1

The Transistor At Low frequencies

Graphical Analysis of CE configuration

Consider a CE ampliIier as shown below















- '
CC
and '

provide the biasing Ior the transistor

- #

is the load resistor

- #
$
is the source resistance

The input and output characteristics are shown below






















Q
A
i
C

v
E

'
ss
i

v
CE

#

'
CC

#

Collector voltage v
CE
, '
Collector current i
C
, mA
I

I
1

I

The intersection oI input characteristics, corresponding to quiescent base current
I

, and the load line results in the operating point Q. corresponding to this operating
point, the base current, collector current, base voltage and collector voltage are indicated
by the symbols I

, I
C
, '

and '
C
respectively

Due to the application oI ac signal, the base current is subjected to variation
around the q point. The instantaneous value oI current and voltage are indicated by lower
case letter with an upper case subscript ( Ior ex: i

, i
C
, v
b
, v
c
).

The instantaneous value oI the varying component Irom the quiescent value is
indicated by lower case letter with a lower case subscript (Ior ex: i
b
, i
c
, v
b
, v
c
).

The Iollowing relations can be established

i
c
i
c
-I
c
A i
c

I
b
i

-I

A i

'
c
v
c
-'
c
A '
c

'
b
v

- '

A v


Thus, variation oI collector current and voltage can be seen as alternating current and
voltages.
The waveforms

When an AC signal is applied, the instantaneous base current will Iluctuate between two
extreme values i
1
and i

as indicated in the output characteristics . The corresponding Q

point will Iluctuate between two points A and on the DC load line the corresponding
collector current and voltage variations are as indicated in the output characteristics.

Due to the nonlinearity oI the output characteristics, the output characteristics are not
parallel lines.
i

A
Q
'
E

Input characteristics

Also these characteristics are not at equally spaced Ior equal increments in the base
current. This results in the collector current and voltage waveIorms being non sinusoidal.
This called output linear distortion.

The input characteristics is non linear, thereIore the base voltage '
b
is not identical to the
base current i
b
, which is sinusoidal. This change in waveIorm is known as input nonlinear
distortion.

Due to the non-linearity Ior large voltage , the base current swing is not symmetrical
around the Q point. The base current swing and hence collector current swing is larger in
Q region then in QA region. Thus iI the operating point Q is situated in linear region,
then Ior small changes , the distortion would be less. Under this condition oI small
amplitude oI the input signal, linear circuit model can be used.

NOTE: Refer to PPT slides for waveforms and diagrams

SMALL SIGNAL MID FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF AMPLIFIER

MODELING OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

To analyze and assess the perIormance oI transistor ampliIiers, equivalent circuits
are used. The behavior and perIormance oI the transistor can be expressed by a set oI
mathematical equations. These equations are called a mathematical model. These
equations are based on suitable theory. For example, considering the transistor to be
operating in linear region it can be modeled with help oI two-port network theory. The
solution oI these mathematical equations results in the response oI the ampliIier Ior a
given excitation.
These mathematical equations can be synthesized in to an electrical network
called equivalent circuit. This equivalent circuit along with the external components
conned to the network represents the transistor ampliIier. The solution oI the equivalent
circuit provides to the response oI the system.
The elements oI the equivalent circuit are called the parameters oI the transistor.
'arious parameters can be deIined based on the requirements oI the designer. For
example h-parameters are used Ior mid and low Irequency analysis and hybrid-pi
parameters are used Ior high Irequency analysis.
esides the above two models, Z-parameters, Y-parameters or A--C-D
parameters can also be used. IdentiIication oI proper independent and dependent
variables results in suitable model.

THE T#AN$I$TO# HY#ID MODE:

Consider the ampliIier circuit as shown in the Iig. A common emitter
conIiguration is considered. The transistor can be considered as a linear device in the
active region Ior small signal amplitude. Then, the two-port network theory can be
applied to the transistor. According to this theory, the Iour variables oI the transistor can
be related by the Iollowing set oI equations. For deIining h-parameters, the quantities i
b

4
(input current) and v
ce
(output voltage) are taken as independent variables and the
remaining two quantities are represented in terms oI independent variables
'
obe
I
1
(i
b
, v
ce
)

i
c
I

(i
b
,v
ce
)



Av
E
oI
1
A i

o I
1
Av
CE


o i

o v
CE




Ai
C
oI

A i

o I

Av
CE


o i

o v
CE


Av
E
, A i
C
, A i

, Av
CE
represent small change in the base and collector voltage and
currents.
#ewriting the above equation

v
be
oI
1
i
b
o I
1
v
ce


o i

o v
CE




i
C
oI
1
i

o I

v
ce


o i

o v
CE


5
All the terms shown in the parenthesis which are the co-eIIicients oI the equations also
called transistor parameter. The above equations are rewritten as

v
be
h
ie
i
b
h
re
v
ce --------------------------------
(1)

i
c
h
Ie
i
b
h
oe
v
ce----------------------------------
()



Put v
ce
in the equation (1), v
be
i
b
* h
ie
or h
ie
v
be
/i
b
Ohm Av
E
ov
E


Ai

o i

Thus, h
ie
has the unit oI resistance. The terms v
be
and i
b
represents input voltage and
input current. ThereIore, hie is deIined as the input resistance oI the transistor when the
output terminals are short-circuited.

Put i
b
in equation (), i
c
v
ce
* h
oe
or h
oe
i
c
/v
ce
mho

Ai
C

with Av
CE

Av
CE



o i
C

with Av
CE
or at '
c

ov
CE


Thus, h
oe
has the unit oI conductance. The terms i
c
and v
ce
represents the output current
and voltage oI the transistor. ThereIore, h
oe
is called output conductance oI the transistor
when the input terminals are open circuited.

Put v
ce
in equation (), i
c
i
b
* h
Ie
or h
oe
i
c
/i
b
no-unit

Ai
C

with v
ce

A i
b

Thus, the parameter h
Ie
is dimensionless and is equal to ratio output current to input
current. ThereIore, h
Ie
is called current gain oI the transistor when the output terminals
are short-circuited. It is also called simply the short-circuit current gain.

Put i
b
in equation (1), v
be
v
ce
* h
re
or h
oe
v
be
/v
ce
no-unit.

Av
E

with i

constant
A v
CE
6
o v
E

at I

constant
o v
CE

Thus, h
oe
is also dimensionless. The above ratio represents the reciprocal oI voltage gain
(voltage gain is the ratio oI output voltage to input voltage). ThereIore, hoe is called
reverse voltage ratio oI reciprocal oI voltage gain when the input terminals are open-
circuited.

$ince the units oI all parameters are diIIerent, they are said to be hybrid in nature or
simply h-parameters.

To obtain the equivalent circuit, the equation (1) and () can be used to write the
Iollowing circuit. The equation (1) is a K', hence it can be realized with a series circuit
consisting oI a voltage source v
s
, a resistance h
ie
and a voltage source h
re
* v
ce
.

The equation () represents a KC, hence it can be realized by a parallel circuit with
three branches. One branch has a dependent current source h
Ie
* i
b
, the second branch is
resistor oI value 1/h
oe
and the third branch is the total current i
c
.



Analysis of CE amplifier












h- parameters equivalent circuit

To Iind current gain
h
re
v
ce

-



i

-
h
re
v
ce

' v
ce

1/h
oe

h
Ie
i
b

#
i

i
b
h
ie



'
$

-



#

E
C
-
7
) 1 ( =
=
ib
iL
Ai
current input
current output
Ai

Apply current divider rule to the output circuit

L oe
fe
i
L oe
fe
L
oe
L
oe
b fe
L
R h
h
A
eqn from
R h
h
i
h
R
h
i h
i

=
1
) 1 (
1
1
1


To Iind input resistance
) ( =
b
s
i
i
v
R

Applying K' to input circuit

'
s
h
ie
i
b
h
re
v
ce


'
s
i
b
h
ie
h
re
i

Irom equation (1)

'
s
i
b
h
ie
h
re
A
i
i
b
#

( i

A
i
i
b
)

$ubstituting in equation ()
8

#
i
h
ie
h
re
A
i
#

To Iind voltage gain

Av
vs
vce
ge inputvolta
voltage output
=


i b
L L
v
R i
R i
A =
since
b
s
i
i
v
R =


i
L
i v
R
R
A A =

To find output resistance














NOTE:#eplace #

by a voltage source. #eplace independent sources by internal

impedance oI the source
) ( =

ce
O
i
v
R

Applying KC to the output circuit.

i
C
h
Ie
i
b
i
1


i
C
h
Ie
i
b
v
ce
h
oe
-----(4)
#

v
ce
-

1/h
oe

h
Ie
i
b

h
re
v
ce

i
b
h
ie

#
O
1

#
O

9

Applying K' to input circuit

- ( h
ie
i
b
h
re
v
ce
)

ie
ce re
b
h
v h
i

=

substituting Ior i
b
in equation (4)

oe ce
ie
ce re
fe
h v
h
v h
h i

= ) (

substituting in equation ()



oe
ie
e
r fe
O
h
h
h h
R

=
1

To Iind output resistance with #

#
O
1
#
O
,,#

$ince #

is in parallel with the voltage source, total output resistance is the parallel
combination oI #

and #
O












1
PR0BLEMS:

1. A common emitter ampliIier has the Iollowing h- parameters. h
ie
1KO, h
re
1
-
4
, h
Ie
1, hoe 1amho. Find current gain, 'oltage gain, #
i
, #
o
, power gain.
Take #

KO. Also Iind output power take v

$
5 m' ( rms).

. 199
468 . 98
1
656 . 97
468 . 98
) 1 656 . 97 1 ( ) 1 1 (
656 . 97
1 1 1 ( 1
1
1

4
6
=
-
- =
=
O =
- - - - =
=
=
- - -

v
v
i
L
i v
i
i
L i e r e i i
i
i
L oe
e
f
i
A
A
R
R
A A
R
R
R A h h R
A
A
R h
h
A

11

1
1
1
1 45 . 19
656 . 97 . 199
99 . 1
5
5
,,
5 5 .
1
- =
- =
- =
O =

-
=

= =
O = O =

=
!
!
i J !

L
L
L

oe
ie
r
e
f

A
A
A A A
K R
R
R R
R R
R R R
K M R
h
h
h h
R
e

Watt !
!
R
J A
!
R
v
!

L
S v

L
ce

96 . 4
1
) 1 5 ( ) . 99 . 1 (
) . (

=
-
-
=
=
=



1
.#epeat the above problem iI the internal resistance oI the source is #
$
1KO
















Without #
$
(The derivation is same as the previous problem but use v
be
instead oI v
$
)

-
-e
i
i
L oe
e
f
-
L
i
i
v
R
A
R h
h
i
i
A
=
=

= =
656 . 97
1

O =
=
K R
R h A h R
i
L re i ie i
98 .

. 199 =
=
= =
=
v
-
-e
i
i
L
i
i -
L L
v
-e
ce
v
A
i
v
R
R
R
A
R i
R i
A
v
v
A
!


i

h
re
v
ce

-


v
ce

#

1/h
oe

h
Ie
i
b

#
i

#
is


v
s


-
#
$


h
ie

v
be

i
C


E
1
With #
$

-
8
i8
i
v
R =

y inspection, #
$
is in series with the entire circuit whose resistance on the input side is
#
i

#
is
#
$
#
i

#
is
1.98KO

To Iind current gain A
is

Converting the voltage source in to current source











S
L
i8
i
i
A =

Multiplying and dividing by i
b

) 1 (
.
- =
=
8
-
i i8
8
- L
i8
i
i
A A
i
i
i-
i
A

i
$

#
$

#
i

i
b

14
Applying current divider rule to the modiIied circuit.
i S
S S
-
R R
R i
i

-
=

substituting in (1)

i8
S i
i S
S i
i8
R
R A
R R
R A
A
-
=

-
=
) (


. 49
98 . 1
1 656 . 97
=
-
=
i8
i8
A
A

To Iind voltage gain
64 . 98
98 . 1

656 . 97
.
=
- =
=
= = =
v8
v8
-
S
i8
i8
L
i
i8 -
L L
8
ce
v8
A
A
i
v
R Since
R
R
A
R i
R i
v
v
A


To Iind output resistance.
15

ce

i
v
R =






Applying KC to output circuit

i
C
h
Ie
i
b
v
ce
h
oe

Applying K' to input circuit
-(#
$
h
ie
)i
b
h
re
v
ce


ie S
ce re
-
h R
v h
i

=

$ubstituting in the equation Ior i
C

oe ce
ie S
ce re fe

h v
h R
v h h
i

=



h
Ie
i
b

v
ce
1/h
oe

h
re
v
ce
#
$

h
ie

#

i
C

#
O

#
O
1

i
b

16
) 1 1 (
1 ) 1 1 (
) 1 ( 1
1
1
6

oe
ie S
re fe

R
h
h R
h h
R

O =

=
O =
K
R R
R R
R
RL with
decrea8e8 R R with K R
L
L

S
974 . 1
) , ( 857 . 14
1


Question:In a transistor ampliIier, explain the eIIect oI internal resistance oI ac voltage
source on the perIormance oI the ampliIier. Derive the necessary equations in support oI
the answer.

CKT DIAG#AM


















et #
i
is the input resistance oI the ampliIier without #
s
- internal resistance.
v
oi

Amp. source
-

i
#
i

'
s
#
s
17
-
-e
i
i
v
R =

et #
is
is the input resistance oI the ampliIier with #
$

From the above circuit
-
8
i8
i
v
R =


#
is
#
$
#
i
( $ince #s is in series with input circuit)

Thus due to the internal resistance #
s
, the input resistance oI the ampliIier increases. It is
desirable since the input resistance oI the ampliIier should be high to avoid loading eIIect
on the previous stage oI the ampliIier, the input resistance oI the ampliIier should be
high. Then the ampliIier will draw less input current Irom the previous stage.
oading eIIect is the drop in the input voltage oI the ampliIier due to the large current
drawn by the ampliIier.
The drop in the voltage is due to the voltage drop in the internal resistance oI the
previous ampliIier.

Current gain:
et A
i
is the current gain without #s.
-
L
i
i
i
A =

et A
is
be the current gain with #s
i S
L i
i8
R R
R A
A

=

From the above equation, the current gain decreases with #s. This is not desirable

'oltage gain

et A
'
is the voltage gain without #s.
18
) 1 ( =
=
i
L i
v
-e
ce
v
R
R A
A
v
v
A

et A
vs
is the voltage gain with #
$

) ( =
=
i8
L i
v8
8
ce
v8
R
R A
A
v
v
A


Comparing equations (1) and (), voltage reduces with #s.

Output resistance
ie S
fe re
oe

h R
h h
h
R

=
1

Due to #s present in the denominator, the output resistance decreases. This is desirable to
reduce the loading eIIect.

.For the Iollowing circuit, Iind ac perIormance quantities. h
ie
1KO,h
re
1
-4
, h
Ie
1,
h
oe
1amho.













#
E

4K
C
C

#
C
4K
C
C

#

1K
'
$

'
CC

C
E

19

Considering only Ac signal and taking the Irequency oI ac signal to be high
fc
X

a
=

1

becomes very low. It is approximated to zero, or all capacitors are replaced by short
circuit.

AC equivalent circuit.


















h- parameters equivalent circuit















without #

h
re
v
ce


#

K
1/h
oe
h
Ie
i
b

-

i
b
h
ie

i
$



'
$

-
#
ib
#
i

E
i

v
ce


-


C


4K
#
C

#

'
$


C
-
#K


. 199
98 .
656 . 97
1
= = =
O = = =
=

= =
i
L i
8
ce
v
L e r i ie
-
8
i
L oe
fe
-
L
i
R
R A
v
v
A
K R h A h
i
v
R
R h
h
i
i
A

ith R
B


ooking Irom the input circuit ,#

is in parallel with rest oI the circuit.

O =
-
=
=
=
K R
R
R
R R R
i-
i-
i-
i i-
89 .
98 . 1
1 98 .
1 ,, 98 .
,,


Current gain:















#

'
$


i
$


i
b1


#
i

1
) 1 ( =
- =
=
8
-
i i-
-
-
S
L
i-
S
L
i-
i
i
A A
i
i
i
i
A
i
i
A


Applying current divider rule

i
S
-
R R
R i
i

-
=

substituting in equation 1


94 . 88 =

=
i
i
i-
R R
R A
A


A
ib
is less than Ai. That is due to biasing resistance #

, The current gain reduces

To Iind voltage gain
8
ce
v-
v
v
A =


$ince #

is in parallel with ideal voltage source the resistance #

will not aIIect the input
voltage.( voltage gain remains the same.

To Iind output resistance














848 . 17716 94 . 88 . 199
97 . 1 ,,
5
1
1
= - =
=
O = =
O =

=
ain !ower
A A ain power
K R R R
K
h
h h
h
R
i- v
L
ie
e
f re
oe

4.With the help oI suitable circuit and mathematical prooI, explain the eIIect oI
biasing resistance on the perIormance oI the ampliIier.













#

v
ce
-

1/h
oe

h
Ie
i
b

h
re
v
ce

i
b
h
ie

#
O
1

#
O

v
$

#

K
1/h
oe
h
Ie
i
b

-

i
b
h
ie

i
$



'
$

-

#
ib
#
i

E
i

v
ce


-


C

et Ai be the current gain without #

-
L
i
i
i
A =



et A
ib
be the current gain with #

#i is the input resistance oI the ampliIier without #
$

S
L
i-
i
i
A =



S
-
i
-
-
S
L
i-
i
i
A
i
i
i
i
A - = - =

Applying current divider rule,
i
i
i-
i
S
-
R R
R A
A
R R
R i
i

=


From the above equation current gain decreases with #

. This is undesirable.

The voltage gain, without #
$
( A
'
) and with #

( A
vb
) are equal since the biasing
resistor # is in parallel with the ideal voltage source.


#

'
$


i
$


i
b1


#
i

4
Output resistance.









ce oe
ie
re fe

ie
ce re
-
ce oe -
e
f
ie
re fe
oe

c
ce

v h
h
vce h h
i
h
v h
i
v h i h i
h
h h
h
R
i
v
R
=
=
=

=
=
1

The equation Ior #
O
is independent oI #

. Hence the output resistance oI the

ampliIier is unaIIected due to the redundancy oI #

Input resistance

et #
i
and #
ib
be the input resistance oI the ampliIier without and with #

respectively.
#

v
ce
-

1/h
oe

h
Ie
i
b

h
re
v
ce

i
b
h
ie

#
O
1

#
O

5

ooking Irom the input circuit, #

is parallel with the rest oI the circuit.

i i-
i - i
R R
R R R
(
= ( ,,


Thus the input resistance oI the ampliIier decreases with #

. This is undesirable.


.























4K
15K
1K
'
CC

4.K
'
$

#
E

Output
6














Hybrid equivalent circuit

















Without #

-
L
i
i
i
A =





#

4 ,, 4. ,,1
#

KO
4K
#
C
4.K
1K
15K
#

'
$

Output
Ac equivalent circuit
h
re
v
ce
v
$

#

K
1/h
oe
h
Ie
i
b

-

i
b
h
ie

i
$



'
$

-

#
ib
#
i

E
i

v
ce


-


C
7

Applying current divider rule Ior the output circuit.

-
8
i
i
L oe
f
i
L oe
-
e
f
L
oe
oe
- fe
L
i
v
R
A
R h
e h
A
R h
i h
R
h
h
i h
i
=
=

= (

=
656 . 97
1
1
1
1


Applying K' to input circuit


'
s
h
ie
i
b
h
re
v
ce
v
ce
( i

) #

'
s
h
ie
i
b
h
re
A
i
i
b
#

v
ce
(A
i
i
b
) #

( #
i
h
ie
h
re
A
i
#

#
i
.98 KO

8
O =
-
=
=
O =
=
= = =
K R
R R R
K R with
A
R
R
A
R i
R i
v8
v
A
i-
i i-

v
i
L
i
i -
L L ce
v
976 .
98 . 15
98 . 15
,,
15
. 199


To Iind current gain A
ib








S
-
i
-
-
S
L
i-
i
i
A
i
i
i
i
A - = - =



Applying current divider rule to the above circuit


#

'
$


i
$


i
b


#
i

9
. 97
98 . 15
15 656 . 97
=
-
=

= (

=
ib
i B
B i
ib
i B
B S
b
A
R R
R A
A
R R
R i
i




PROBLEMS CONTINUED

6. '
CC





#
1
#
C

1K K C
C


Output
C
C







C
E

#

#
E

1K

























'
$





-

'
$
output
#
C

#
1
#

#
1
,, #

9.9 K

1
#
i
1
#
i

i
s
i
b
h
ie





i

h
Ie
i
b

1/h
oe
#
C

'
s
#

h
re
v
ce
v
ce

-
-

-

WTH OUT R

To find current gain
-
L
i
i
i
A =


Applying KCL,
oe

oe
- fe
L
h
R
h
i h
i
1
1

= =
oe
- fe
h R
i h

1


=

=
R h
h
A
oe
fe
i
1
-97.656

To find input resistance.

-
8
i
i
J
R =

Applying KVL to input circuit,

K R
R A h h R
R A h h
J h i h J
i
c i re ie i
c i re ie
ce re - ie 8
98 . =
=
=
=






To find voltage gain

i

i
i -
c L
8
ce
v
R
R
A
R i
R i
J
J
A = = =

v
A = -199.29

WTH R

.98 ,, 9.9 # ,, #
i
,
= =
i
R

,
i
R = 0.8846KD

To find current gain

15 . 88
,
,
=

=
=
=
=
i
i
i
S
-
i
-
-
S
L
S
L
i
A
R R
R A
i
i
A
i
i
X
i
i
i
i
A

i B
B S
b
R R
R i
i

=











'
$

i
$

i
b

#

#
i




To find voltage gain.

Voltage gain does not alter with

# as it is connected across an ideal voltage source.

9 . 199
,
=
v
A

To find out put resistance.















ie
h
J h h
J h i
i h J h i
circuit output to KL
J h i h
circuit input to KJL
ce re fe
ce oe
- fe ce oe
ce re - ie

=
=
=







1/
h
oe



i
b
h
ie


-
h
re
v
ce

i
C

h
Ie
i
b

#
C

#
O

#
O
1

'
ce


-
O =
=
O =

=
=
R
R R R
R
h
h h
h
R
i
J
R

ie
fe re
oe

ce
99 . 1
,,
5
1
,

4
7. Repeat the above problem with internal resistance of the ac signal
R
s
1K.

Without R
s
and R
B


























Without R
s
and R
B


#

#
1



#
$

'
$


#
C

OUTPUT
#

#
1
,, #

9.9K

i
b



#
i

1/h
oe

h
re
v
ce

-

v
be

'
$



C
E
h
ie

h
Ie
i
b

#
C
v
ce


-
CKT NO 1
5
. 199
98 .
656 . 97
1
= = = =
= = =
=

= =
i

i
i -
L
-e
e
J
i re ie
-
-e
i
oe
fe
-
L
i
R
R
A
R i
R i
J
J
A
K R A h h
i
J
R
R h
h
i
i
A



All above equations to be derived

With R
s
and R
B


S
S
i
i
J
R =
,


By inspection, R
B
is in parallel with the rest of the circuit (R
i
) and this parallel combination is in
series with R
S
.


K
R R
R R
R
R R R
i
i
S
i S
8846 . 1 #
) ,, ( #
,
i
,
i
=

=
=




To Iind the current gain #ewriting










#
i


#
$
#

#
$
#

i
$1



i
b


#
$


i
s



i
s1



i
b


#

#
i

CKT NO
6



1 1
,
S
-
i
-
-
S
L
i
i
i
A
i
i
i
i
A - = - =



Applying current divider rule to circuit 2,

77 . 46
98 . 9 .
9 . 656 . 97
) ,, (
) ,, (
) ,, (
) ,, (
) ,, (
) ,, (
) ,, (
,
,
1
=

-
=

=
i
i S
S i
i
i S
S S
i S
S S
i S
S S
-
A
R R R
R R A
A
R R R
R R i
R R R
R R i
R R R
R i
i


To find voltage gain

Use circuit 1,

i S
i S S
- S
i S
S S
8 i
-
i
-
-
i S
L
S
e
J
R R R
R R i
i i
R R R
R R i
i R
i R
A
i
i
R i
R i
J
J
A

= =

=
= - = =
) ,, (
) ,, (
) (
) ,, (
) ,, (
i
, circuit From
) 1 (
1 1
b
, ,
,




Applying current divider rule to circuit 2,

7
55 . 9 A
) 98 . 9 . 9 (
9 . 9
8846 . 1

656 . 97
A
(1) in this using
,
'
,
,
'
=

- - =

=
i

i
i
S
-
R R
R
R
R
A
R R
R i
i



To find output resistance










R
R
R R
R R
R
B S
B S
9 .
9 . 9 ,, 1
=
=

=


h
re
v
ce


h
ie


#

#
$



i
b



v
ce

-

1/h
oe



h
Ie
i
b




#
C

i
b


h
ie




h
re
v
ce


#


v
ce


1/h
oe


h
Ie
i
b



8
O =
= =
O =

-
=

=
=

K R
R R R
K R
h R
h h
h
R
i
J
R

ie
fe re
oe

ce
97 . 1
,, 47 . 148 ,,
14
1 9 .
) 1 ( 1
1 1
1
1
,

4
6

Approximate h-parameter equivaIent circuit.

h
re
is the reverse voltage gain or reciprocal of voltage gain. For an amplifier, voltage gain is
high. There fore h
re
is very low. For approximation, take h
re
'ce because zero or the voltage
source is replaced by short circuit.

n the h-parameter equivalent circuit,
hoe
1
is the internal resistance of the current
source h
fe
i
b
. For an ideal condition, the internal resistance must be infinity. Because
hoe
1
=
infinity or hoe =0D or the corresponding branch is replaced by open circuit.

With the above approximations, the circuit is called approximate h-parameter equilent
circuit .


8. Repeat the previous problem using approximate h-parameter equilent circuit .







9













Without R
s
and R
B


1 =
=
=
i
fe i
-
L
i
A
h A
i
i
A


-
8
i
i
v
R =


$ince h
re
, the input circuit contains only one resistance h
ie
.

ThereIore #
i
h
ie
1KO


= = = =
i

i
i -
L
8
ce
J
R
R
A
R i
R i
v
v
A


With #
$
and #

#
i



#

'
$

-



#
$

i
$


i
b
h
ie

#
i

1


i

#
C


v
ce


-
#

9.9K
#
C
K
#
$
1K
4
) ,, (
1
i S i
R R R R =

O = K R
i
9 . 1
1

1
1
1
1
1
1
*
8
-
i i
-
-
S
L
i
8

i
i
i
A A
i
i
i
i
A
i
i
A
=
=
=

i S
8 i
i
R R R
R R A
A

=
) ,, (
) ,, (
1

i B S
B S s
b
R R R
R R i
i

=
) ,, (
) ,, (
1

4 . 47
1 9 .
) 9 . ( 1
1
!
!
= =
=

=
s
ce
v
i
i
v
v
A
A
A


To Iind output resistance










i
$1


#
i


#

#
$



i
$1


i
$
i
b



#

h
ie


i
b



#
$


v
ce


h
Ie
i
b



#
O

#
O
1

i
C

41

ce

i
v
R =

$ince h
oe
O,
=
oe
h
1
ThereIore, the output resistance #
O
O.

#
O
11
#
O
,, #
C


#
O
1
<KO

9. For the Iollowing circuit, Iind ac perIormance quantities.



















#
E

#
c

#
4

#

C
E

#
E

#
C1

#

#
1


C
E

'
cc

4


#
C1
#
C
5K
#
1
1K
#

1K
#

8K
#
4
8K
h
ie
1K
99
99 .
= =
=
e
f
h .
-

$ince h
re
, h
oe
values are not given Ior approximation. Assume the data as
zero that is use approximate h-parameter equivalent circuit

Ac equivalent circuit,






















#
c


#
4


#

#
c1


#

#
1


O/P
4












#
1
9.97K

# #
C1
,, #

,, #
4

# .96 K

Application h-parameter equivalent circuit.

















h
ie


#
1

i
b1

i
s

#
i
1
#
i

1
#
h
Ie
i
b1

i
b

h
ie
C1

#
C

h
Ie
i
b

C
i

E E1
#
C

#
4

#

#
C1

#

#
1

#
1


Output
44
Without #
1
To Iind current gain
) 1 (
1
=
-
L
i
i
i
A

i

- h
Ie
i
b

ie
- fe
-
h R
XR i h
i

=
1

Applying current divider rule between collector oI Iirst transistor and base
oI second transistor.

$ubstituting in equation (1)
76
1 96 .
) 96 . ( 99

=
i
i
ie
e
f
i
A
A
h R
R h
A


To Iind input resistance

1
-
8
i
i
v
R =

$ince h
re
is zero, the input circuit contains only one resistance h
ie


O = = ( K h R
ie i
1


To Iind voltage gain
i

i
i -
L
8
ce
v
R
R
A
R i
R i
v
v
A

1

= = =

45
66
1
5
76
=
- =
J
J
A
K
K
A


With #
1


K R
R R R
i
J
R
i
i i
8
8
i
9 .
,,
1
1
1
1
=
=
=

To Iind current gain Current divider rule

i
8
-
R R
R i
i

=
1
1
1


44 . 66
) 1 97 . 9 (
97 . 9 76
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=

-
=

=
=
- =
i
i
i

i i
S
-
i i
i
A
A
R R
R
A A
i
i
A A
i-
i-
iS
iL
A





46












To Iind voltage gain

8
ce
J
v
v
A

1
=


'oltage gain remains same as the resistor #
1
is connected across the ideal voltage source.
A
v
1
66
To Iind output resistance
















h
ie

#

i
b1

i

h
ie


#

h
Ie
i
b1

#
C



v
ce


-
h
Ie
i
b

i
C

#
O
1

#
O



#
1


'
$


i
$


i
b1


#
i

47

c
ce

i
v
R =



i
b1
, h
Ie
i
b1
, i
b
, h
Ie
i
b


$ince there is ideal current source in the output circuit, output resistance #
o



K R R
R R
R R R
R R R
o



5
1 1 1
1 1 1
,,

1
= =

=
=
=


1. h
ie
1K
h
Ie
1
#
E
is not bypassed.









48
























































Output

'
$

#
C
K
#

1K


1K
#
1


#
E

1K

'
CC


-
#
E

#
C

#
1
,,#

'
$

i
b

'
O

h
Ie
i
b



#
C


i
b
h
Ie
i
b

#
E


#

-

i
b
h
ie

i
$

#
i
1


v
$

#
i

i

v
O

49

#

9.9K
Without #

To Iind current gain
1 = =

= =
e
f
-
-
e
f
-
L
i
h
i
i h
i
i
A


To Iind input resistance

-
8
i
i
v
R =

Applying K',

v
s
h
ie
i
b
( i
b
h
Ie
i
b
) #
E


#
i
h
ie
( 1 h
Ie
) #
E


#
i
1KO

TO Iind voltage gain

96 . 1
1

1 = - =
= = =
v
i

i
i -
L
S

v
A
R
R
A
R i
R i
v
v
A

with #

i i
R R R ,,
1
=

O = K R
i
46 . 8
1


i

i
R R
AiR
i-
i-
Ai
i-
i-
iS
iL
A

= = - =
1


#

'

i
$


i
b1


#
i

5
185 . 8
1 9 . 9
) 9 . 9 ( 1
1
=

=
i
A



96 . 1
1
= =
S

J
J
J
A

i
8
-
R R
R i
i

=



To find output resistance

























$ince there is no source on the input side , i
b
.

= =
= = (

-
e
f
i
v
R
i i h

In the above problem, what is the eIIect oI connecting a bypass capacitor across #
E
??

With emitter bypass capacitor, #
E
becomes redundant or mathematically #
E
. $ubstituting #
E
in the
above equations.
A
i
-h
Ie
not aIIected since it does not depend on the #
E
value or emitter
bypass capacitor does not aIIect current gain.


v
o
- #
E

h
ie

i
b
h
Ie
i
b

51
#
i
h
ie
( 1 h
Ie
) #
E


#
i
h
ie


#
i
1KO

With the emitter bypass capacitor, input resistance decreases.
An ampliIier should have high input resistance. ut with bypass
capacitor, #
i
decreases. (ypass capacitor should not be connected to get
high input resistance.

1
) (
1
=
=
=
J
i

i J
A
R
R
A A


The voltage gain increases due to reduction in the input resistance. (
Emitter bypass capacitor should be connected to get high voltage gain.

=

R not aIIected. (ypass capacitor will not alter the output

resistance.

Thus the Iunction oI #
E
and C
E
is to provide high dc stability ( -,,- behaves
like open circuit Ior dc) and to get high voltage gain. For ac signal oI mid
Irequency, reactance oI the -,,- becomes very low and capacitor behaves like
short circuit.















5


High Input #esistance AmpliIiers.

1. EMITTE# FOOWE#
Draw the circuit oI emitter Iollower. Find ac perIormance quantities. What are the
limitations oI emitter Iollower circuit??
Take #
1
1K #

1K #
E
1K h
ie
1K

h
Ie
1














































#
E

#
1


#

Output
'
CC

5
Ac equivalent circuit.























App h-parameter eq.ckt





























#
E
#
1
,,#

'
$

v
O

#
i
#
i
1


#

#
E

-
i
$


i
b
h
ie

i
b
h
Ie
i
b




h
Ie
i
b


v
$

i

v
O
-
54
#

9.9K
WITHOUT #

UFFE#
High current gain impedance matching
ogic circuit

Current gain

11 1 1 1 = = =

=
=
fe
-
- fe -
i
-
L
i
h
i
i h i
A
i
i
A


Input resistance

-
S
i
i
J
R =
Applying K' to input

O =
=
=
=
K R
R h h R
R i h i h J
i
E fe ie i
E - fe - ie S
1
1 ) 1 1 ( 1
) 1 (
) (


'oltage gain


99 .
1
1
11

= = = = =
i
E
i
i -
E L
S
J
R
R
A
R i
R i
J
J
A

WITH #

O =
=
=
K R
R R R
i
i i
46 . 8
1 ,, 9 . 9
,,
,
,


To Iind current gain


#

's

i
$


i
b


#
i

55
64 . 8
1 9 . 9
) 9 . 9 ( 11
,
,
=

=
= - =
i
i
i
S
-
i
-
-
S
L
i
A
R R
R A
i
i
A
i
i
i
i
A

i
S
-
R R
R i
i

=

To Iind voltage gain

99 .
,
= =
S
o
i
J
J
A

To Iind output resistance.

o
o
o
i
J
R =

Applying KC to output terminal (E) i
o
h
Ie
i
b
i
b

Apliying K' to input circuit -i
b
h
ie
-'
o


'
o
-i
b
h
ie

O =

= 9 . 9
1 ) 1 (
ie
ie
fe -
ie -
o
h
h
h i
h i
R



imitations oI Emitter Follower

1. Input resistance #
i
(1 KO) is very high Ior an emitter Iollower circuit. ut when biasing
network is considered (#
E
), input resistance reduces. . ,,
,
i i
R R R
B
= Thus the input resistance is
limited by
B
R , Ior any value oI .
i
R ThereIore the biasing network deIeats the purpose oI using
emitter Iollower.
. Current gain oI emitter Iollower is very high |A
i
1 h
Ie
|. ut due to biasing network, the overall
current gain
,
i
A is reduced.


i
i
i
R R
R A
A

=
,



The above limitations can be over come by using oot strapping Technique.

i
O


v
O
-

i
b


h
ie

h
Ie
i
b

56
OOT $T#APPED EMITTE# FOOWE#






























For dc condition.
Capacitor behaves like open circuit.

DC equivalent circuit.



















I

#
E

#
#

#
1

'
CC

'
$


#

C
C


#
E

#

#
1


C
C

Output
57





This is a voltage divider circuit. With an additional resistor #. assuming I

and # to be very small, the

voltage drop across # can be neglected and circuit resembles standard voltage divider bias. Hence the
biasing condition is unaltered.


For ac condition

The capacitor behave like short circuit.
fc
X

6
1
= , iI the Irequency is in mid Irequency range.
The boot strap resistor # is directly connected to output terminal E. thereIore, the input '
$
is connected to
output terminal through the resistance #.
This method oI connecting input and output terminals only under ac condition is called boot strapping

$TATE AND P#O'E MIE#$ THEO#EM













Consider an ampliIier with a resistance ( or capacitance ) connected across input and output terminals.

$tatement:
Millers theorem states that when a resistance ( or capacitance ) is connected across input and
output terminals, the same can be replaced by two independent resistances ( or capacitances ) connected
one across the input terminals and the other across output terminals. These are called Miller equivalent
resistances ( or capacitances).



#
'
$

-
#

v
$
1
-

#
$




AmpliIier
A
'
O


i
58
P#OOF:

Applying Ohms law

S
S

S
AJ J Then
J
J
R
J J
i
= =

=
A et
) 1 (


$ubstituting in (1)

) (

1
) 1 (

'
+

'

'
+

'

=
MI
S
S
S
S
S S
R
J
A
R
J
A
R
J
R
A J
R
AJ J
i

comparing equations (1) and (), the same current i will Ilow through a resistance
MI
R when it is between
input terminal and ground. ThereIore, the KC at the input terminal is not aIIected by replacing the
resistance # by
MI
R .
MI
R is called Miller equivalent resistance on the input side.

To Iind Miller equivalent resistance on the output side.











#
-
#

v
$
1
-

#
$




AmpliIier
A
'
O


i
59






1
(4); - - - - - - - - - - -
'
1
#A
'
1
'
1
1 '
#
A
'
'
A' ' then
'
'
A et
) (
O
O
O O
O
O
$ O
$
O

'
+

'

'
+

'

=

'
+

'

=
= =

=
A
RA
R
R
i
A
R
A
A
R
A
i
R
J J
i
M
M
S S



M
R is the Miller equivalent resistance on the output side.
The same current I will Ilow through the resistance
M
R iI # is replaced by
M
R which is connected
across output terminal and ground. (#eplacing # by
M
R will not aIIect KC at the output terminal.

(#eplacing # by Miller equivalent resistances, the circuit is as Iollows.











i

#
MI


-
#
MO

#

v
$
1
-

#
$




AmpliIier
A
i

-
'
o


-
6

Draw the circuit oI oot strapped Darlington Emitter Follower and Iind ac perIormance quantities.

#
1
1K #

1K #
E
1K h
ie
1K

h
Ie
1

Dual of Miller`s Theorem


















Consider a general ampliIier as shown below. In this ampliIier, the resistance # is common to the input and
output circuits do not have a common resistance.

This resistance # can be removed so that the input and output circuits do not have a common
resistance.

#emoving oI the resistance # aIIects the K' equation on input and output side.
The circuit must be modiIied as explained Iollows so that the removal oI resistance # should not aIIect the
K' equations.



The purpose oI the Iollowing analysis is to remove the inter dependence oI input and output circuits. $o
that either input circuits or output circuits can be solved independently.

C
-

i
1

'
i

-

i

v
O
1


#

-

#

#
$



AmpliIier

v
O

i

'
$

-
61
Applying K' to input circuit

) (
1 1
= R i i J R i J
i S
S

ut i

-i

R A R
i R J R i J
R A i J R i J
R i A i J R i J
R i i J R i J
i MI
MI i S S
i i S S
i i S S
L i S S
) 1 (

) 1 (
) (
) (
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
=
=
=
=
=


From the above equation, R A
i
) 1 ( is the resistance which when connected in series with the input circuit
instead oI # will not aIIect the input circuit.

#epeating the above analysis Ior the output circuit.


R
A
A
R
R i J J
R
A
i J J
R
A
i J J
R i
A
i
J J
R i i J J
i i ut
R i i J J
i
i
M
M L
i
L
i
L
L
i
L

L
L

'
+

'

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1

)
1
1 (
) 1
1
(
) (
) (
) (
,
,
,
,
1
,

1
,
We know that
i
L
L
L
i
A
i
i
i
i
A
=
=
1



From the above equation, the resistance
M
R when connected in the output circuit alone does not alter the
K' equation.

Thus, without aIIecting the electrical nature oI the circuit, the circuit can be redrawn a




6











1. $olve the Iollowing circuit using Dual oI Millers Theorem.

Ac equivalent circuit


















i
1


#

#
MO
#( Ai 1)

Ai

#
MI
#( 1-A
i
)
#
$



AmpliIier
i

'
O


-

'
$

#
C
K
'
CC

#
E
1K
'
O

h
ie
1K
h
Ie
1

#
C

#
E

i

v
O

-

6













Current gain
1 = =
=
=
fe i
- fe L
-
L
i
h A
i h i
i
i
A


To Iind
MI
R and
M
R


K
A
A
R R
K A R
i
i
E M
i E
1 . 1
1
11 1
)
1
(
11 1 1 1 ) 1 ( #
MI
=

=
= = =











i

h
Ie
i
b


'
$

h
ie
i
b


#
E

#
C

'
O

h
Ie
i
b

#
i
'
$


#
MI

h
ie

#

#
C
#
MO

.1K
i

i
b

64


















To Iind input resistance
-
S
i
i
J
R =
Applying K' to input circuit

K R
h R R
h R i J
i
ie MI i
ie MI - S
1
1 11
) (
=
= =
=


To Iind voltage gain

95 .
1
1 .
1
=
= = = =
J
i
L
i
i -
L L
S

J
A
R
R
A
R i
R i
J
J
A


To Iind output resistance

h
Ie
i
b



'
O

-
i
C
h
ie
#
MI

i
b

65

i
J
R =

$ince there is no source on the input side, I
b

i
c
h
Ie
i
b

= (

R

. #epeat the above problem iI h
ie
1K h
re
1
-4
h
oe
1 h
Ie
1














-
L
i
i
i
A =

Appling current divider rule in the output circuit


'
$

v
ce

(#
MO
#
C
) #

1/h
oe

h
ie
i
b

h
re
v
ce

h
ie


#
MI

i
b

i

66




515 . 96
) 1 ( 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
) ( 1
1
|
1
|
|
1
| 1
| | 1 1
1
1
1
6
6
=
- -
- -
=

=
=
=

i
i
E e
fe E e
i
fe i E e e i i
fe
i
i
E e i i
i
i
E e
fe
i
M e
fe
e L
fe
i
e L
- fe
e
L
e
- fe
L
A
A
R R h
h R h
A
h A R h R h A A
h
A
A
R R h A A
A
A
R R h
h
A
R R h
h
h R
h
A
h R
i h
h
R
h
i h
i


To Iind input resistance

-
S
i
i
J
R =
O =
O =

=
=
=
R
R
A
A R
R
R
A R R
L
MO
i
i E
MO
I M
i E MI
1 .
1 . 1
) 1 (
515 . 97
) 1 (


Applying K' to input loop

O =
=
=
=
=

K R
R A h h R R
R i A h h R i
J h h R i J
i
L i re ie MI i
L - i re ie MI -
e re ie MI - S
4844 . 98
) 1 . ( ) 515 . 96 ( 1 1 515 . 97
) (
) (
4

67
L b i ce
L L ce
R i A v
R i v
=
=

To Iind voltage gain

. 9497 .
484 . 98
1 .
515 . 96
=
- = = = =
J
i
L
i
i -
L L
S
e
J
A
R
R
A
R i
R i
J
J
A


To Iind output resistance.











KC to output
ce oe - fe
J h i h i =

K' to input
=
e re ie MI -
J h h R i



O =

=
=
K
h R
h h
h
R
J h
h R
J h h
i
i
J
R
ie MI
re fe
oe

ce oe
ie MI
ce re fe

44 . 84
1









v
ce


-
1/h
oe

h
ie
i
b

h
re
v
ce

h
ie


#
MI

i
b

i
C

68
YBRID-6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT


To obtain Hybrid-6 Equivalent circuit


































Consider a PNP transistor as shown above. The emitter current IE is divided in to base current I

and a
component -I
E
oI the collector current. This division oI current takes place in the entire base layer at
inIinite number oI points. For mathematical convenience, it is assumed that the division oI current takes
place at an imaginary terminal
1
.

r
b
1
e
: It is the resistance oI Iorward biased base to emitter junction and it is the resistance oIIered to the Ilow
oI the current I
E
.

r
b
1
c
: It is the resistance oI reverse biased collector to base junction. The Ilow oI current in this resistance
represents the reverse saturation current I
co
due to Ilow oI minority charge carriers.
r
bb
1
: It is the resistance oI the base layer Ior the Ilow oI the current I

. This is called base spreading

resistance because the division oI emitter current is spread across the entire region.

I
C

C
b
1
e

r
b
1
e

1

C
b
1
C

r
b
1
c

I
CO

r
bb
1

I

I
E

C
E
P
N
P

69
-I
E
: This is the current in the collector due to transistor action. When charge carriers reach the base layer
Irom emitter, the potential gradient at the collector junction will result in the movement oI the charge
carriers in to the collector. This Iorms the current. -I
E
depends on the emitter current I
E
which inturn
depends upon the voltage across base to emitter junction.
| 1 |
1
=
%
E JB
O E
J
e I I

ThereIore, the voltage '

1
E
controls -I
E
. '

1
E
is the independent variable. This depends on charge carrier
concentration and temperature.

c
b
1
e
and c
b
1
c
: This is the stray capacitance across the two P-N junction. The reactance oI the capacitor is
very high at mid-Irequency. Hence approximately, capacitors are replaced by open circuit (not considered).
ut Ior high Irequency,
fc
X

a
=

1
the reactance becomes Iinite. Hence considered in the analysis.

All the above terms are called Hybrid-6 parameters. These parameters can be represented by the Iollowing
circuit and it is called Hybrid-6 equivalent circuit or Giacollette equivalent circuit.

























g
m
v
b
1
e
is the component oI collector current(-i
e
) expressed as a Iunction oI independent variable v
b
1
e
. g
m
is
the Transconductance oI the transistor. This represents ability oI the transistor in transIorming the input
voltage v
b
1
e
in to output current.

r
ce
: r
ce
is the internal resistance oI the current source.


C
b
1
e

i
c

g
m
v
b
1
e

r
b
1
C

r
bb
1

1

C
b
1
C

E

C

i
b

r
b
1
e

r
ce

7

To Iind Hybrid-6 parameters.

ybrid -6 equivalent circuit:























et the output terminals be short circuited .

Considering mid- Irequency, reactance oI all capacitors becomes inIinite. ThereIore, all capacitors can be
replaced by open circuit.

r
b
1
c
is the resistance oI reverse biased collector junction whose value is very high. ThereIore it can be
approximated to open circuit.

r
ce
is short circuited, becomes redundant. Hence can be removed.

















v
s


C
b
1
e

i
c

g
m
v
b
1
e

r
b
1
C

r
bb
1

1

C
b
1
C

E

C

i
b

r
b
1
e

r
ce

1
1


r
bb
1

r
b
1
e

'
b
1
e

v
s


i
b


E
g
m
v
b
1
e

C
'
ce

71


To Iind g
m


E B

m
e b
c
m
e b
m c
J
I
g
v
i
g
v g i
1
1
1

=
=
=


where AIC and A'

1
E
are the changes in the currents and voltages around quiescent condition.

) 1 (
1
=
E B

m
dJ
dI
g


We know that

I
C
-I
E
I
CO

$ince I
CO
is very small and - is very close to unity,

) ( | |
| 1 |
1
1
<
= =
=
%
E B
O
%
E B
O E
E
J
J
e I I
J
J
e I I I
I I

DiIIerentiating with respect to '

1
E


) ( ) (
1
| |
1
1
1
from
J
I
dJ
dI
J J
J
e I
d
dI
%

E B
% %
E B
O
E JB

=
=

7
6 , 11
7
=
t
J
o
%

II t 7
o
C

1
6
6 .
116

=
=
= =

mJ J
J J
%
%


()
mv
I
dJ
dI

E B

6
1
=


substituting in (1)

mJ
mA I
g

m
6
=

In general
%

m
J
I
g

=



In the above equation, I
C
represents the dc collector current or quiescent current. Its value can be Iound
graphically by drawing the dc load line, locating the Q point on the load line and then measuring I
C
. O# iI
know the biasing arrangement oI the transistor, then the circuit can be solved using biasing technique and
then I
C
can be calculated.

To Iind r
b
1
e


From the two port network theory, we know that
v
se
i
b
h
ie
h
re
v
ce
-----(4)
i
c
i
b
h
Ie
h
oe
v
ce -----------
(5)

O#







-
i
b

h
ie

h
re
v
ce

oe
h
1

h
Ie
i
b


v
ce

v
s

-
7










From equation (5)
) 6 ( = =
ce
b
c
e
f
whenv
i
i
h



In the hybrid 6 equation circuit, 'CE is already . ThereIore obtain the ratio
b
c
i
i

From hybrid 6 equation circuit and equate it to equation (6).

e b
m
b
c
c m
e b
b
c m
e b
r g
i
i
i g r i
i g v
1
1
1
=
=
=


Equating to equation (6).
h
Ie
g
m
r
b
1
e




To find rbb
1


From equation (4)

fe
m
e b
m
fe
e b
h
g
g
g
h
r
=
=
1
1
74
) 7 ( = =
ce
b
s
ie
whenv
i
v
h

From the hybrid-6 equivalent circuit, applying K' to input circuit.

'
s
i
b
(r
bb
1
r
b
1
e
)

e b
ie
bb
e b bb
ie
e b
bb
b
s
r h r
from r r h
r r
i
v
1 1
1 1
1
) 7 (
1
=
=
=

e b
ie
bb
r h
g
1
1
1

=

To find r
b
1
c


Rewriting the hybrid 6 equivalent circuit by neglecting all capacitances( open circuit)



















From equation (4)

) 8 ( = =
b
ce
s
re
i when
v
v
h

Taking i
b
in the hybrid-6 equivalent circuit, since there is no voltage drop across r
bb
1
, v
s
v
b
1
e
.

i
C

v
ce
r
ce

g
m
v
b
1
e


i
b
i

r
b
1
e

r
bb
1

1

r
b
1
c

'
b
1
e


v
s

-
-
CKT ()
75

$ubstituting in equation (8).

) 9 (
1
= =
b
ce
e b
re
i
v
v
h

From the hybrid -6 equivalent circuit. Applying voltage divider rule to circuit().

e b
re
e b
c b
c b e b
e b
c b e b
e b
ce
e b
c b e b
e b
ce
e b
r
h
r
r
r r
r
hre in ng substituti
r r
r
v
v
r r
r v
v
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
), 9 (
=

=




r
b
1
e
is the resistance oI the Iorward biased junction and r
b
1
c
is the resistance oI the reverse biased junction.
ThereIore r
b
1
e
can be neglected in the denominator.

re
e b
c b
c b
e b
re
c b
e b
ce
e b
h
r
r
r
r
h
r
r
v
v
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
=
=
=




76
To Iind r
ce


From equation(5)
) 1 ( = =
b
ce
c
oe
i
v
i
h


Applying KC at the output terminal

i
c
i
1
g
m
v
b
1
e
i

c b e b
ce
e b
m
ce
ce
c
r r
v
v g
r
v
i
1 1
1

=

substituting in the above equation

e b
ce
ce re m
ce
ce
c
r
v
v h g
r
v
i
1
=


$ince r
b
1
e
r
b
1
c
, r
b1e
r
b
1
c
=
r
b
1
c


re m
c b
oe
ce
ce e r m
c b
oe
ce
re m
c b
ce
oe
re m
c b
ce ce
c
re m
e b
ce
ce c
h g
r
h
r
g h g
r
h
r
h g
r r
h
equation in g subsitutin
h g
r r v
i
h g
r r
i
v i

=
= =
=
=
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
) 1 (
1 1
|
1
|


To Iind C
b
1
C



77
C
b
1
C
is the junction capacitance oI reverse biased collector to base junction. When a PN junction is reverse
biased, the width oI the depletion layer increases and capacitance decreases. ThereIore C
b
1
C
is very low oI
the order oI Iew pico Iarads.

To Iind C
b
1
e


This is the capacitance oI Iorward biased PN junction. When a PN junction is Iorward biased, width oI the
depletion layer decreases and capacitance increases.

C
b
1
e
C
b
1
C

%
m
f
g
a


Where I
T
is called the transition Irequency.

I
T
h
Ie
I
.


I
.
is called upper cutoII Irequency.


I
.

| |
1
1 1 1
c b e b e b
c c r a



Problem:
A transistor ampliIier is operating with a dc condition oI (1',1mA). The operating temperature is

C.
The H-parameters oI the transistor are h
ie
1Ko, h
re
.5X1
-4
, h
Ie
1, h
oe
5X1
-5
mho. Calculate hybrid-
6 parameters given that C
C
PF. Take I
T
1MHz.

mho m g
mho g
mJ
mA
g
J
I
g
m
m
m
%

m
1 . 8
81 .
1 . 6
1
). 1 (
=
=
=
=

78
mJ J
J J
J
t
J
S for
C for
%
%
%
%
i
e
1 . 6
61 .
116
7
116
7

=
=

=
=
=

O =
O =
=
=
r
r
r
g
h
r
e b
e b
e b
m
fe
e b
61 .
61
81 .
1
). (
1
1
1
1




O =
=
=
r
r
r h r
bb
bb
e b
ie
bb
79 .
61 . 1
). (
1
1
1 1


O =
=
=

r
X
r
h
r
r
c b
c b
re
e b
c b
144
1 5 .
61 .
). 4 (
1
1
1
1
4


79
O =

=

=

r
X X X X
r
h g
r
h
r
ce
ce
re m
c b
oe
ce
54 . 6
) 1 5 . 1 1 . 8 . (
144
1
1 5
1
1
1
). 5 (
4

5
1


pF c
p p c
p X c
X
X
c
c
f
gm
c
f
gm
c c
e b
e b
e b
e b
c b
%
e b
%
c b e b
6967
697
1 97 . 6
) 1 (
1
81 .

) 6 (
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
8
1
6
=
=
=

a
=

a
=
a
=