Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rock = great heat or pressure on a rock changes its form Temperatures is high enough to reshape crystals and change its appearance and physical properties Marble = heated and pressurized limestone Slate = heated and metamorphosed shale Plate tectonics = process that underlies earthquakes and volcanoes and that determines the geography of the Earths surface

Crust = lightweight thin component of Earths surface Mantle = malleable layer on which the crust floats Core = molten heavy center of Earth made mostly of iron Pangaea = at least twice in Earths history, all landmasses were joined in one supercontinent Divergent plate boundaries = magma surging upward to the surface divides plates and pushes them apart, creating new crust as it cools and spreads Transform plate boundary = two plates meet, slipping and grinding alongside one another Convergent plate boundaries = where plates collide Subduction = one plate of crust may slide beneath another Chapter 8 Demography = the application of population ecology to the study of humans Total fertility rate (TFR) = the average number of children born per female Replacement fertility = TFR that keeps the size of a population stable Natural rate of population change = due to birth and death rates alone In countries with good sanitation, health care, and food, people live longer Life expectancy = average number of years that an individual is likely to continue to live Demographic transition = a model of economic and cultural change to explain the declining death and birth rates in industrializing nations Demographic fatigue = governments face overwhelming challenges related to population growth. Chapter 9 Agriculture = practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption Cropland = land used to raise plants for human use Rangeland or pasture = land used for grazing livestock Soil = a complex plant-supporting system consisting of disintegrated rock, organic matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganism Traditional agriculture = biologically powered agriculture, using human and animal muscle power

Subsistence agriculture = families produce only enough food for themselves Intensive agriculture = produces excess food to sell Uses animals, irrigation and fertilizer, but not fossil fuels Industrialized agriculture = using large-scale mechanization and fossil fuels to boost yields Also uses pesticides, irrigation and fertilizers Monocultures = uniform planting of a single crop Green revolution = the use of new technology, crop varieties and farming practices introduced to developing countries soil formation is slow and complex Parent material = the base geologic material of soil Lava, volcanic ash, rock, dunes Bedrock = the continuous mass of solid rock comprising the Earths crust Weathering = the physical, chemical, or biological processes that break down rocks to form soil Physical (mechanical) = wind and rain, no chemical changes in the parent material Chemical = substances chemically interact with parent material Biological = organisms break down parent material

Erosion = the dislodging and movement of soil by wind or water Occurs when vegetation is absent

Biological activity includes deposition, decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter Humus = a dark, spongy, crumbly mass of material formed by partial decomposition

Horizon = each layer of soil Soil profile = the cross-section of soil as a whole Up to six major horizons may occur in a soil profile Topsoil = inorganic and organic material most nutritive for plants Leaching = dissolved particles move down through horizons Soil color = indicates its composition and fertility Black or dark brown = rich in organic matter Pale gray or white = indicates leaching Soil texture = determined by the size of particles From smallest to largest = clay, silt, sand Loam = soil with an even mixture of the three Influences how easy it is to cultivate and let air and water travel through the soil Soil structure = a measure of soils clumpiness Large clumps can discourage plant roots Repeated tilling compacts soil, decreasing its water-absorbing capabilities Plowpan = a hard layer resulting from repeated plowing that resists water infiltration and root penetration Soil pH = influences a soils ability to support plant growth Soils that are too acidic or basic can kill plants Cation exchange = process that allows plants to gain nutrients

Negatively charged soils hold cations (positively charged ions) of calcium, magnesium, and potassium Cation exchange capacity = a soils ability to hold cations, preventing them from leaching, thereby increasing their availability to plants A useful measure of soil fertility Greatest in fine soils Swidden agriculture = cultivation of a plot for a few years and then letting it regrow into forest Deposition = the arrival of eroded material at its new location Desertification = a loss of more than 10% productivity Conservation districts = districts operate with federal direction, authorization, and funding, but are organized by the states Crop Rotation = alternating the crops grown field from one season or year to the next, Cover crops protect soil when main crops arent planted Wheat or corn and soybeans Contour Farming = plowing furrows sideways across a hillside, perpendicular to its slope, to prevent rills and gullies Terracing = level platforms are cut into steep hillsides, sometimes with raised edges A staircase to contain water Intercropping = planting different types of crops in alternating bands or other spatially mixed arrangements Shelterbelts or Windbreaks = rows of trees or other tall, perennial plants that are planted along the edges of fields to slow the wind Alley cropping = shelterbelts + intercropping

Reduced Tillage = furrows are cut in the soil, a seed is dropped in and the furrow is closed No-till farming disturbs the soil even less

Irrigation = Artificially providing water to support agriculture Unproductive regions become farmland

Waterlogging = over-irrigated soils Water suffocates roots

Salinization = the buildup of salts in surface soil layers Worse in arid areas Drip irrigation targets water directly to plants

Fertilizer = substances that contain essential nutrients Inorganic fertilizers = mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements Organic fertilizers = the remains or wastes of organisms manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation Compost = produced when decomposers break down organic matter

Overgrazing = too many animals eat too much of the plant cover Clear-cutting = the removal of all trees from an area at once Chapter 10 transgenes (genes from one species used to enhance another) Food security = the guarantee of adequate and reliable food supply to all people at all times Undernourishment = people receive less than 90% of their daily caloric needs Mainly from economic reasons in developing countries 31 million Americans are food insecure

Overnutrition = receiving too many calories In the U.S., 25% of adults are obese Worldwide, more than 300 million people are obese

Malnutrition = a shortage of nutrients the body needs Kwashiorkor = diets lacking protein or essential amino acids Occurs when children stop breast-feeding Bloated stomach, mental and physical disabilities

Marasmus = protein deficiency and insufficient calories Wasting or shriveling of the body Monoculture = a large expanse of a single crop Pest = any organism that damages valuable crops Weed = any plant that competes with crops Pesticides = poisons that target pest organisms Insecticides = target insects Herbicides = target plants Fungicides = target fungi Evolutionary arms race: chemists increase chemical toxicity to compete with resistant pests Biological control (Biocontrol) = uses a pests natural predators to control the pest Reduces pest populations without chemicals Cactus moths control prickly pear Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) = soil bacteria that kills many pests

Pollination = male plant sex cells fertilize female sex cells Genetic engineering = laboratory manipulation of genetic material Genetically modified organisms = organisms that have been genetically engineered by Recombinant DNA = DNA created from multiple organisms Biotechnology = the material application of biological science to create products derived from organisms Transgenic organism = an organism that contains DNA from another species Transgenes = the genes that have moved between organisms precautionary principle = dont do any new action until its understood Seed banks = institutions that preserve seed types as a kind of living museum of genetic diversity

Feedlots (factory farms) = also called Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) Aquaculture = raising aquatic organisms for food in a controlled environment Industrial agriculture may seem necessary, but less-intensive agricultural methods may be better in the long run Sustainable agriculture = does not deplete soil, pollute water, or decrease genetic diversity Low-input agriculture = uses smaller amounts of pesticide, fertilizers, growth hormones, water, and fossil fuel energy than industrial agriculture Organic agriculture = Uses no synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides Community gardens = areas where residents can grow their own food Community-supported agriculture = consumers pay farmers in advance for a share of their yield Chapter 11

Biodiversity sum total of all organisms in an area Split into three specific levels: Species diversity Genetic diversity Ecosystem diversity

Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region Richness = the number of species Evenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed

Taxonomists = scientists who classify species

Physical appearance and genetics determines a species Genera = related species are grouped together

Families = groups of genera

Subspecies = populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each other Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring

Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally The Red List = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctions Biophilia = connections that humans subconsciously seek with life Our affinity for parks and wildlife Keeping of pets High value of real estate with views of natural lands

Nature deficit disorder = alienation from the natural environment May be behind the emotional and physical problems of the young

Conservation biology = devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity Conservation geneticists = study genetic attributes of organisms to infer the status of their population Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems Metapopulations = a network of subpopulations Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention Equilibrium theory of island biogeography = explains how species come to be distributed among oceanic islands Captive breeding individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild Cloning a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinction

Protecting the habitat of these umbrella species helps protect less-charismatic animals that would not have generated public interest

Flagship species large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation Biodiversity hotspots prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity Support a great number of endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world

Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlife Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing countrys international debt Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources