Comperative Study of Risk Taking Behaviour Between The Male and Female Students of DSVV

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY
Comperativestudy Of Risk Taking Behavior Between Male And Female Students Of DSVV
Submitted By :Madhur Singh B.Sc. 5th SEM
Supervisor :Dr. Prama Sharma Lecturer, Dept of psychology, DSVV
Department Of Clinical Psychology, DSVV,Gayatrikunj, Shantikunj Haridwar(U.K.)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Im heartily indebted. To PARAM PUJYA GURUDEV and VANDANIYA MATAJI for their subtle blessings on me. I express my respect and gratitude to our respected Chancellor Dr. Pranav Pandya ji and our dear Shaill JiJi. I would especially pay my cordial gratitude to my Guide Dr. Prama Sharma who had been guiding me through out this project work. Im deeply indebted to Head and Staffs of Dept of Psychology who continuously guided and encouraged me and gave their incalculable suggestions for initiating this project. I would like to thank my friends and subjects who have always supported me and co-operated in the conduction of the project work. I thank to all and express my deep sense of gratitude towards them. I would like to acknowledge DSVV for providing me the time and opportunity to Comparative study of Risk Taking Behavior between male and female students of DSVV.
DATE.
MADHUR SINGH B.Sc. 5th SEM
Comparative study of Risk Taking behavior between males and females of DSVV students
INTRODUCTION
NEED OF STUDY LITERATE REVIEW ON RISK TAKING BEHAVOIUR PROBLEM
HYPOTHESIS
Need of study
20th century is the age of competition, in which person is busy to keep himself in a leading position. This competitive sprit bounds him to opt the risk. It is evident that a risk taker is more successful and leading position holder in the society. Risk as Layman understands may be an act where an individual undertakes to earn his livelihood generally the term risks means a dangerous factor or element , where an individual put in willingly/unwillingly in that situation. Actually one thing is common to person for risk taking - Successful entrepreneurs have one thing in common: they are more comfortable taking risks than most. Improve your risk-taking ability in order to improve your performance. Salespeople and managers who consistently perform at a higher level have certain things in common. They are committed to their success, have a passion for their profession, have clear goals and are uniformly more comfortable taking risks than most. Their ability to take intelligent risks is an important ingredient in their success and a huge determinant in anybody's level of achievement. Kogan & Wallach (1967) described the risk taking behavior on the basis of kind situation in which it is likely to be elicited. They stated that behavior reflected of risk taking disposition occurs in situations where there is a desirable goal & lack of certainty that can be attained. Peoples takes risk in many fields in his life such as hills, space, sea commercial trades, police and intelligence service, fire, professional trades, military service .
1. Risk Taking Behavior in Hills

Risky person perform many risky actions such as hilling, mountaineering, rock climbing and many persons participates in many actions.
2. Risk Taking Behavior in space

In space many problems man has to face such as: lack of environment, atmosphere, lack of gravity, lack of oxygen to breath risk of death due to blast age of rocket. Person takes many risky actions, in space there is no supportive environment for human being and there is no person to help men.
3. Risk Taking Behavior in Sea

Risk of being attack by ferocious Shark, being eaten up by large sea animals. Risk of being drowned, risk of breath due to shortage of oxygen in cylinder. Risk of ship to be drowned in sea these many are the risk of life that a person faces while exploring the sea.
4. Risk Taking Behavior in Commercial Trades

Risk of fall in market, risk of shortage in supply, risk of competitors, risk of political and environmental appraisal. Risk of fluctuation of shares, risk of recession in market and many other entrepreneurial risks.
5. Risk Taking Behavior in Police & Intelligence

Risk of being killed by the criminals, risk of being objected by the people, pressure of the political leaders, pressure of society, risk of being killed in terrorist attacks in face to face firing 6. Risk Taking Behavior in Fire Risk of being burnt during the operation of fire extinguishing, risk of being trapped in the burning building. Take risks to save the life and properties of others at the cost of their own life.
7. Risk Taking Behavior in Profession

The men who did dangerous work had a special kind of insurance policy. But when some body wanted to collect on that policy, the claims investigator suddenly became a member of THE RISK PROFFESSION
8. Risk Taking Behavior in Commercial Trades

Collection of accounts and payment present certain risk factors for the exporter. Conversely, the importer also has risks factors concerning their accounts payable. These risks include not only the actual payment for goods sold, but also extend to the shipment, quantity and quality of the products being purchased. Risk taking behavior also known as riskiness, risk taking propensity. Risk taking behavior performs every age person of society. It is vary upon different casts, religion of person and sex. Riskiness action more performed by adolescents (child between 11-14 yrs) and youth (12 22 yrs.)Take more risk than old age persons. Risk is an integral /main part our life. But very few persons know how to properly manage it, the peoples who manage to risk become success in his life either they become failure in his plan. Many researches proved that adolescents and youths take more risk than old age person. In adolescent level of risk taking behavior can be different form some reasons. A. Youth and adolescents are more susceptible to taking drugs, gambling and other risk taking behavior. B. A collaborative investigative team led by Daniel Romer, PhD, from the Annenberg Public Policy Center, and Hallam Hurt, MD, from the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia - Studies have suggested
that increased risk-taking in adolescence may be due to late maturation of brain functions known as executive cognitive functions, which control impulsivity. One of these functions, called working memory, does not fully mature until the third decade of life. Ill explain these two functions in following below.
B.1 Executive function of brain

It controls to impulsivity and its like a domain of some of our 'automatic' psychological processes that could be explained by the reproduction of learned schemas or set behaviors. It helps in planning and decision making. B.2 Working memory of brain Working memory is the ability to actively hold information in the mind needed to do complex tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and learning. Working memory tasks are those that require the goal-oriented active monitoring or manipulation of information or behaviors in the face of interfering processes and distractions. The cognitive processes involved include the executive and attention control of short-term memory which provide for the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. C. By which person perform much risk taking behavior such as fighting, gambling and alcohol use over four years starting when the youths were 10 to 12 years of age. Due to late maturation these two functions of brain, person adolescents perform much riskiness actions such as dropout to college, gambling, drugging. Risk-taking behaviors have been the subject of much speculation, from Sigmund Freud's belief that dare-devil stunts arise out of humans' innate "death drive," to some modern psychologists' view that dangerous activities can make us feel more alive. In general, we think of risky behavior as encompassing activities only a handful of
courageous, or "crazy," people would attempt, including skydiving, rock climbing, cliff jumping, or other dramatic exploits. In reality, though, risk-taking behaviors also include more mundane acts, like having unprotected sex, gambling, robbing banks, and taking drugs. The reasons for these behaviors are complex, although not mysterious, and can mean different things to different people. In general, though, as poet Robert Browning wrote, "Our interest's on the dangerous edge of things." One commonly accepted theory about why people do risky things has to do with evolution. This theory holds that in one of the deep, dark, old parts of our brains, where the control centers for survival and reproduction are located; there are preprogrammed impulses in some people that stimulate them to take risks. These individuals are known in psychological terms as "risk seekers," whereas their more conservative counterparts are labeled "risk avoiders."(In attempting to delineate the characteristics of human risk taking, however, it is important to note that we cannot reasonably divide the population into risk takers and risk avoiders. All people will both seek risk and avoid risk at different points in their lives.) Sociologists and other experts believe that these very basic personality types evolved eons ago, and that despite the easier, more protected world most Western people now enjoy, they are not likely to change any time soon. On the classification of youth on the basis of sex and perform a cooperative study than I got that- boy are much risky than girls, if we see it on the level of collage many boys perform many risky behavior than girls dropout to school and many violence movements are the example of boys. In my dissertation work Ill study a comparative study of risk taking behavior between boys and girls and know the risk taking factors , what is the difference between boys and girls and why they do ? I shall also study the eight fields of risk taking behavior that are Hills Sea Space Commercial trades
Police and intelligence service Professional trades
Fire Military service
Literate review on Risk Taking Behavior

Actually Risk Taking Behavior is an important type of behavior person performs it from willingly and unwillingly. It performs by person in many fields of life such as- mountaineer, police and commercial trades, gambling, sportsman etc. so many theoretical and practical works have accomplished on it. Some of them are given below-
1. Research of De charms & Dave -1965 - Have proved in his

research that person takes risk when he examines the probabilities of success or failure. He conducts his research on boys and proved that every person take risk, child also take to risk. They proved in his research that boys with high fear of failure to more moderate risks then boys low on these dimensions.
2. Research of Mc Manish & Belli-1968
have proved in his
research that reward seekers take more risk intermediate risks then punishment avoiders. 3. Kogan -1968 have studied on high school aged children and proved that boys take more risks then girls. Kogan & kogan (1970) have studied on reflective and impulsive children proved that impulsive children respond more quickly then reflective children. Similar response styles are response evident in risk taking and other decision making situations. Therefore it was predicted that impulsive children would take more risk then reflective.
4. Doctoral thesis of university of Gothenburg a
new doctoral thesis from the university of Gothenburg shows that young Swedish women are more then men to perceive situations
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aas risky. How ever, there are no gender differences in actual risk taking behavior. 5. Study of Margrate Bohlin she studies risk taking behavior among 15 -20 yrs olds. Previous similar studies (Doctoral thesis of university of Gothenburg) in several countries have shows that men generally take more risk then women . Bohlin studies indicates that girls want to and are expected to behave like boys , and they certainly do; says Bohlin at the same time how ever ,they tend to perceive risks as more dangerous ,which corresponds to traditional gender role patterns. Although girls are expected to take risk to the same extent as boys, but they become fail in his plan. For an example: while they bare allowed to drink alcohol and have sex, they may not drink too much or have many sex partners. 6. University of Michigan
gave an standard theory of risks that
males and females are both risky but who is more risky it depends upon type of risks and situation.
7. Research of Reyna and Farley (2006)
In a summary of research and theory developed to understand and explain adolescent risk taking behavior, Reyna and Farley (2006) found that the assumptions about rational decision making that are imbedded in theories such as the Problem Behavior Theory do not apply to all adolescents. They argue that traditional models that emphasize conscious behavioral intentions and expectations and ignore unconscious emotional and cognitive reactions to the environment can only apply to some young people. Young people who consciously weigh up the perceived benefits and consequences of risky behavior are amenable to traditional models. However, there appears to be other young people who are able to quickly grasp an understanding of risky situations and avoid them and still others who take risks irrationally, under the
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influence of emotion. The latter group are described as sensationseeking and generally not affected by interventions that attempt to illustrate increased consequences to risky behavior (Reyna and Farley, 2006).
-www.learningbenefits.net/Publications/DiscussionPapers/Young people
07.pdf health risk 07-
8. Gender Differences in Risk Behavior: Does Nurture Matter: Women and men may differ in their propensity to choose a
risky outcome because of innate preferences or because their innate preferences are modified by pressure to conform to gender stereotypes. Single-sex environments are likely to modify students risk-taking preferences in economically important ways. To test this, our controlled experiment gave subjects an opportunity to choose a risky outcome a real-stakes gamble with a higher expected monetary value than the alternative outcome with a certain payoff and in which the sensitivity of observed risk choices to environmental factors could be explored. The results show that girls from single-sex schools are as likely to choose the real-stakes gamble as much as boys from either coed or single sex schools, and more likely than coed girls. Moreover, gender differences in preferences for risk-taking are sensitive to the gender mix of the experimental group, with girls being more likely to choose risky outcomes when assigned to all-girl groups. This suggests that observed gender differences in behavior under uncertainty found in previous studies might reflect social learning rather than inherent gender traits.
-Australian National University, University of Essex and IZA February 2009
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Problem
Every experiment is related with finding solution for one or the other problem. No doubt a problem is the basis of experiments or research. If research is limited only with the accumulation of facts than the boundaries of our knowledge will also be limited and our progress will be hampered mostly we consider research as fact gathering activity but in reality it is not the same. It has been said that a problem well put is half solved which seen to be correct. Because the clear cut understanding of problem provide fruitful information of both practical and theoretical aspects of the problem. It arises with the needs. If a person can easily satisfy the need then he does not utilize too much energy, resources and time. But all the problems cannot be solved very easily. Several barriers come in the solving to problem. Actually this the staring point of actual problem. From the experimental point of view, problem can be seen in three ways. 1. Those tests which can be testified and their interpretation and classification can be done. 2. Those facts which are not liable even to be tested but their interpretation and classification is possible. 3. Those facts which are not liable to be tested and neither their interpretation or classification is possible.
Ackoff, R.L. Has pointed out five elements which are essential for a
problem. They are i. ii. iii. iv.
v.
The research consumer and their participants. Objectives Alternatives means for obtaining the objectives A state of doubts in the consumer concerning the efficiency of the alternatives. Environments to which problems pertains.
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Definitions of problems
According to Kerlinger A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relations exist between two or more variables. According to Townsend - A problem is a question proposed for solution. According to Mc Guin A solvable problem is one that poses a question which is related to our inadequate knowledge and through experimentation we search solution or answer. On the basis of above definition we can easily say that problem is in itself a question which is related to our inadequate knowledge and through experimentation we search solution or answer.
Problem of my study
Comparative Study of Risk Taking Behavior between Male and Female Students of DSVV
Independent variable is SEX Dependent Variable is Risk Taking Behaviour
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Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is the statement that created by researchers when they speculate upon the out come of a research or experiment. Every true experimental design must have this statement at the core of its structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. It is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables . a hypothesis is a specific , testable prediction about what you expect happen in you study. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states ,this study is designed to access the hypothesis that sleep derived people will perform worse on a test than in individuals who are not sleep deprived . in hypothesis researcher expect to see , the goal of research is to determine whether this guess iss right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore number of different factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome. In many cases researcher may find that the result of fan experiments does not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.
Elements of good hypothesis

When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own psychology research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:
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I. Is your hypothesis is based on your research topic? II. Can your hypothesis be tested? III. Does you hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?
Definition of hypothesis according to some psychologist:

A testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables is called hypothesis
-Mcguin: Experimental psychology, 1990,p,27
A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables. Hypothesis are always in declarative sentence from and they relate either generally or specifically variables to variables.
-kerlinger: foundation of behavioral Research, 1986,p, 17
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. -General definition
A hypothesis is an assumption that serves as a tentative explanation
-Chaplin 1975
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. -General definition
Types of hypothesis
Two types of hypothesis that are given below:
1. Directional hypothesis
2. Null hypothesis
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1. Directional hypothesis
Directional hypothesis explains and predicts the direction and existence of a specific relationship. The predicted relationship will be either positive or negative. A directional hypothesis is more specific than the non-directional hypothesis. It is also known as the cause-and-effect hypothesis. In other words we can say Directional hypothesis are those where one can predict the direction (effect of one variable on the other as 'Positive' or 'Negative') Some examples of directional hypothesis are: (1) It is hypothesized that the co-educated students are more interactive and smarter than the non co-educated students. (In this example ' interactive and smarter than' shows the direction predicted)
(2) It is hypothesized that students who have firm career goals achieve higher GPAs than those who do not have firm career goals. (3) Girls perform better than boys (in this example 'better than' shows the direction predicted)
2. Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the belief that the independent variable in an experiment will have no effect on the dependent variable.
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The practice of science involves formulating and testing hypotheses, assertions that are capable of being proven false using a test of observed data. The null hypothesis typically corresponds to a general or default position. For example, the null hypothesis might be that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena or that a potential treatment has no effect
Hypothesis: There is no significance effect of Risk Taking Behavior between males and females.
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Variables
Variables play an important role in psychological and educational researches, as we clearly know that variable is that who change his value, but its method is very broad. In psychological researches variable have his special meaning. Variable is related to those attributes of any object, event and things which can be measurable. It has an important meaning in psychological term. A variable is something that can be changed, such as characteristics or value; variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another. It can be consider as variable is any thing that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task etc. Definitions of variables according to some psychologist Any measurable attributes of objects, things or being is called variables.
-DAmato: experimental psychology, 1970, p-10
Some characteristics of variable In psychological research any thing may be a variable if it have any measurable attribute if any thing not have measurable attribute then it could not be a variable.
Types of variables:
Variable are mainly two types: 1. Dependent variable 2. Independent variable
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A. Independent variable The independent variable is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent variable.
B. Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the variable that is measured by the experimenter. In our previous example, the scores on the test performance measure would be the dependent variable.
In my project sex is independent variable and risk taking behavior is dependent variable, because risk taking behavior depends according to sex.
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Independent variable General qualities of males and females

That men and women are different, everyone knows that. But, aside from external anatomical and primary and secondary sexual differences, scientists know also that there are many other subtle differences in the way the brains from men and women process language, information, emotion, cognition, etc. One of the most interesting differences appear in the way men and women estimate time, judge speed of things, carry out mental mathematical calculations, orient in space and visualize objects in three dimensions, etc. In all these tasks, women and men are strikingly different, as they are too in the way their brains process language. This may account, scientists say, for the fact that there are many more male mathematicians, airplane pilots, bush guides, mechanical engineers, architects and race car drivers than female ones. On the other hand, women are better than men in human relations, recognizing emotional overtones in others and in language, emotional and artistic expressiveness, esthetic
appreciation, verbal language and carrying out detailed and preplanned tasks. For example, women generally can recall lists of words or paragraphs of text better than men. Another factor s that males have ego oriented life style and females are jealous nature so they are not much risky. Another factor is sensitivity females are more sensitive to nature.
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Difference of some qualities between males and females Sensitivity between males and females
There is evidence to suggest that a great deal of the sensitivity that exists within men and women has a physiological basis. It has been observed that is many cases, women have an enhanced physical alarm response to danger or threat. Their autonomic and sympathetic systems have a lower threshold of arousal and greater reactivity than men. In both men and women, higher levels of testosterone directly affect the aggressive response and behavior centers of the brain. Increasing estrogen and progesterone in men has a "feminizing" effect. Sexually aggressive males become less focused on sexual aggressive behavior and content when they are given female hormones. On the other hand, changing estrogen and progesterone levels in women during menstrual cycles can produce a "flood" of memories as well as strong emotions. Increasing or high levels of testosterone can produce an emotional insensitivity, empathic block and increased indifference to the distress others.
Human relationship
Women tend to communicate more effectively than men, focusing on how to create a solution that works for the group, talking through issues, and utilizes non-verbal cues such as tone, emotion, and empathy whereas men tend to be more task-oriented, less talkative, and more isolated. Men have a more difficult time understanding emotions that are not explicitly verbalized, while women tend to intuit emotions and emotional cues. These differences explain why men and women sometimes have difficulty communicating and why men-to-men friendships look different from friendships among women.
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Reaction to stress Men tend to have a "fight or flight" response to stress situations while women seem to approach these situations with a "tend and befriend" strategy. Psychologist Shelley E. Taylor coined the phrase "tend and befriend" after recognizing that during times of stress women take care of themselves and their children (tending) and form strong group bonds (befriending). The reason for these different reactions to stress is rooted in hormones. The hormone oxytocin is released during stress in everyone. However, estrogen tends to enhance oxytocin resulting in calming and nurturing feelings whereas testosterone, which men produce in high levels during stress, reduces the effects of oxytocin.
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Dependent variable What is Risk?

Risk is the potential that a chosen action or activity (including the choice of inaction) will lead to a loss (an undesirable outcome). The notion implies that a choice having an influence on the outcome exists (or existed). Potential losses themselves may also be called "risks". Almost any human endeavor carries some risk, but some are much more risky than others. Risk-taking means taking actions which might have unpleasant or undesirable results.
What is Risk Taking Behavior?

Risk is action or type of behavior that is common in both animals and men. So we can say that risk taking behavior is universal event. This behavior does not exist in our Indian society it is also exist in many other countries. Every person of society or the people who belong from society perform Risk Taking behavior. It is not necessary that all people perform same type of Risk Taking Behavior, it depend upon persons social interaction or social environment his sex persons age and persons heredity factor, family environment of person and it also depend upon the nurture factor of person. Risk Taking Behavior have been the subject of much speculation, from Sigmund Freuds belief that dare-devil stunts arise out of humans' innate "death drive," to some modern psychologists' view that dangerous activities can make us feel more alive. In general, we think of risky behavior as encompassing activities only a handful of courageous, or crazy people would attempt, including skydiving, rock climbing, cliff jumping, or other dramatic exploits. In reality, through, risk taking behavior also include more mundane acts, like having unprotected sex, gambling. Robbing banks, and taking drugs. The reasons for these behaviors
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are complex, although not mysterious, and can mean different things to different people. In general, through, as poet Robert Browning wrote, our interests on the dangerous edge of things. These individuals are known in psychological terms as "risk seekers," whereas their more conservative counterparts are labeled "risk avoiders." (In attempting to delineate the characteristics of
human risk taking, however, it is important to note that we cannot reasonably divide the population into risk takers and risk avoiders. All people will both seek risk and avoid risk at different points in their lives.) Sociologists and other experts
believe that these very basic personality types evolved eons ago, and that despite the easier, more protected world most Western people now enjoy, they are not likely to change any time soon.
Definitions of Risk Taking Behavior

A probability or threat of a damage, injury, liability, loss, or other negative occurrence that is caused by external or internal vulnerabilities, and that may be neutralized through preemptive action
-www.businessdictionary.com/definition
Risk-taking refers to the tendency to engage in behaviors that have

the potential to be harmful or dangerous, yet at the same time provide the opportunity for some kind of outcome that can be perceived as positive Driving fast or engaging in substance use would be examples of risk-taking behavior. They may bring about positive feelings in-the-moment. However, they can also put you at risk for serious harm, such as an accident.
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Undertaking a task involving a challenge for achievement or a desirable goal in which there is a lack of certainty or a fear of failure. It may also include the exhibiting of certain behaviors whose outcomes may present a risk to the individual or to those associated with him or her. Also Known As: risky behavior, riskiness, risk-taking propensity
-ptsd.about.com/od/glossary/g/risktaking.htm
Risk Taking Behavior and Development

Normal adolescent development encompasses increasing independence, autonomy from the family, greater peer affiliation and importance, sexual awareness, identity formation, and physiological and cognitive maturation. Risk taking behavior serve different functions and have different meanings at various developmental stages during adolescences.
Co variation of Risk-Taking Behaviors

Risk taking behaviors do not occur in isolation; rather they tend to cluster in some- what predictable ways. In addition, over time, involvement in one type of risk taking behavior has also been found to increase the likely hood of becoming involved in other risk behaviors (Irwin & Shafer, 1992; Osgood, Johnston, OMalley, & Bachman, 1988). Milstein et al. (1992) found co- occurrence of risk behaviors among early adolescents; those who were sexually active were more likely than their no sexually active peers to report driving or riding in a car under the influence of substance. Mott and Haurin (1988) reported sequential involvement in risk taking among adolescents; sexually active adolescents in their study were more likely than no sexually adolescents to use alcohol and marijuana during the following year. Conversely, adolescents who used
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marijuana or alcohol were more likely than nonusers to become sexually active within year. The term co-variation has been used to describe the complex interrelationship among risk-taking behaviors. Three types of theories have been proposed to explain the co-variation of Risk Taking Behaviors: a. Individual behaviors influence one other b. Risk Taking Behaviors can be seen as alternative manifestations of a general tendency toward deviance c. A finite constellation of factors are responsible for multiple Risk Taking Behaviors.
Theories on risk taking behavior

Many researchers have given various developmental theories on risk taking behavior.
Problem behavior theory of Jessors(1977)

Jessors (1977) problem behavior theory is based on the premises that problem behaviors are part of normal adolescents development and play a major role in the process of transition to adulthood. According to Jessor ( 1982 ) behavior such as smoking, drinking, illicit substance use, risky driving, or early sexual activity should considered purposeful, meaningful, goal oriented and functional rather than arbitrary or perverse. As such, problem behaviors in adolescence can be instrumental in gaining peer acceptance and respect; in establishing autonomy from parents, in repudiating the norms and values of conventional authority; in coping with anxiety, frustration, and the anticipation of failure; in confirming for self and significant others certain attributes of identity; or in affirming maturity and marking a transition out of childhood and toward a more adult status (Jessor,1991)
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Theory of Baumrind(1987)
Baumrind (1987) has also argued that risk-taking is a part of normal adolescence. According to Baumrind, a certain amount of eustress(+ve stress)is necessary to build self confidence, enhance competence, and provide reinforcement for taking initiatives. Baumrind distinguishes behaviors that are potentially developmentally adaptive from those that is pathogenic dangerous with little or no chance for secondary gain. Irwin(1987)Has used the term exploratory behaviors to distinguish developmentally constructive risk-taking from negative behaviors traditionally associated with the term risk taking behavior. The former refers to experimentation within a controlled or adaptive context; the latter refers to those behaviors that have the potentials to jeopardize health and prosocial development.
Theory of Irwin and Millstein 1986

Risk taking behavior may fulfill adolescents evolving needs for autonomy, mastery, and intimacy (Irwin &Millstein 1986). These changing attributes influence the trajectory of risk taking behavior. Prevalence of sexual activity and alcohol use, which are considered risky, deviant, and problematic at age 12, are normative by age 18. Clearly the construct of risk taking behavior is best defined within a development context.
Biopsychological based theory

This theory was proposed by (Irwin & Millstein 1986) they believed that biological and psychological factors both play an important role in the development of risk taking behaviors. Biologically based theories suggest that risk Taking Behaviors result from hormonal effects, asynchronous pubertal timing, or
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genetic predispositions. Psychological/ cognitive theories implicate deflects in self-esteem, cognitive immaturity, affective disequilibrium, or high sensation seeking. Social/environmental theories rely on family and peer interactions, or community or societal norms to explain adolescents participation in Risk Taking Behaviors. (Irwin & Millstein 1986) proposed a model that represent to bio-psychological theory.
Biological maturation
Cognitive scope Ego-centrism Future-Time Prespective
Self-perception Self-esteem Body image identity
Social / Environmental perceptions. Parental peer influence Parental/peer control Parental/peer support
Personal values Independence achievement
Risk Perceptions Costs/ benefits Optimistic bais Controllability
Peer group Characteristics Peer age Peer value Peer behaviors
Risk Taking Behavior
Bio-psychological model of (Irwin & Millstein 1986)

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Characteristics of Risk Taking Behavior

Risk taking improves self-confidence and fosters selfesteem. With every risk you take there is an opportunity for success, and success breeds confidence. Sure, with every risk there is also the possibility of failure, but even if you fail you gain the confidence that comes from knowing you at least tried. The more often you try new things, the more often you will succeed and the more passionate you will become about your goals. Risk taking is the only way to promote growth. Like a child learning to walk, taking a risk means taking action, and only by taking action can we produce results. Risk taking improves our chances of success by teaching us what works. In order to improve results, we often have to change our attitudes, behaviors and the way we do things. When we arent afraid to risk change we are able to try new things and ultimately learn what works best for us. Risk taking promotes happiness. If we fail to try something that we would really like to do, we are left only with feelings of regret and unhappiness. We are much happier when we can say we tried, even if we didnt succeed.
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Determinants of Risk Taking Behavior

Every individual not perform same type of risk taking behavior it may be differ on every persons skill and person physical, mental and cognitive skills it also depend on persons
social and family environments. Some major determinants of risk taking behavior are given below. Risk Taking Behavior Determinants:
Risk taking behavior does not evolved by a single factor. It is a mixture of a lot of things. Some of those factors are psychological, some are physical, some are biological and some are even hereditary. So, I have compiled some of the basic factors that hold great importance when we talk about RISK TAKING BEHAVIOR DETERMINANTS:
1. Brain
Brain is one of the most important factors of risk taking behavior determinant. It is generally believed that the father and the child adopt almost the same type of brain stimulation and the later differences are the result of the environment in which the child has been grown up. Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split Brain Psychology (SBP) and the outcomes of genetic transmissions and are the tools that are used by the management of any organization to mould and amend the employees behavior to a more positive and proper one.
2. Physical Factors
One of the most important factors in determination of risky actions is the Physical Characteristics of an individual. It is believed that this factor plays a vital role in determining ones behavior in any
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organization. Those who are physically strong are more prone to take risk .
3. Social Factors
Social factors also play a vital role in determining ones behavior. The things that revolve and evolve around us on a regular basis determine our personality. The society that we live in, the cultural environment that we face daily, the community we get interacted to, all are included in this factor. Relationships, co-ordination, cooperation, interaction, environment in the family, organizations, workplaces, communities, societies all contribute in way or another as behavior determinants. Reward and cost outcome also influenced to Risk Taking Behavior.
4. Cultural and Religious Factors:

The culture in which one lives in, that may involve traditional practices, norms, customs, procedures, rules and regulations, precedents and values, all are important determinants of risky actions. Moreover, the creed, religion and believes are also very important factors of risky actions determinants.
5. Heredity Factor:
Genes are the determinants of heredity, and each individual carries genes from the mother and the father. Characteristics such as height, weight, skin color, eye color and hair color are all determined through the balance of genes in the body. Genes are responsible for cognitive and mental processes as well as physical features, and they are passed down through generations. And it play a major role in determinants of behavior. Risk Taking Behavior or Behavior come in child from genetics. The dominant effect of parent shows the effect in child.
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6. Environmental Factor
Although genes do play a large part in the developmental process, the environment also has a role in determining physical characteristics and development. If a fetus is exposed to pollutants or chemicals in the womb at specific stages in the developmental process, it can alter their deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, and cause mutations that may not otherwise have occurred.
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CHAPTER 2
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

a. TYPES OF SAMPLING
i. PROBABILITY SAMPLING Simple random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling/one-stage ii. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING Quota sampling Judgment sampling / purposive sampling Snowball sampling
TOOLS
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Sample
"It's a small world, but I wouldn't want to paint it" -Stephen Wright
While conducting a survey, it is very difficult to study the whole universe of problem because it is both costly, time consuming and complex as well as financially not viable. It is convenient to pick up a sample out of the universe proposed to be covered by the study. But the sample should be representing the universe as a whole. Sampling is a method to make social and several techniques have been developed or pickup some representative sample of the whole universe. It is a portion of scope drawn form a larger population. In statistics, a sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole. It is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places, or things to study. Research conclusions and generalization are only as good as the sample they are based on. Sample are always subsets or small parts of the total number that could be studied. When doing research, it is often impractical to survey every member of a particular population because the sheer number of people is simply too large. Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals a sample and use those observations to make inferences about the entire population. Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on the characteristic(s) of interest. In that case, the researcher's conclusions from the sample are probably applicable to the entire population.
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This type of correspondence between the sample and the larger population is most important when a researcher wants to know what proportion of the population has a certain characteristic like a particular opinion or a demographic feature. Public opinion polls that try to describe the percentage of the population that plans to vote for a particular candidate, for example, require a sample that is highly representative of the population.
Definitions
A sample is a similar representation of the larger whole
-Goode & Hatt
It is a small piece of the population obtained by a probability process that mirrors, with known precision, the various patterns and sub classes of the population
- Balalock &blalock
Sample is a selected part which is representative of the whole
- Chaplin(1975) Sample is a part of the population selected such that it is considered to be representative of the population of the whole. -Reber & Reber (2001) Sampling
When a research undertakes a research he has to decide basically two important things namely; what will be the scope of his study and secondly what will be his population or universe, population refers to all those people with the characteristics which the researcher wants to study within the context of a particular research problems For an example- a population could be all students of college, all patients of hospitals, all prisoners of prison.
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In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen. Let's begin by covering some of the key terms in sampling like "population" and "sampling frame." Crucial Concept: Sampling is the process of selecting research participants from the population.
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. It is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it. The process of selecting sample from the population is called sampling.
Population Sampling frame sample 30 sample of males and females. List of currently enrolled students. All students on campus.
elament
Definitions of sampling
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Sampling is the process of selecting the sample.

-Chaplin (1975)
Sampling is taking any portion of a population or universe, as representative of the population or universe. - Kerlinger (1986)
Types of sampling
Sampling are many types but on the basis of population it can be classifies as two types. 1. Probability Sampling 2. Non probability sampling
Probability Sampling
All elements have an equal chance of being included in the Probability sampling. With probability sampling, every element of the population has a known probability of being included in the sample. A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long practiced various forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw. These days, we tend to use computers as the mechanism for generating random numbers as the basis for random selection.
Types of probability sampling

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I. II. III.
Simple random sampling Systematic sampling (interval random sampling) Stratified sampling (may be proportionate or disproportionate)
IV.
Cluster sampling/one-stage
Non probability sampling The non probability sampling which is also called judgment sampling is based on the personal judgment. Elements included in a judgment sample are result of the navigators expert judgment as to their representativeness. Consequently the the probability of each element being included in the sample is not know.
With non-probability sampling, we cannot specify the probability that each element will be included in the sample. Also known as accidental sampling I. II. III. Quota sampling Judgment sampling / purposive sampling Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
Crucial Concept: A quota sample is an attempt to make a sample representative by having the same proportions of different groups of people in the sample and in the population. A mode of sampling which is used to select a person or group of persons to participate in a research is called quota sampling. This is done by personally interviewing all interested applicant and
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selecting some appropriate candidate for a specific reason. This type of sampling comes under non probability sampling which is used to select people on a random basis. Quota sample is a much used technique of selecting sample groups from different origin with slightly different demographic features, because most of the researches are done only in a particular geographical area. It is very important to select people for a sample group only from this area to be assured of the fact that all the data which is obtained after completing the research must be according to the demand of the researcher which should be clearly stated in the hypothesis part of research article. The non probability sampling is a method to select sample of people equally from each classification of the society of a particular region. in quota sampling the selection of the sample is made by the interviewer, who has been given quotas to fill from specified subgroups of the population. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 50 females between the age of 45 and 60.
Definition
A sampling method of gathering representative data from a group. As opposed to random sampling, quota sampling requires that representative individuals are chosen out of a specific subgroup. For example, a researcher might ask for a sample of 100 females, or 100 individuals between the ages of 20-30.
In the presented research work we have selected sample form QUOTA sampling.
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Size of sample
For present study 30 male and 30 female students of B.A. and B.Sc. (first year from DSVV campus) were selected. The samples have selected from quota sampling that belongs in non probability sampling
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Tools
In presented dissertation researcher used scale of Risk Taking Behavior to measure the level of Risk Taking Behavior of subjects which is prepared by Virendra Sinha (Allahabad) and P.N.Arora (Rampur). This questionnaire contains 40 items
Scoring method
Number of items in a questionnaire = 40. Questionnaire distributed in eight dimensions that are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H each subtest contains 5 questions. Subject can achieve to 25 marks in each subtest which is maximum score and minimum score of each subtest will be 5 if he/she attends to every question. Subject has five options to give his response for each question. Name of eight dimensions are given below. Dimension name Hill Space Sea Commercial trades Police & Intelligence Fire Profession Military Services Character Representation A B C D E F G H
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Scoring of items
Questionnaire contains 40 items which divided in 8 subtests. Scoring of questionnaire is as follow. Option name Very Much Much Moderate Less Very Less Number for selected option 5 4 3 2 1
Reliability & Validity Since the RTQ was to be made for workable for six type of tastes i.e. - urban literate, urban Literate Adults; urban literate olds; Rural literate adolescents; Rural literate adults; and rural literate olds, the reliability and validity of RTQ were computed separately for the six stratum. The 84 adolescents, 110 adults and 84 olds (total 278 males literates) were tested for computing the reliability and validity of the tool. Reliability
The reliability of the RTQ was computed by the method of rational equivalence using the Kuder Richardson formula for different strata. Reliability of whole questionnaire is 0.83.
Validity
Validity of questionnaire is 0.69.
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Chapter 3
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
RESULT TABLE
44
Statistical analysis
In this chapter we record the result obtained from this statistical analysis of response. In statistical analysis applied sd and t testing the stares for the analysis were obtained on the basis of responses of two groups males (N = 30) and females (N=30) with the help of RTQ scale.
Hypothesis: There is no significance effect of Risk Taking Behavior between males and females.
Result Result table
Mean
Number Of samples
Group
S.D.
SED
df
t-value
Level of significance
Females 148 Males 186.97
30 30
12.17 13.67 3.3644 58 11.584 0.01
So it is clear from result table that, mean of females and males are 148,186.97 in orderly, and SD of females and males are 24.26 and 35.63 in orderly. In table 40 df at the level of 0.01 value is 2.68 which is below from t value. So my results are highly significant at 0.01 levels. That makes sure that effect of Risk Taking Behavior depends upon sex. My results proved that male are much risky then females.
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200 180 160 140 120 Axis Title 100 80 60 40 20 0 Females Males Axis Title
Graphical representation to the mean of males and females of selected sample
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Chapter 4
Interpretation and Discussion Conclusion of results
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Interpretation and discussion of result

Purpose of presented study is to know the effect of risk taking behavior on sex, through which wanted to know that whether males are more risky or females . My result table clearly show that males are more risky then females. There are many reasons for males to be more risky than females. Physical factor - Males are more powerful and his body structure is rigid but females are less powerful. Biological difference the biological structure of males and females are different, when any female faces any problem or dangerous event then females internal body organ secretes estrogen Hormone that enhance secretion of oxytocin and it reduce the aggressive behavior and make female calm and cool, besides when any male faces any problem then his internal glands secret to testosterone that increases the level of aggression, from these reason males can be much risky then females. Due to cultural differences the risk taking behavior of males and females also differ. some cultures are very open to females they get freedom to do whatever they like but in other cultures the womens are restricted of too many things and could not express themselves independently. This causes their high and low Risk taking Tendency Another factor is that males are ego oriented, when they faces from any problem then they adopt to fight or flight strategies but on other side when any female faces any problem she adoptstend and be friend strategies. In short we can say females are not much risky then males.
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It has been frequently observed, and generally accepted, that males are more likely than females to engage (take) in risk-taking behaviors. Males participate more frequently than females in a variety of risky activities, including drinking alcohol and smoking (Korea National Statistical Office [KNSO], 2006). Road traffic mortality rates are higher for males than females (Road Traffic Authority [RTA], 2006). Similar patterns in road traffic accidents have been noted in the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa (World Health Organization [WHO], 2002; WHO, 2005).
Conclusion
Finally we can say that the effect of Risk Taking Behavior depends upon sex in my research males are much risky then females. It doesnt mean that females are not risky or not perform Risk Taking Behavior with the respect to males, females are not much risky. Risk Taking Behavior is common for every individual and it exist in every individual but it may be differ on cultural, social, family and, many other factors.
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Chapter 5
Suggestions References
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Suggestions
Researcher completed his dissertation work at DSVV
(Hardwar). This work can be done in any other institute or any other organization. Researcher studied effect of Risk Taking Behavior on Sex but other aspects related to Risk Taking behavior can be know. such as effect of Risk Taking Behavior on adolescents and etc. Researches may be possible on how to manage it and what is it. Other Risk factors and formation of Risk taking Behavior should be Know By which Risk Taking Behaviour Should be manage. With the help of Risk Taking Behavior person can be selected for best thing for best job. In other hand we can know persons area of risk and we can select him. Study of Risk Taking Behavior may be useful for the selection of the candidate for job or commercial purpose.
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Reference 1. Rudiger M. Trimpop -The psychology of Risk Taking Behaviour , Publisher, ( North-Holland Elsevier Science) 2. Ralph J., William. B. Hansen and LyNN. E. Ponton , Handbook of adolescents Risk Behavior, Publisher plenum press, Newyork Pg -43,44, 46 3. Lewis P. Lipsit and leonard L. Mitnkk , - Self Regulatory Behaviour and Risk Taking cause and consequences Publisher, ( copyright 1991 by ablex publishing corporation, Norwood Newjersey) 4. Garret ,H. , E - Statistics in Psychology and education Publisher, Cosmo (Publications,India), 2006 5. http://www.psychologyandsociety.com/nullhypothesis. html 6. http://psychology.about.com/b/2009/05/21/variablepsychology-definition-of-the-week.htm 7. http://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html 8. http://www.news-medical.net/news/20100504/Newresearch-contradicts-studies-on-adolescentse28099risk-taking-behavior.aspx 9. http://www.jrank.org/ 10. http://www.news-medical.net/news/20100504/Newresearch-contradicts-studies-on-adolescentse28099risk-taking-behavior.aspx
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11. http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/fact_sa mple.htm 12. http://www.drtomoconnor.com/3760/3760lect03.ht m 13. www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/15/girls-boysthink-same-way 14. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171, 942519,00.html 15. http://www.oregoncounseling.org/ArticlesPapers/D ocuments/DifferencesMeWomen.htm 16. http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n11/mente/eisntein /cerebro-homens.html 17. www.johnhersey.com/blog/Tag/and-characteristicsof- risk-takers/features

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A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR DEGREE IN PSYCHOLOGY

Submitted By :Madhur Singh B.Sc. 5th SEM

Supervisor :Dr. Prama Sharma Lecturer, Dept of psychology, DSVV

Department Of Clinical Psychology, DSVV,Gayatrikunj, Shantikunj Haridwar(U.K.)

MADHUR SINGH B.Sc. 5th SEM

NEED OF STUDY LITERATE REVIEW ON RISK TAKING BEHAVOIUR PROBLEM

1. Risk Taking Behavior in Hills

2. Risk Taking Behavior in space

3. Risk Taking Behavior in Sea

4. Risk Taking Behavior in Commercial Trades

5. Risk Taking Behavior in Police & Intelligence

7. Risk Taking Behavior in Profession

8. Risk Taking Behavior in Commercial Trades

B.1 Executive function of brain

Police and intelligence service Professional trades

Fire Military service

Literate review on Risk Taking Behavior

1. Research of De charms & Dave -1965 - Have proved in his

2. Research of Mc Manish & Belli-1968

have proved in his

4. Doctoral thesis of university of Gothenburg a

7. Research of Reyna and Farley (2006)

Elements of good hypothesis

Definition of hypothesis according to some psychologist:

Independent variable General qualities of males and females

Dependent variable What is Risk?

What is Risk Taking Behavior?

Definitions of Risk Taking Behavior

Risk-taking refers to the tendency to engage in behaviors that have

Risk Taking Behavior and Development

Co variation of Risk-Taking Behaviors

Theories on risk taking behavior

Problem behavior theory of Jessors(1977)

Theory of Irwin and Millstein 1986

Biopsychological based theory

Cognitive scope Ego-centrism Future-Time Prespective

Self-perception Self-esteem Body image identity

Personal values Independence achievement

Risk Perceptions Costs/ benefits Optimistic bais Controllability

Peer group Characteristics Peer age Peer value Peer behaviors

Risk Taking Behavior

Bio-psychological model of (Irwin & Millstein 1986)

Characteristics of Risk Taking Behavior

Determinants of Risk Taking Behavior

4. Cultural and Religious Factors:

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING

Sample is a selected part which is representative of the whole

Sampling is the process of selecting the sample.

Types of probability sampling

Females 148 Males 186.97

12.17 13.67 3.3644 58 11.584 0.01

Graphical representation to the mean of males and females of selected sample

Interpretation and Discussion Conclusion of results

Interpretation and discussion of result

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