UNIT I Nature and Development of History 1.

History Meaning and Definition

1. (n.) A systematic, written account of events, particularly of those affecting a nation, institution, science, or art, and usually connected with a philosophical explanation of their causes; a true story, as distinguished from a romance; -- distinguished also from annals, which relate simply the facts and events of each year, in strict chronological order; from biography, which is the record of an individual's life; and from memoir, which is history composed from personal experience, observation, and memory. (v. t.) To narrate or record. (n.) A learning or knowing by inquiry; the knowledge of facts and events, so obtained; hence, a formal statement of such information; a narrative; a description; a written record; as, the history of a patient's case; the history of a legislative bill. History: words in the definition A, Account, Affecting, Also, An, And, Annals, Art, As, Bill, Biography, By, Case, Chronological, Composed, Conne cted, Description, Distinguished, Each, Experience, Explanation, Formal,From, Hence, History, In, Information, Inq uiry, Institution, Is, Knowing, Knowledge, Learning, Legislative, Life, Memoir, Memory, Narrate, Narrative, Nation, Observation, Obtained, Of, Or,Order, Particularly, Personal, Philosophical, Record, Relate, Romance, Science, Si mply, So, Statement, Story, Strict, Such, Systematic, The, Their, Those, To, True, Which, With, Written,Year,

2. 3.

2.Nature and Scope of history

the scope of history are very important in order to know of what has happened in our past generation. some of them is we culturally applied until now.. those who make an essential of the past generation , we can call them a "HERO"... ITS VERY IMPORTANT TO KNOW OF WHAT HAS HAPPENED SO THAT WE CAN BETTER TO MAKE THE RIGHT AND CONTAGIOUS DOINGS, AND WE CAN VALUE THEM UNTIL FOR THE FUTURE GENERATION..

3.Structure and form of history

A Short History of Bringing Structure and Form to Learning: Culminating in Conveying and Using Knowledge, Intermediated by Technology

International Conference on Technology, Knowledge and Society Presentation T08R0232, January 20th, 2008, 3:30 PM, Northeastern University, P. Kenneth Komoski, ICLOR & EPIE W. Curtiss Priest, ICLOR & CITS

Teaching and learning have centrally involved the application of pedagogical knowledge (usually teaching skills) to conveying content knowledge to the learner. With newer technological possibilities provided by the Internet, the practice of teaching and learning is in the process of changing. Currently new technologies, especially web and search technologies, have given rise to huge numbers of web pages, scanned book pages, and a process of tagging and metatagging such web-accessible resources some referred to as Learning Objects. Some people, including us, are concerned that learners, especially young learners, have the unwarranted perspective that information as knowledge is boundless and daunting to absorb. Our purpose here is to put the current era, the past era, and further possibilities onto a timeline that not only provides a history of where the US educational process has been, but suggests improved structure and form to achieve, not only a sense of simplicity, but to achieve knowledge simplicity itself. But, is achieving knowledge simplicity a naive notion? Many professionals who dedicate their lives to teaching, and facilitating learning may balk at the notion that the world of knowledge is less complex and less daunting than the existence of many disciplines and subdisciplines suggests. So a distinction needs to be made between this ever expanding knowledge and the more basic, core knowledge, from which this expanding knowledge is being constructed. Further, one persons new knowledge is, often, simply data to others. The various ways in which core knowledge can be combined is, indeed, infinite. Over the last few centuries, various thinkers have tackled how to structure both the educational process and provide knowledge taxonomies. These activities have intermingled, e.g., the Dewey Decimal System was developed to catalogue books and, thus, is only a rough taxonomy of knowledge. To assist educators, Blooms taxonomy addressed knowledge within the cognitive domain (cognitive knowledge). The Dewey Decimal System gave way to the Library of Congress Classification System; and, within education, Krathwold extended Blooms work by creating a taxonomy of knowledge within the affective domain. Over time Tyler and others recognized that various knowledges had more relevance to learning outcomes and fostered a movement toward learning standards. One of the first products of this movement was NAEP (a National Assessment of Educational Progress). The increased emphasis on areas of important knowledge and what learners need to know in the various disciplines gave rise to both State and quasi-National Standards. For example, NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) and the NSTA (National Science Teachers Association) established committees to create generally accepted standards in their fields, and these efforts influenced the various State Standards activities. From a knowledge perspective, each standard, addressing various hierarchies of topics and sub-topics (sometimes referred to as benchmarks), gradually became a process that identified significant and/or core knowledge. With the arrival of the Internet, the ease of producing knowledge-related materials produced a massive proliferation of stuff. And, some educators have attempted to incorporate this stuff into their curricula, by laboriously and manually separating the wheat from the chaff. Over time an ad hoc level of evaluation and vetting continually occurs. Some, including us, are dismayed with this helter-skelter activity. One de facto taxonomy is expressed in curricula, though one might even ask whether any curriculum meets the requirements of being a taxonomy. Most generally, a taxonomy is a division into ordered groups

or categories.1 In Medieval times, entering the Renaissance, ancient learning resurrected by Muslim scholars resulted in the first European universities building a curriculum based on the Liberal Arts, ordered as the Trivium ("the three roads") and the Quadrivium ("the four roads"). The Trivium consisted of Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic. The Quadrivium consisted of Arithmetic (Number in itself), Geometry (Number in space), Music, Harmonics, or Tuning Theory (Number in time ), and Astronomy or Cosmology (Number in space and time). As time passed, curricula became further segmented into what we know as the disciplines, with, in particular, the addition of the sciences, medicine and (Catholic) theology. On the heels of curricula, teachers developed their syllabuses. It was via syllabuses that the disciplines were divided into further categories as the main points of a text, lecture, or course of study. 2 At first, little about the syllabuses was written down. A teacher spoke to his/her own students and students who often copied down what was said. Gradually, teachers came to, especially in the colleges, to write out a syllabus and provide it to his/her students, often including readings. These curricula and syllabuses became one of the main descriptors of significant knowledge Only, much later, did the rise of the standards movement attempt to coalesce, more formally, and across schools and states, what is important to learn. In parallel, it was Andrew Carnegie who recognized that knowledge, ordered by groupings of similar books in Free to the People3 libraries, was also a powerful way for many to gain important knowledge (many who did not otherwise have the money for private tutors or home libraries to learn from). In the 1840s, Horace Mann fathered US free public schooling. And in the late 1800s, some academies became public high schools. Around the turn of the 20th century, Charles Eliot, of Harvard, turned to Herbert Spencer in a quest to further define what knowledge is worth learning moving away from the classical paradigm. These high schools were influenced by the Carnegie Foundation of New York which designated Carnegie Units and these further defined significant knowledge and what was required to graduate from high school. And, in this tradition, most recently, MIT has provided, via the web and their OpenCourseWare project (ocw.mit.edu), exemplar syllabuses for others to study and use. But, fundamentally, and as the word curriculum comes from the Latin the race of life many categories were not to order knowledge but to set down a specific course, or courses, of learning. Other popular taxonomies of knowledge appear as dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks, and indexes. The problem with these orderings is it is typically done by the alphabetical order of words. A thesaurus can be viewed as a pseudo-tagging of some of these words and, at least, shows groupings that relate to similarities of meaning. One dictionary, the American Heritage, stands out in three regards. First, the editors integrated improved, thesaurus-like, synonyms. And, for these words, the editors choose one central word and they place a Synonyms section below that words definition. When consulting one of the other words in this section, the dictionary places a cross-reference of the form, See Synonyms and provide the central word. For example, happy is a central word and at fortunate there is the entry, See Synonyms at happy. The dictionarys second feature is the extensive displays of etymology. The etymological roots of words are another form of ordering and thus a form of taxonomy.

Finally, this dictionary is perhaps the only popular effort in which knowledge is described operationally (beginning in 1969 with its 1st edition). As illustrated below, such definitions emphasize action or process; i.e., they suggest how words connect to events, activities, functions, or form. For example, something that is sticky has the property of adhering to a surface. The function of adhering demonstrates the operation of something that is sticky. The consistent use of operational definitions provides a different, but very important form of ordering. Rather than, say, the appearance of synonyms of adhering, operationally we consider the action of adherence. And, as having knowledge relates to choices to achieve an outcome, if those choices are grouped and ordered, then we have an improved form of knowledge. For example, something might be adhered via a surface film that we often call a cement, or, if we magnetize one surface and have the other surface be one attracted to a magnet, we have an alternative, magnetic choice by which to adhere something. Each possible choice has other operational properties. If we adhere via cement, the bond is more permanent than if we adhere using a magnet. The right choice thus represents a optimization across all of the operations that each choice involves. (And, if this world of choices is expanded, we call the new choice an innovation.) Further, the right choice is significant knowledge to a specific time and place to a situation. (This sharply contrasts with educatorsvarious means of identifying significant knowledge, as described above.) So the American Heritage dictionary represents an important break from dictionaries of the past and its method of describing knowledge holds promise for the future. In our conversations with librarians, for example, there are some who fully recognize that their primary activity, to catalogue, does not necessarily result in the best way to identify significant knowledge nor the best way to efficiently and effectively convey significant knowledge. In parallel, there has been a more explicit drive to identify significant knowledge by those who responded to the business-necessitated need for optimizations. These people developed the fields of Operations Research (OR) and Behavioral & Management Science. And while OR could be secluded inside an OR department of a firm, pioneers, such as Russell L. Ackoff and C. West Churchman found that the formalism of Behavioral Science, and its companion science, Systems Dynamics, was too formidable for the minds of upper management to employ. This resulted in key contributors to business efficiency such as by Ackoff, Deming and Drucker, to translate their operationally-based wisdom into chunks, called rubrics (a term now used widely by educators). Forrester, one of the fathers of Systems Dynamics, was never able to generally communicate the methodology of this behavioral science, and it was not until Peter Senge (and some before him) cleverly used system dynamic mappings as a tool to illustrate specific points about business behavior, that the science became useful (cf. the Fifth Discipline -- The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization4) So, paralleling the appearance of operationally defined knowledge in the American Heritage, Russell Ackoff, of the Wharton Center for Behavioral and Management Science, published a dictionary-like monograph, funded by the National Science Foundation, Choice, Communication, and Conflict (also in 1969).5 In 1972 it was retitled as a book and published by Aldine Publishers as On Purposeful Systems, 6 and later by yet two more publishers.

To further illustrate this operational kind of definition, we take a word that overlaps in the two references disappoint. The American Heritage defines this operationally, but not as precisely as a scientific definition might. Disappoint appears as *t+o fail to satisfy the hope, desire, or expectation of.7 But, of what? But, by whom? When? Ackoff answers these as disappoint appears as *a+n individual is disappointed if an object, event or situation desired by [this individual], which he believed would be present or occur at [a given time], [and] does not appear or occur [at that time]. 8 But, the reader might ask, so what? Isnt this confusing to read? How will a child be able to read this? In a loosely defined world, this level of precision is mostly irrelevant., and in that world the (somewhat) operational definition from the American Heritage may suffice. But, to show the value of moving towards this precision, lets turn to Websters, where disappoint is to fail to come up with the expectation or hope of.9 This definition is less precise than the other two.. And, for example, raises a further question, Who fails to come up with? And, what does it mean to come up with something? Does it have to move upward? We strongly suggest that any lack of precision is part of a slippery slope toward confused and imprecise learning, which will always lead to misunderstandings of the workings of the world. What Ackoff, and others like him, has done is to not only provide the definition of a word, that can be read, but he provides us with a piece of the world that involves operations and which exists in a purposeful world. Just as a gear needs to be defined in terms of its radius, tooth-per-inch, bevel, and a host of other critical factors to its behavior, so each and every word need be as precisely defined. But, this precision is not useful until we, e.g., have a shaft to put the gear on. Where is the definitions shaft? Where is its roller bearing? We sense there are linkages missing in just operationally defining a word. Fortunately, with the advent of new technologies, such as the Net and graphical user interfaces (GUIs), we can embody the precision (which Ackoff sought to bring to us) inside the Net, as knowledge objects. The precision can be present, but mostly hidden. The precision can be revealed to the learner as he/she can assimilate or accommodate (cf. Piaget and Vygotsky10) the increased knowledge. And, rather than by a mechanical connection between the gear and the shaft, knowledge objects are in a Net-work space and their interconnection can be via digital messaging. As this is a networked space, unlike the gear that needs proximity to the shaft, two messaging objects can be anywhere in the world. They are logically connected by their relatedness. And, just as gears fit naturally on shafts, we find that each object has a natural fit (or affinity) to message some objects, but not others. We achieve, not a web, but a Netting (a Net-work of Inter-messaging Objects). And, most importantly, we have only one object for each operationally defined word or event or process, so we have a relatively simple world of knowledge. There is no reason for repetition. Relationships are always clear follow the message links. The learner can enter the netting via Netting-entrance tools, and then follow the Netting, informing and structuring his/her own internal nettings. And, by this approach we achieve Knowledge Simplicity. Further, we now perceive what the requisite taxonomy appears as. The taxonomy, the dynamic ordering, is comprised of these messageconnected objects. No list, no catalogue, and no semantic web represents this taxonomy. And, just as many have freely contributed to the construction of the much more loosely defined Wikipedia, we can provide, not a wiki-space, but a Netting-space by using a Netting-GUI that is able to enter

the Netting and either reform it, or add to it. When someone adds to this space, they are either extending knowledge, or engaged in innovation, or both. We can summarize the evolution of learning from an Art and Craft-based mode of teaching to one approached via scientifically-based engineering of how knowledge is operationally defined and understood (and still informed by the art and craft of this engineering) by the following figure. We show a dichotomy between the earlier approach and this emergent approach via the OR flowchart symbol. It is important to distinguish content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge (cf. Priest11). We illustrate how, now, Operations Research and Behavioral Science (including Systems Dynamics) which has existed for forty years may advance the general teaching/learning process particularly by advancing e-learning and e-mentoring.

4. The different conceptions of history Biographical Evolutionary, Cyclic, Theistic and Modern Concept Evolutionary biography
Nigel Hamilton believes that the most important function of biography is to "contribute to our knowledge, understanding, and reconstruction of past civilizations". The majority of early societies recorded themselves through the "memorialization of distinct individuals", and early societies, such as that of the Ancient Greeks or the Ancient Egyptians used poems, songs, drawings, and written verse to record their history. He believes that knowledge is knowing who one is as well as who other are, and that biography is also used to guide humans' self-understanding as individuals. This section contains information which may be of unclear or questionable importance or relevance to the article's subject matter.
Please help improve this article by clarifying or removing superfluous information. (May 2010)

Sagas are long story of heroic achievement that have involved accounts of a series of incidents; they are the early oral versions of biographies. Sagas were told through mnemonic techniques such asalliteration, repetition, rhyme, rhythm, and characterization. The Epic of Gilgamesh is a saga about Gilgamesh's journeys, and it impacts biographical portraiture, even today. Three questions still remain unanswered: where fact ends and interpretation begins, whether biography is essentially the chronicle of an individual's life journey, and whether it is an art of human portraiture that must for social and psychological constructive reasons capture the essence and distinctiveness of a real individual. The word "biography" is formed from the Greek words meaning "life", and "depiction". D. R. Stuart said that biography excludes "historians' point of view and home life." Educated Greeks and Romans were biographers, because they could deliver a eulogy, paint portraits, sculpt busts, or write about significant people of the day and in the past. In ancient times, the only professional biographers werecompilers. Plutarch said biography let him "treat history as a mirror", because he could help his own life by looking at others.

Adding to the power of these sciences, under Knowledge Engineering, we illustrate how this process becomes practical to create via the use of the Net and GUIs. And, by letting others combine Pedagogical Knowledge and Content Knowledge (PK + CK), the process empowers others to create the improved taxonomy of knowledge, thus improving learning experiences. Some of these experiences might be carefully defined by the artistry of master teachers and other experiences will be self-learning, aided only by ways of entering the Netting and employing the Netting-GUI to follow relationships and message objects about their properties and methods. (cf. Komoski & Priest12) And, over to the lower right, we show, for example, that Management, as a profession, is still mainly taught and practiced via the use of rubrics for the reasons described above. Might that field and others like it in the list, benefit from this merging of knowledge precision and intermediating technologies? We are confident they will. How is this emergent activity being encouraged and forged? The International Collaboration for Learning Object Research (ICLOR) was formed last year with the mission to communicate this way of creating true Learning Objects and to invite collaborators in achieving this goal (cf. Priest & Komoski13). References:

The American Heritage Dictionary (3rd Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992, p. 1840. ibid., p. 1817.

Appears over the faade of the first Carnegie library in Pittsburgh, PA.

Senge, Peter M., The Fifth Discipline - The Art And Practice Of The Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday, 1990.
5

Ackoff, Russell L., Choice, Communication, and Conflict. Philadelphia: Wharton School of Management, University of Philadelphia, 1969.
6

Ackoff, Russell L. and Fred E. Emery, On Purposeful Systems: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Individual and Social Behavior as a System of Purposeful Events. Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972.
7

The American Heritage Dictionary (3rd Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1992, p. 529.

Ackoff, Russell L. and Fred E. Emery, On Purposeful Systems: An Interdisciplinary Analysis of Individual and Social Behavior as a System of Purposeful Events. Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972, p. 101.
9

Websters Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Company, 1967, p. 236. Woolfolk, Anita, Educational Psychology (9th ed). Boston:Allyn and Bacon.

10

11

Priest, W. Curtiss, What is the Common Ground between TCPK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) and Learning Objects?, Proceedings of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Information, San Antonio, March 28th, 2007 (also available as an ICLOR white paper at http://objectone.blogspot.com).
12

Komoski, P. Kenneth and W. Curtiss Priest, A Condensation and Review of Various Learning Object Activities and Efforts, Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Computers in Education, ELearn Conference, November 3, 2004 (also available as an ICLOR white paper at http://objectone.blogspot.com).
13

Komoski, P. Kenneth and W. Curtiss Priest, "Review of Learning Objects, A Moving Target: Billions of 'Resources' or 'Knowledge Simplicity?,:' Creation of the International Collaborative for Learning Objects Research (ICLOR), Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Computers in Education E-Learn Conference, October 18, 2007 (also available as an ICLOR white paper at http://object-one.blogspot.com).

Cyclic history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009)
Cyclic history is a theory which dictates that the major forces that motivate human actions return in a cycle.

Among these forces are religion/spirituality, politics, science, philosophy, curiosity, creativity, psychology, morality and astronomical conjunctions. D. H. Lawrence thought that there existed a high technology civilization in the remote past. Religion recurs whenever a new sect reaches a large population. Christianity peaked three times: around the 2nd century AD, when the core of believers gained political power; in the Middle Ages, when the Church controlled almost all knowledge in Europe; during the reformation, where the religion split and the many branches modernized themselves.

Theistic evolution
Theistic evolution or evolutionary creation is a concept that asserts that classical religious teachings about God are compatible with the modern scientific understanding about biological evolution. In short, theistic evolutionists believe that there is a God, that God is the creator of the material universe and (by consequence) all life within, and that biological evolution is simply a natural processwithin that creation. Evolution, according to this view, is simply a tool that God employed to develop human life. Theistic evolution is not a scientific theory, but a particular view about how the science of evolution relates to religious belief and interpretation. Theistic evolution supporters can be seen as one of the groups who reject the conflict thesis regarding the relationship between religion and science that is, they hold that religious teachings about creation and scientific theories of evolution need not contradict. Proponents of this view are sometimes described as Christian Darwinists

History of history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings, see History of the world. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).

Historia (Allegory of History) By Nikolaos Gysis (1892) Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. [1] George Santayana

History (from Greek - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation"[2]) is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events.[3][4] Historians debate the nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present.[3][5][6][7] The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history.[8][9] Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory. Amongst scholars, the fifth century BC Greek historian Herodotus is considered to be the "father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, forms the foundations for the modern study of history. Their influence, along with other historical traditions in other parts of their world, have spawned many different interpretations of the nature of history which has evolved over the centuries and are continuing to change. The modern study of history has many different fields including those that focus on certain regions and those which focus on certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in University studies.

UNIT II History - Its Features And Dimensions

1.Dimensions of history - time, place, continuity and development
Dimensions in Time is a charity special crossover between the British science fiction television series Doctor Who and the soap opera EastEnders that ran in two parts on 26 and 27 November 1993. It was filmed on the EastEnders Albert Square set, and features several of the stars of that programme at the time. Produced for the Children in Need charity, following Doctor Who's hiatus in 1989 this special was the only dramatisation broadcast in celebration of the show's 30th anniversary.

Part One
The Rani has opened a hole in time, allowing her access to the Doctor's timeline. She uses this to cycle through the Doctor's lives, causing him and his companions to jump back and forth between past and present incarnations. Her intention is to capture all of the Doctor's selves in a time loop, trapping him in London's East

End; she has already captured the First and Second Doctor in the time hole. This causes the Fourth Doctor to send a message to his remaining selves, warning them of the Rani's plan.

Fourth Doctor: "Mayday! Mayday! This is an urgent message for all the Doctors. It's vitally important that you listen carefully to me for once. Our whole existence is being threatened by a renegade Time Lord known only as the Rani! She hates me. She even hates children! Two of my earlier selves have already been snared in her vicious trap. The grumpy one and the flautist, do you remember? She wants to put us out of action, lock us away in a dreary backwater of London's East End, trapped in a time-loop in perpetuity. Her evil is all around us! I can hear the heart beat of a killer. She's out there somewhere. We must be on our guard and we must stop her before she destroys all of my other selves! Oh ... Good luck, my dears!"

The Seventh Doctor and Ace are confused when the TARDIS lands in Greenwich, near the Cutty Sark, thanks to the Rani's attack on the TARDIS. The Doctor finds a newspaper showing the year to be 1973, but before he can make any more conclusions, the Rani causes time to jump. Ace finds herself inAlbert Square in 1993 with the Sixth Doctor. Local resident Sanjay tries to sell Ace some new clothes from his stall, and when his wife Gita tells the Sixth Doctor that it is going to be all the rage in 1994, the Rani jumps time again. The Third Doctor and Mel appear from the time jump, and question an old Pauline Fowler and Kathy Beale on when they are. When Pauline and Kathy reply that it is 2013, another time jump occurs. In 1973, Pauline and Kathy remember the assassination of President Kennedy, while Kathy tells off a young Ian Beale. The Sixth Doctor and Susan Foreman appear, but Susan wonders what has happened to 'her' Doctor, the First. After another time jump, Susan changes into Sarah Jane Smith and the Doctor changes from the Sixth to the Third Doctor. They start to piece together what is happening to them, but the Rani lets loose her menagerie of specimens, including a Cyberman, Fifi (from The Happiness Patrol), a Sea Devil, anOgron and a Time Lord from Gallifrey in the next time jump. In 1993, the Fifth Doctor, Nyssa and Peri are attacked by the Rani's menagerie, and after they tried to warn Pat Butcher of the danger, the Rani stops them outside the Queen Vic... [edit]Part

Two

After the Fifth Doctor changed to the Third Doctor in the next time jump, with Liz Shaw, the Rani was controlling Liz's mind Mandy Salter tries to stop the Rani, Captain Mike Yates of UNIT comes in Bessie to save the Third Doctor and get him to The Brigadier who is waiting for him. After another time jump, the Doctor changed to the Sixth Doctor and after he says goodbye to the Brigadier time jumps again. In 1993, at The Arches, Philand Grant Mitchell find Romana looking for The Doctor, but they point her to Dr Legg, and as Romana walks past the Queen Vic, the Rani captures her, in front of Frank Butcher. Back in 1973, The Third Doctor explains to Victoria Waterfield who The Rani was and thinks that her control is breaking down, as they return to the TARDIS. After the Seventh Doctor lands the TARDIS in 1993, Leela escapes from the Rani, after being cloned in the form of Romana. This results in a Time Lordbrain imprint being left on the computer inside the Rani's TARDIS, which gives the Seventh Doctor, Ace, and K9 the edge needed to rig up a device to overload it, sending the Rani into the time tunnel where she had trapped the First and Second Doctors and freeing the Doctors' other

selves from the loop. As the Seventh Doctor and Ace leave in the TARDIS, the Doctor observes "I I mean, we are difficult to get rid of". [edit]Cast

notes

Tom Baker returned to the role of the Fourth Doctor on television for the first time since leaving it 12 years previously, though he had recorded links for the video release of the incomplete Shada the year before. This was the final appearance of Jon Pertwee as the Third Doctor on television. To date, it also marks the final on screen appearances of Colin Baker as the Sixth Doctor and Tom Baker as theFourth Doctor. Sylvester McCoy would return as the Seventh Doctor three years later in the 1996 telefilm, while Peter Davison, after joining Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy in the Big Finish audio dramas series, would reprise the role of the Fifth Doctor 14 years later in "Time Crash" - another Children in Need special.

[edit]Continuity The first meeting between Doctor Who and EastEnders occurred in the short story Brief Encounter: Mistaken Identity by Gary Russell, published in Doctor Who Magazine #174. In it, the mercenaryLytton meets Den Watts in the Queen Victoria and mistakes him for Davros's adjudant Kiston. Leslie Grantham, who played Watts, played Kiston in Resurrection of the Daleks. As with A Fix with Sontarans, David A. McIntee's Virgin New Adventures novel First Frontier offers the premise that Dimensions in Time was merely a particularly unpleasant nightmare of the Doctor's. On the other hand, the short stories Rescue and Storm in a Tikka are set around Dimensions in Time. An additional problem in placing the story within series continuity lies in its unusual structure and the fact it keeps jumping between Doctors and that his companions 'switch form' and seemingly divide into more than one person, too. Some online sources such as the Doctor Who Reference Guide conclude that the story may be placed during the Seventh Doctor's era, since it is this Doctor and his companion who begin and ultimately resolve the core plotline. In addition, McCoy was the incumbent Doctor at the time and his era's logo and a sped-up version of his title sequence were used. It is also noted that Romana appears on her own, the only companion not seen accompanying one of the Doctors. This story marked the only televised meeting of the Sixth Doctor and the Brigadier, meaning that actor Nicholas Courtney is the only person to have worked alongside the first seven Doctors from the original show's run, although his first appearance opposite the first Doctor was not as the Brigadier but rather Bret Vyon; the first Doctor's later appearance in The Three Doctors was recorded separately and did not involve Courtney. He has also appeared alongside the Eighth Doctor in the audio adventure Minuet in Hell, and also shared scenes with Richard Hurndall, who stood in for the late William Hartnell as the first Doctor in The Five Doctors. There is likewise a continuity problem within EastEnders, where characters Kathy Beale and Pauline Fowler appear in 2013, but both subsequently died on the show in 2006. Many actors and actresses have appeared in Doctor Who and EastEnders before and after this Children in Need special where they come together.

[edit]Production Serial details by episode

Episode

Broadcast date Run time

Viewership
(in millions)

"Part One"

26 November 1993 27 November 1993

[2][3]

7:34

13.8

"Part Two"

5:27

13.6

The Dimensions Of Time and 3-Dimensions Of Time were the working titles for this story. David Roden managed to convince producer John Nathan-Turner not to use either title, and instead settled on Dimensions In Time. An original draft of the script featured Seventh Doctor, Sylvester McCoy, meeting the Brigadier, Nicholas Courtney, en route to a UNIT reunion - and becoming involved in a battle with a crashed spaceship full of Cybermen. The script was entitled Destination: Holocaust, and featured the Seventh Doctor and Brigadier holed up in a burning church, trying to fight off the advancing hordes of damaged Cybermen. This original idea, written by David Roden, was vetoed by Nathan-Turner after it became apparent that Children In Need wished for the story to be a tie-in with EastEnders. Despite loving the originally proposed script, Nathan-Turner also had concerns about the cost, which would have included several lengthy night-shoots and a much larger special effects budget. Allegedly Anthony Ainley was initially approached by Nathan-Turner to play the part of the Master in this short story, but he turned it down. Ainley however vehemently denied this, insisting that if he were asked, he would have had no hesitation in appearing. Michael Gough was later approached to re-create the role of The Celestial Toymaker, and again Nathan-Turner was turned down. Finally, Kate O'Mara was asked if she would like to reprise her role of the Rani - a request to which she readily agreed. O'Mara was joined by Sam West, who played her sidekick Cyrian (named after the original intended actor, Sir Ian McKellen). The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system developed by American inventor Terry D. Beard that made use of the Pulfrich effect. The technology required spectacles with one darkened lens and one transparent one; these were sold in shops to the public, with the proceeds going to Children in Need. The Daleks were also supposed to appear, but the segment was pulled after a dispute with Dalek creator Terry Nation over payments, the sequence was not ultimately shot. All actors and crew were working unpaid, with the only stipulation being that it could never be repeated or sold on a home video for profit. The Dalek segment would have seen Peter Davison facing up against them again in the streets seen in the 1984 serial Resurrection of the Daleks. David Roden later went on to write and direct several plays for the theatre before directing and writing short films - including Beginners Please (2006) and the Cornwall Film Festival award winningThe Resurrectionist (2006), both starring actor Guy Siner. David Roden worked for the BBC Drama Department in London on the 'Writers Academy'. During 2007 and 2008 he worked for the BBC Wales Drama Department in Script Development alongside the production team for Season 4 of Russell T Davies' new Doctor Who. He contributed a short story to the

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'Doctor Who' novel 'The Story Of Martha' (2008). Roden also wrote the Doctor Who BBC Audio Exclusive "The Nemonite Invasion" (2009) which was read by Catherine Tate. Roden now script edits for the BBC, most recently on Casualty. [edit]Broadcast Part One was broadcast as part of the 1993 Children in Need telethon. At the end of Part One, viewers were asked to phone in and vote for which EastEnders character would save the Doctor at the start of Part Two. They were given the choice of 'Big' Ron and Mandyand hence two versions of the scene were filmed. The money raised from phone calls went to Children in Need. The result of the vote was announced prior to the screening of Part Two. The Mandy version won with 56% of the vote. Part Two was broadcast as part of popular UK programme Noel's House Party. Noel Edmonds, the host of the programme, requested the episode have several key lines and moments cut from broadcast for timing reasons. This contributed to the story's failure to make any real narrative sense. Dimensions in Time achieved viewing figures of 13.8 million viewers for the first part and 13.6 million for the second part, making them two of the most highly watched episodes of Doctor Who ever produced. The highest single audience figure was for Part Four of City of Death, at 16.1 million viewers.

2.History of Classification
Classification of living organisms is probably as old as human civilization. Organisms have been grouped on different basis at different periods of time. The earliest classification was probably on the basis of utility to man. Plants and animals were classified on different basis such as edible and non-edible ones, useful and harmful ones and so on.

Artificial System of Classification

The earliest attempt towards classification of living organisms is seen in the works of many ancient philosophers in Greek and India. The information available from many ancient scriptures of our country indicates the attempts made by Indians towards classification of plants and animals. An ancient sage by name Charaka who lived in the first century A.D., had listed about 340 plant types and about 200 animals types in his treatise Charaka Samhitha.

Another ancient sage by name Parashara in his treatise Vrikshayurveda had given a vivid description of plants based on the characteristics in flowers. He had divided plants into several ganas (families) based on these characters. The description of characters for these ganas, given by Parashara, is very close to the ones given by our modern taxonomists.

Aristotle
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, the famous Greek philosopher (384 to 322 B.C.) had identified different types of plants and animals. Apart from this, he described some organisms under an intermediate group indicating that such organisms could be placed neither under plants nor under animals.

He tried to classify the organisms on the basis of their form and habitat. There are many other examples of ancient classification systems that are based mainly on superficial characteristics. Such systems of classification are hence described as artificial systems of classification. The artificial system of classification has some serious drawbacks.

The criteria used for classification are superficial and do not reflect the natural relationships. The system does not reflect the evolutionary relationship between the organisms. Many unrelated organisms are placed in the same group on the basis of their habitats (dwelling place) (For example, whales and fishes in the same group).

Closely related organisms have been placed in different groups because of the differences in their habitat, feeding habits, etc.

Natural System of Classification

As science became a part of human life, the classification of living organisms had to undergo a thorough modification. The advent of the microscope in the 17 century opened up a new world of organisms that were hitherto unexplored; the world of micro organisms. It was hard to believe the vast diversity that existed in the microscopic world. Scientists started looking for more and more details about different groups of organisms. Various aspects of life such as mode of reproduction, pattern of development, began to be investigated. As a result, more and more similarities and differences started emerging between the different groups in both plants and animals. This led to a more systematic and scientific approach to classification, which is now known as the natural system of classification. The natural system of classification has specific advantages over the artificial system of classification.
th

It avoids the heterogeneous grouping of unrelated organisms. It helps in placing only related groups of organisms together. It indicates the natural relationships among organisms. It also provides a clear view on the evolutionary relationship between different groups of living organisms.

The initial attempt towards a natural system of classification came from an English biologist, John Ray (1627-1705). He identified a large number of plants and animals based on natural relationships among themselves and classified them into specific groups. He was probably the first biologist to have developed the modern concept of a species. He described the species as an assemblage of individuals derived from similar parents and having the ability to pass on their characteristics to the subsequent generations. He published a three-volume compendium - Historia Generalis Plantarum in which he has given a detailed description of over 18,000 types of plants. The natural system of classification was placed on a firm footing by the Swedish biologist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). Linnaeus classified living organisms into two kingdoms the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. He recorded nearly

6,000 species of plants in his book Species Plantarum published in 1753. He listed more than 4,300 species of animals. He has given detailed system of his classification in another book Systema Naturae.

History and GeographyThe Foundations

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The Importance of History and Geography in the Understanding of International Markets History and Contemporary Behavior History is Subjective Manifest Destiny and Monroe Doctrine Geography and Global Markets Products and Marketing Dynamics of Global Population Trends Trade Routes and Industrialization

Understanding the geography and history of a country can help a marketer have a better appreciation for many of the characteristics of its culture. A culture of a people evolves in response to the environment which it confronts. The geography of a country, its topography, climate, physical position relative to other countries affect a cultures evolution including its marketing and distribution systems. It is important for a marketer to understand that geography plays an important role in the economy of a country and its marketing system. History History helps define a nations mission, how it perceives its neighbors, how it sees its place in the world, and how it sees itself. Importance of History The history of a country is important in understanding many aspects of a culture. One cannot fully understand how businesspeople negotiate, how they conduct business, their attitudes toward foreign investment, the legal system, and other aspects of the market/business system without a historical perspective. A historical perspective helps prepare an international marketer for many of the cultural differences that often cause misunderstandings and in many cases, mistakes. While a marketer may not be able to change a persons attitude or behavior, if you have an historical perspective of why they react as they do, you can gain insights that can possibly make it easier to adapt your strategies for a successful outcome. Attitudes about the role of government and business Relations between Managers and Subordinates Sources of Management Authority Attitudes toward Foreign Corporations History and Contemporary Behavior To understand, explain, and appreciate a peoples image of itself and the attitudes and unconscious fears that reflected in its view of foreign cultures, it is necessary to study the culture as it is now as well as to understand the culture as it wasthat is, a countrys history

Loyalty to family, to country, to company, and to social groups and the strong drive to cooperate, to work together for a common cause, permeate many facets of Japanese behavior and have historical roots that date back thousands of years. Understanding of history: - Helps an international marketer 1. To understand, explain, and appreciate a peoples image of itself and the fundamental attitudes and unconscious fears that are often reflected in its view of foreign cultures, it is necessary to study the culture as it is now as well as to understand culture as it was, that is, a countrys history. 2. An awareness of the history of a country is particularly effective forunderstanding attitudes about the role of government and business, the relations between managers and the managed, the sources of management authority, and attitudes toward foreign MNCs. 3. History is what helps define a nations mission, how it perceives its neighbors, and how it sees its place in the world. 4. To understand a countrys attitudes, prejudices, and fears it is necessary to look beyond the surface or current events to the inner refinement of the countrys entire past for clues. Geography and International Marketing Geography is a study of the physical characteristics of a particular region of the earth. Involved in this study are climate, topography, and population. The interaction of the physical characteristics is one of the principal determinants of a countrys customs, products, industries, needs, and methods of satisfying those needs. Marketing is concerned with satisfying the needs of people. International marketing seeks out the whole world as its marketplace. Therefore, for an international marketer to know how to satisfy the needs of the international market, he must be familiar enough with geography to know what the various causal factors of the peoples needs are. International marketer must know that various climates and topographies do exist and that they are vital in shaping the marketing plans that an international marketer must make. As an example, a producer selling machinery in the tropics would have to realize that special protection is needed to keep a machine running properly in hot and humid climates. Study of geography is important in the evaluation of markets Need to be knowledgeable about the effects of geographic diversity on the economic profiles of various nations Climate and topography are examined as facets of the broader and more important elements of geography Knowledge about geography, the climate and physical terrain when appraising a market

Influences marketing from product adaptation to more profound influences on the development of marketing systems Climatic features affect uses and functions of products and equipment

Geography, Nature, and Economic Growth Linkage exists between geographic location and economic growth Association between landlocked countries and level of economic development Countries with unfriendly climates associated with economic stagnation

 Countries that suffer the most from major calamities are among the poorest in the world, which influences ability to market products Social Responsibility & Environmental Management Firms required to be socially responsible especially in foreign markets

Firms should comply regulations against environmental pollution and disposal of hazardous waste Economic development and protection for the environment can coexist

Sustainable development guides many governments and multinational companies today Global environment Many view the problem as a global issue rather than a national one. One report on the global environment stressed . . . it is quite clear that a number of critical problemsthe threat to the ozone layer, the greenhouse effect, the loss of biodiversity, and ocean pollutioncannot be addressed by nations in isolation. Companies looking to build manufacturing plants in countries with more liberal pollution regulations than they have at home are finding that regulations everywhere are becoming stricter. Many Asian governments are drafting new regulations and strictly enforcing existing ones. A strong motivator for Asia and the rest of the world is the realization that pollution is on the verge of getting completely out of control. Neither Western Europe nor the rest of the industrialized world are free ofenvironmental damage; rivers are polluted and the atmosphere in many major urban areas is far from clean. The very process of controlling industrial wastes leads to another and perhaps equally critical issue: the disposal of hazardous waste, a by-product of pollution control. Estimates of hazardous wastes collected annually exceed 300 million tons; the critical question is disposal that does not move the problem elsewhere. The business community is responding positively to the notion that thefocus must be on the global environment rather than the quality of the air, land, and water in our own backyards. An International Chamber of Commerce Industry Forum on the environment reflected a shift in company attitudes toward environmental issues away from a reactive and largely defensive stance to a proactive and constructive approach. Some disbeliever may dismiss such statements as window dressing and they could be, but the beginning of change is awareness. Responsibility for cleaning up the environment does not rest solely with governments, businesses, or activist groups. Each citizen has social and moral responsibility to include environmental protection among his/her highest goals. Sustainable Development: Key Propositions There is a crucial and potentially positive link between economic development and the environment

The costs of inappropriate economic policies on the environment are very high Addressing environmental problems requires that poverty be reduced Economic growth must be guided by prices that incorporate environmental values Since environment problems pay no respect to borders, global and regional collaboration is sometimes needed to complement national and regional regions

Natural Resources Importance of natural resources especially to manufacturing of products

Supply of natural resources not endless Human labor provides the preponderance of energy in many countries Importance of oil and gas in world energy consumption

Global Population Trends Important to know about current population trends because people constitute markets for various categories of goods Necessary to know about: (1) rural/urban population shifts (2) rates of growth (3) age levels, and (4) population control (5) rural-urban migration of world population (6) population decline and aging (7) worker shortage and immigration The world population pattern trend is shifting from rural to urban areas: Implications for international marketer 1. World market is becoming more unified in location. Thus, it is becoming easier to reach a larger segment of the market by just marketing in the urban population centers. 2. The types of products marketed will also change with this population shift. For example, food might become a more important product in international marketing with few people raising their own. 3. These shifts will result in greater industrialization in countries with presently low levels of industrialization. This again implies marketing changes that might affect the world marketer, increased sales of capital goods. 4. In summary, people living in cities have different needs than those living in the country. Thus, the shift from country to city means that the world marketer has a different market to serve with different characteristics. Basis of world trade. 1. Differences in skills : The basis for world trade is the differences between countries. One of these differences is the difference between people. Different heritages have resulted in the development of certain unique skills in the people of a country. 2. Differences in economies: Another difference is the one of differing stages of economic development existing in the world today. Some countries are highly developed and industrialized. These nations, such as the United States and France, might be trading in luxuries, whereas an underdeveloped nation, such as Kenya, might be forced to trade only in essential capital goods. 3. Differences in national resources: A third difference in countries serving as a basis for world trade is the availability of natural resources. Great Britain, poor in mineral resources, imports petroleum, where West Germany, rich in mineral resources but not food, imports large amounts of fruits and vegetables. World Trade Routes and Communication Links Knowledge about trade routes over land, sea, and air important in making marketing decisions

 The majority of world trade is among the most industrialized and industrializing countries of Europe, North America, and Asia Need to be aware about communication linksthe underpinning of all commerce Impact of the Internet revolution especially for global marketing of products

World trade routes bind the world together. This statement means that the world trade routes serve as avenues of minimizing differences between countries. Without these routes, countries would stand alone each different from the rest in resources, economy, and people. The trade routes allow both people and products to flow, making more of a unified, balanced world. The physical imbalances overcome, also smooth, cultural and economic differences through the exchange of ideas as well as products. Impact of telegraph, telephone, television, satellites, computer, and the Internet on international business An underpinning of all commerce is effective communications, knowledge of where goods and services exist and where they are needed and the ability to communicate instantaneously across vast distances. Facilitating the expansion of trade have been continuous improvements in electronic communications. First came the telegraph, then the telephone, television, satellites, the computer and the Internet. Each revolution in electronic technology has had a profound effect on human conditions, economic growth and the manner in which commerce functions. As each new communications technology has had its impact, new business models have been spawned and some existing businesses re-invented to adapt to the new technology while other businesses have failed to respond and thus ceased to exist. The Internet revolution will be no different; it too affects human conditions, economic growth, and the manner in which commerce operates. As we will discuss in subsequent chapters, the Internet has already begun to shape how international business is managed. However, as the Internet permeates the fabric of the worlds cultures, the biggest changes are yet to come! Interpretation of Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine were accepted basis for U.S. foreign policy during much of the 19th and 20th centuries. Manifest Destiny, in its broadest interpretation, meant that Americans were a chosen people ordained by God to create a model society. More specifically, it referred to the desires of American expansionists in the 1840s to extend the U.S. boundaries from the Atlantic to the Pacific; the idea of Manifest Destiny was used to justify U.S. annexation of Texas, Oregon, New Mexico, and California; and later, U.S. involvement in Cuba, Alaska, Hawaii and the Philippines. The Monroe Doctrine, a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy, was enunciated by President James Monroe in a public statement proclaiming three basis:

Relationship between history and social science

Social Studies or Social Sciences are the combination of all Social Subjects or studies related to ours society, the subjects like History, Economics, Political Sciences, Civics, Sociology are interdependent. They are also known as sister subjects.

Relevant answers:
History is that which had happened in past time & social science is something that teaches us how to live in society taking lessons from history. Relation between political science and history:-the relation between political science and history is very close.It has been put by sir,John Seeley in this couplet.'History without political science... history included the making of the earth. which can include religions beliefs and things like that. political science also includes the making of the earth, but in a more scientific way, like the big...

What is the difference between history and social sciences? Relationship between political science and history?

What is the relationship between political science and history? What are the relationships between political science and other social sciences?

Ewan ko sa inyo.

What is the relationship between social studies and social science?

Social Studies is the study of man and their past. Social Science is hard to explain... the Social Sciences are the fields of scientific knowledge and academic scholarship that study social groups...

UNIT III Goals Of Teaching History

What are we trying to accomplish in a sedimentary geology course for majors beyond exposing them to a body of knowledge and providing them with grades on their transcripts? What do we want students to be able to do when they are finished with the course? What value have we added to their future abilities in the field of sedimentary geology as a result of having taken the course? Answering this question is crucial, because a course should be designed not merely to expose students to information, tell them about topics, and show them concepts. Rather, a course should give students first hand experience in what we want them to be able to do when they are done with our courses. We asked the 51 participants of the workshop Teaching Sedimentary Geology in the 21st Century to answer the question, "What do I want my students to be able to do when they are done with my undergraduate sedimentary geology course?" We also asked the same question of four panelists, Gary Colgan (CH2M HILL), Tim Carr (Kansas Geological Survey), Elana Leithold (North Carolina State University), and J. Frederick Sarg (William M. Cobb & Associates). We have grouped reponses to the question by broad content area in the list below. If you are interested in ideas for taking goals such as those below and designing a course to help students achieve those goals, go to Choosing Content to Achieve Course Goals and Developing a Course Plan in the Cutting edge Course Design Tutorial. This tutorial provides an outstanding framework for developing a course around a set of goals.

Goals related to posing and solving problems, designing studies, and dealing with data

 I want students to be able to use descriptions, isopach maps, structure maps, biostratigraphy, ranges, and well log cross sections and present multiple working hypotheses on the origin of the facies. I want students to be able to make basic observations and interpretations of depositional and diagenetic history from outcrops, hand samples, and thin sections and predict future trends based on evaluation of the stratigraphic record. I want students, when presented with a problem involving sediments/sedimentary rocks, to be able to recommend tools and additional data needed to solve the problem. I want students to be able to take data (self-collected/existing data) and formulate a hypothesis and test their hypothesis. I want students to be able to be able to solve problems in sedimentary geology that involve limited data and require students to work at different scales (grain to basin). I want students to be able to build interpretations of processes into understanding of depositional settings and depositional history (e.g., sea level). I want students to be able to identify 7 critical attributes of sedimentary rocks and use process response relationships to determine how the rock developed the attributes and use this information to predict heterogenity characteristics in areas where data are lacking. I want students to be able to ask questions about sedimentary geology and, once a question is asked, know what data is needed to answer the question. I want students to be able to pose questions to test hypotheses. I want students to be able to critically evaluate sedimentary geology data for strengths, weaknesses, and limitations. I want students to be able to interpret the origin of sedimentary rocks and make predictions. I want students to be able to make facies interpretation in 3D and 4D for societal purposes.

Goals related to depositional processes, depositional environments, and facies models

I want students to be able to make process interpretations of sedimentary textures and structures, linking products to processes. I want students to be able to forward think - take a depositional system and visualize the active processes associated with erosion, transportation, and deposition and look at the product (opposite from product to process). Students will be able to describe and interpret the facies in a depositional environment - both vertically and laterally and on a number of different scales. I want students to be able to interpret depositional environments based on observed sedimentological data. I want students to be able to relate sedimentary deposits to a process (es) that form and or modify the deposits. I want students to be able to interpret vertical and lateral facies distributions using an appropriate facies model.

I want students to be able to describe at all scale and dimensions, analyze, and predict/infer where these products occur. I want students to be able to use process understanding to explain what they see.

Goals related to observation

I want students to be able to make good observations. I want students to be able to make objective observations that are reproducible. I want students to make reproducible and accurate descriptions of sedimentary rocks, bedforms, and textures. I want students to be skilled observers and recorders (know how to take field notes)

Goals related to other skills

I want students to be able to measure a section in the field and in core. I want students to be able to measure a stratigraphic section and/or describe a sediment core. I want students to know what to look for in the field. I want students to be able to interpret a stratigraphic crosssection using lithostratigraphy. I want students to be able to describe carbonate and siliciclastic rocks in outcrop, hand sample, and thin section. I want students to be able to recognize distinction between observation and interpretation. I want students to be able to analyze data presented and use for interpretation. I want students to be able to use techniques (e.g., provenance analysis) and skills in working in sedimentary terrains. I want students to be able to critically evaluate the literature about sedimentary geology. I want students to be able to understand basic concepts such as origin of textures, bedding in a general sense, trace fossils. I want students to be able to understand the fundamentals properties of sedimentary rocks and stratigraphic principles.

Goals related to visualization

I want students to be able to think in 3D and at different scales. I want students to be able to visualize 3D plus time. I want students to be able to visualize and conceptualize in 4D.

Goals involving communication skills and self-teaching skills

I want students to be able to learn and use the language of sedimentary geology and use the vocabulary to express the concepts. I want students to be able to communicate their interpretations of a sedimentary deposition effectively and clearly using written and oral methods. I want students to be able to talk about sedimentary geology with a PhD student doing research on some aspect of sedimentary geology. I want students to synthesize data and communicate it well both in writing and orally

Introduction American citizens are currently engaged in wide-ranging debates on educational policies affecting all venues where teaching and learning occur. These discussions have or can have significant impact on the teaching of history and, therefore, on the nation and its understanding of history in the coming decades. Some of these discussions seek to define the course work done by students by prescribing curriculums. Others focus on financial support for education and can lead to decisions to downsize departments by increasing instructional loads and class sizes or by mandating new formats for instruction. There are debates that address the relationship among different teaching settings by mandating, for example, that course work taken at community colleges automatically transfer to public senior colleges. States and regions are also exploring the expansion of new modes of instruction such as Internet use. All of these issues and others ultimately affect the environment for learning history--both its content and its perspectives on the past. The need to reevaluate instruction--both its content and its techniques--is not a new development for historians. Teaching historians have a long, effective record of discussing and analyzing different classroom settings to assure that they are delivering the best historical understandings with the most effective teaching methods. Traditionally this analysis has been done informally by individuals or formally by departments; few efforts have reached beyond the boundaries of home campuses. In periods of strong institutional budgets, numerous students, and a supportive public, these efforts were sufficient. Recently the environment for teaching has changed. Legislatures are seeking undefended dollars for new programs; citizen interest in career-specific education is increasing; there are efforts to prescribe what should be taught in the classroom. Historians must respond to this interest in educational assessment by developing approaches that measure the development of historical thinking and knowledge. Historians need to address these challenges by developing clear criteria that inform decision makers--both on and beyond campus--of those characteristics of historical study that are fundamental to students formulation of meaningful historical perspectives. By facilitating the assessment of proposed budget realignments and the evaluation of new teaching technologies, these criteria will help society determine the long-term impact of policy alternatives on the nations sense of the historical and on student abilities to deal with social and political data and issues. By adopting these criteria, departments will be able to clarify for themselves how well, individually and collectively, they are achieving their teaching goals. Traditional measures of instructional quality--basic teaching skills, faculty availability to students, a well thought-out syllabus--are necessary but by themselves no longer sufficient for assuring that the conditions for effective teaching and learning exist. Although the missions of educational institutions may vary, the American Historical Association affirms that legislatures, governing boards, school administrators, and historians must work together to ensure that the criteria listed below are clearly present in their history courses for both majors and nonmajors and are supported by the institutions operations and environment. 1. Course Content. All courses must contain sufficient factual material to enable students to understand the central themes and issues present in the course. Factual material must be based on the most recent research

findings. Historical research has expanded our understanding of the past in dramatic ways over the last 20 years, and this process continues. History instructors must have opportunity and motivation to integrate relevant results in their course content. Historical facts should be treated, however, as the beginning rather than the final goal of historical study. Courses must explicitly present the analytical concepts characteristic of historical study. These concepts not only underlie the questions that historians ask of the past, they help historians organize evidence, evaluate its relation to other evidence, and determine the relative importance of different events in shaping the past--and the present. These concepts address sequence, change over time, cause and effect, the role of factors such as culture and technology in shaping the history of the period, and the importance of the insights of all major social and cultural groupings in the society being studied. A true examination of the past requires attention to the full range of human activities and institutions, including politics, society, culture, economy, intellectual trends, and international relations. 2. Historical Thinking. Textbooks and well-delivered lectures sometimes give students the impression that the study of history is the quest for the single correct answer, because these end products of study conceal the historians struggle with the indeterminacy associated with conflicting evidence and multiple viewpoints. For this reason excellent historical courses go beyond the presentation of content and analytical concepts to provide students with multiple opportunities to do the work of the historian. Students need to be aware of the kinds of sources used by historians, and they should become adept at extracting meaning from these sources, comparing their findings with other evidence from the period, formulating conclusions about the issue under study, and testing these ideas against additional evidence and the ideas of other historians. Students should be taught to think historically, to have the opportunity to develop their own historical interpretations, because this transforms their formal study of the past into a true understanding of the ways that conflicting evidence, alternative perspectives, and societys concerns shape our evaluations of the past. For these reasons students should be given frequent opportunities for discussion and writing in order to learn to practice the art of interpretation and to see the implications of their own analyses. These experiences should be progressive with the work at each level or grade, building on the studies that students carried out in prior courses. Historical thinking also contributes to the important educational goals of producing a thoughtful citizenry and of providing individuals with the analytical skills suitable to a wide range of jobs. 3. Classroom Environment. The classroom environment must actively promote the learning of history. This includes the presence of an adequate supply of relevant and up-to-date maps and audiovisual materials as well as the necessary equipment. The number of students per class must not exceed the number that can carry on meaningful interactions over course issues. The reliance on large lecture sections must be accompanied by discussion sections that are small enough so that the instructor can realistically expect oral participation by all students. Alternative forms of instruction, such as television or the Internet, must also require significant communication between students and faculty and among students themselves. In addition students must be presented with the special issues related to the use of these technologies such as "visual literacy" with regard to film and "authority" in the evaluation of Internet sources. Instructor loads must not exceed the ability of the teacher to offer excellent instruction and to keep up-to-date with the latest research. Adjunct faculty should be held to the same expectations as full-time faculty and should receive the same institutional supports as faculty with continuing appointments. Although it is reasonable to expect that some historians will hold positions that involve duties in addition to teaching history, these instructors must be required to meet the same instructional standards as full-time teaching historians and must be supported in their work in the same way as full-time historians. 4. Evaluation of Student Performance. Although objective testing may be useful to prompt students to read assignments, it should never represent the bulk of student evaluation or be the final measure of student success. Because the work of the excellent history course revolves around analysis and interpretation, student evaluation must be based on written or other work that allows students to develop and present their own analyses--on tests, oral presentations, papers, or group projects. This should include student research projects in which the students seek out and weigh appropriate factual information and use it to answer significant historical questions at a level of difficulty appropriate to their level of study.

General teaching tips BASIC TEACHING SKILLS

Setting the scene The importance of starting off on the right foot cannot be overestimated. The students are most Likely to learn in a relaxed and friendly environment. GPs have a reputation for being friendly and Approachable teachers. While part of this is no doubt related to the way in which we approach our Clinical work, some of it is consciously developed to put students at their ease. In the same way that we arrange the seating for patients to help communication, we can help teaching by arranging the students chairs in a circle and putting any visual aids (flip charts etc) so that they can be easily seen. A friendly greeting and the offer of a cup of tea relaxes students, and if asked they will wash their mugs up afterwards! Students tell us that their GP is often the only person who enquires what they have seen that week. They find this valuable, and feel they can discuss things openly with us as we are out of the

Hospital setting. Once the group is together it is worth informally discussing some ground rules. These are the rules by which the group will function over the next few weeks, covering things like attendance and confidentiality. We will deal with setting ground rules more fully in the section on managing groups Being student centred The phrase student centred has a similar meaning to being patient centred. Essentially it is about Moving away from an authoritarian form of teaching where you, as the teacher, knows exactly what the students need to know and are going to teach it whether they like it or not. Within CMT an authoritarian approach is not sensible, never mind the philosophical objections, because the students are the ones who know what they have done already, what they are doing in the hospital over the next few weeks and thus what the gaps in their knowledge are. Being student centred means focussing on what the students want to know and involving them in the learning as much as possible. We were always asked what we felt that we didnt know enough about so we werent going over the things we already knew well so we managed to fit in most of the things in the log book that we hadnt done before (3 rdYear student)

You will automatically start being student-centred on the first session when you and the studentssit down together and look at the aims for the next sessions. Keep checking with the students that you are covering what they want to know. That way you will avoid a lot of duplication and waste oftime. Assessing prior knowledge Finding out what students know already is very important. Remember that even if they know it already, time spent rehearsing the information is not wasted by calling it up, they will be preparing themselves for learning. Try to think creatively they may not have already seen someone with fibrosing alveolitis, but they are likely to have seen other causes of shortness of breath can they describe one of these cases? How was the patient affected? What was the underlying problem? You will find that students often have relevant knowledge in another field entirely which is nonetheless useful. For example when talking about anxiety ask the students about their exams. How did they feel? How does this relate to the feelings that people experience in anxiety? Once the students prior knowledge has been explored you can then start to build new knowledge on to it, with no risk of teaching students something they already know. We were always asked what we felt that we didnt know enough about so we werent going over the things we already knew well so we managed to fit in most of the things in the log book that we hadnt done before (3rdYear student)A couple of problems often arise. Students may say they know nothing about a subject when in fact they do. There are several reasons for this: they dont see how experience A could be related to experience B; they fear that their knowledge is too superficial and they will be made to feel stupid; or they fancy a non-challenging session. Creative exploration of prior knowledge should get round this. Another common situation is that one member of the group is either very knowledgeable or rather behind their peers. A teacher started to discuss nutrition in patients with inflammatory bowel disease when she noticed the group looking uneasily at one of the students. It turned out that he had a BSc in nutrition. He was delighted to go over the subject with the group, at the end of which both the group and the GP teacher felt they had learned a lot We will deal with mixed ability teaching in the section on teaching groups, but as a quick guide, usethe knowledge of the able students to fill in the gaps of their peers rather than didactically going\over it all. Getting students to participate Students are most likely to learn when they are actively involved with the learning. This seems particularly obvious when you are learning a skill watching me perform a cardiovascular system examination a thousand times is not going to teach a student how to hear heart sounds unless they have a go. It is equally important for students to use new bits of knowledge they have learned. This will help them fit them in to their memories and use them when needed. You will have to devise situations in which students can actively discuss what they have learned and test that they understand new concepts. Students are likely to learn when you use a variety of teaching methods in the session.

This keeps students interested. Thus you could have a discussion, some practical work, get the students to think through a case and look at a model all in one session. Useful techniques include questioning, brainstorming, interaction with patients and role-play. We will deal with the art of asking questions below, and some of the techniques to use with a group in the section on teaching groups Getting students to participate Students are most likely to learn when they are actively involved with the learning. This seems particularly obvious when you are learning a skill watching me perform a cardiovascular system examination a thousand times is not going to teach a student how to hear heart sounds unless they have a go. It is equally important for students to use new bits of knowledge they have learned. This will help them fit them in to their memories and use them when needed. You will have to devise situations in which students can actively discuss what they have learned and test that they understand new concepts. Students are likely to learn when you use a variety of teaching methods in the session. This keeps students interested. Thus you could have a discussion, some practical work, get the students to think through a case and look at a model all in one session. Useful techniques include questioning, brainstorming, interaction with patients and role-play. We will deal with the art of asking questions below, and some of the techniques to use with a group in the section on teaching groups . Dont feel that you have to pursue a poor question. It is often easier to say lets look at that a different way and move on. Asking questions to a group of students raises several issues. We will look at asking questions in groups later on. You will have to decide whether to ask questions to students directly, in turn, or to the group as a whole. Students may feel that asking lots of questions is very challenging. Part of this relates to the way in which you ask the questions, but as a general rule, keeping up the level of challenge in a teaching session is not a bad thing. However if you are dealing with a difficult subject, students may feel less exposed if they discuss their responses to a question in pairs and then forward a collective response to the whole group. Sometimes you may find that a group normalises its responses. You may ask what do you think the diagnosis is?, the most able member of the group will answer and then all the others will hastily agree. This takes away a valuable learning experience for the less able members of the group. They may not understand why their initial answer was not the right one, and would have benefited from time spent on this. One way round this is to get everyone to write or draw their answers on a piece of paper. This means they have to commit themselves, and gives you the potential to look at the reasoning behind different answers. Checking understanding During a session it is worth monitoring the progress of the students. Check that they understand the points you have just covered and make sure they have no questions before you move onto the next topic. By checking you will be able to manage the pace of the session (this means the speed at which information is delivered) and make sure that the information is delivered at the right level or pitch. Problems with pitch and pace form the vast majority of student complaints about CMT teaching. Using visual aids

This is another way of keeping students interested. The aphorism a picture tells a thousand words is true. Students can interact with diagrammatic information easily. Common tools are diagrams (from books, CD ROMs etc), flip charts and overhead projectors. It is important to think about why you are using a visual aid and take some time over selecting the correct one. If you are using an overhead projector keep the writing large and legible and only summarise the key points in the discussion. Flip charts are useful to note down key points in the discussion, organise disconnected bit of information, and provide an aide memoire for students (for example key questions to ask in the history, with the flip chart visible over the patients shoulder). Students find handouts at the end of a session very useful as it allows them to participate fully in the discussion without taking notes. Setting homework Because medical knowledge is constantly changing, one of the essential things all medical students must have when they graduate is the ability to continue learning. This is often referred to as lifelong learning. We do this all the time when we see patients, realise that there is something we dont understand and then discuss it with our partners, look it up in textbooks or read a relevant article. What we have learned to do over the years is identify our own learning objectives. This means that we decide what we need to know. We then devise a learning strategy to meet the objectives we have set. For the vast majority of us these skills were not taught explicitly at medical school. You can prompt students to develop these skills by getting them to identify things the group didnt know about in the sessions and instead of telling them the answers, get them to research them after the session. Students often refer to this as setting homework, and are familiar with the process as they have been exposed to problem-based-learning in Phase 1 and 2. It is important to make sure that the objectives the students have set are realistic, and if you suspect they will be difficult, to check on the students proposed learning strategy. It is a good idea to note down who was responsible for what and ask them to present it at the start of the next session.Summarising and closing a session Summarising at the end of a session is important. We could reduce a lot of teaching theory to the statement tell them what you going to do, do it, tell them what you just did. This perfectly demonstrates the three part nature of a well planned lesson, and also reveals a critical fact about the summary no new facts. The summary is just that a summary of the content of the lesson at the end of the lesson. Its aim is to reinforce the most important points of the lesson. It can be done in several ways. The most common are teacher led; where the teacher summarises the most important points for the students, or student led; where the students are invited to summarise for the group. The last part of a session involves preparing students for what is to come next week this enables them to read up, activate the knowledge they already have and make the most of the lesson. CONCLUSION In this section we have looked at the organisation and basic teaching skills you will need to start teaching. You will now be able to plan a simple effectively. The key points to remember are:

ng skills you will need to start teaching. You will now be able to plan a simple lesson, and use your time with the students effectively. The key points to remember are: When am I teaching? make sure you are prepared What am I teaching? make sure you understand the aims and objectives of the session Organising yourself How shall I structure the lesson? make a lesson plan Setting the scene make sure that your students are comfortable and ready to start learning Being student centred do you know what the students want to learn in each session? Assessing prior knowledge check what the students know already Asking questions keep your questions straightforward, but try and probe deeper levels of knowledge. Give the students enough time to answer Checking understanding make sure that the pitch and pace of the session is right Using visual aids it is worth taking time to find these, and using flip charts and OHPs wherever possible Setting homework vital to promote life-long learning, but check learning objectives and learning strategy are reasonable and ask students to present their work Basic teaching skills Summarising and closing a session d ng skills you will need to start teaching. You will now be able to plan a simple lesson, and use your time with the students effectively. The key points to remember are: When am I teaching? make sure you are prepared What am I teaching? make sure you understand the aims and objectives of the session Organising yourself How shall I structure the lesson? make a lesson plan Setting the scene make sure that your students are comfortable and ready to start learning

Being student centred do you know what the students want to learn in each session? Assessing prior knowledge check what the students know already Asking questions keep your questions straightforward, but try and probe deeper levels of knowledge. Give the students enough time to answer Checking understanding make sure that the pitch and pace of the session is right Using visual aids it is worth taking time to find these, and using flip charts and OHPs wherever possible Setting homework vital to promote life-long learning, but check learning objectives and learning strategy are reasonable and ask students to present their work Basic teaching skill Summarizing and closing a session dont give new information, and.

Teaching and learning strategies

This is a list of possible teaching and learning strategies which have been used in the teaching of History. However, the list is not exhaustive and can also be used with other subject areas. The list is intended to serve as a checklist so that students are exposed to a variety of teaching approaches during a unit of work. The ideas have also been used successfully with both Key Stages at primary school.

Language Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 Teachers

Michael Lessard-Clouston z95014 [at] kgupyr.kwansei.ac.jp Kwansei Gakuin University (Nishinomiya, Japan) First published in Essays in Languages and Literatures, 8, at Kwansei Gakuin University, December 1997. This article provides an overview of language learning strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. To do so it outlines the background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarises key reflections and questions for future research on this aspect of L2/FL

education. It also lists helpful contacts and internet sites where readers may access up-todate information on LLS teaching and research.

Introduction
Within the field of education over the last few decades a gradual but significant shift has taken place, resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change has been reflected in various ways in language education and applied linguistics, ranging from the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled "Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner" and annual "Learners' Conferences" held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on "the learnercentred curriculum" (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and "learner-centredness as language education" (Tudor, 1996). This article provides an overview of key issues concerning one consequence of the above shift: the focus on and use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and foreign language (L2/FL) learning and teaching. In doing so, the first section outlines some background on LLS and summarises key points from the LLS literature. The second section considers some practical issues related to using LLS in the classroom, outlining a three step approach to implementing LLS training in normal L2/FL courses. The third section then briefly discusses some important issues and questions for further LLS research. In the fourth section the article ends by noting a number of contacts readers may use to locate and receive up-to-date information on LLS teaching and research in this widely developing area in L2/FL education.

1. BACKGROUND Learning Strategies

In a helpful survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as "behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which are "intended to influence the learner's encoding process" (p. 315). Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as "behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information" (p. 11). These early definitions from the educational literature reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. LS are thus used in learning and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments. For insight into the literature on LS outside of language education, the works of Dansereau (1985) and Weinstein, Goetz and Alexander (1988) are key, and one recent LS study of note is that of Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes and Simmons (1997). In the rest of this paper, the focus will specifically be on language LS in L2/FL learning.

Language Learning Strategies Defined

Within L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incoporate these into one's interlanguage competence" (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS "are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly" (p. 22). In their seminal study, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as "the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers (Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS (i.e., "In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the meaning of new expressions and predicting what will come next") and this helpful definition: ...language learning strageties -- specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strageties can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18) From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), there is now a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same time, we should note that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner's "natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills" (Reid, 1995, p. viii), though there appears to be an obvious relationship between one's language learning style and his or her usual or preferred language learning strategies.

What are the Characteristics of LLS?

Although the terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms "learner strategies" (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others "learning strategies" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & O'Malley, 1994), and still others "language learning strategies" (Oxford, 1990a, 1996), there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learner's skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). Reading the LLS literature, it is clear that a number of further aspects of LLS are less uniformly accepted. When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner through LLS. Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view of

LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS:

allow learners to become more self-directed expand the role of language teachers are problem-oriented involve many aspects, not just the cognitive can be taught are flexible are influenced by a variety of factors.

(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9) Beyond this brief outline of LLS characterisitics, a helpful review of the LLS research and some of the implications of LLS training for second language acquisition may be found in Gu (1996).

Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?

Within 'communicative' approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. After Canale and Swain's (1980) influencial article recognised the importance of communication strategies as a key aspect of strategic (and thus communicative) competence, a number of works appeared about communication strategies in L2/FL teaching2. An important distinction exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their students' communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS "...are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence" (p. 1). In addition to developing students' communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on 'good language learners' by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring one's L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers. A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham's (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.

A caution must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is always the possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies...are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful" (p. 76). In fact Vann and Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both 'good' and 'unsuccessful' language learners can be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners "apparently...lacked...what are often called metacognitive strategies...which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear the necessary strategies for its completion" (p. 192). It appears, then, that a number and range of LLS are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning the L2/FL and in becoming good language learners.

What Kinds of LLS Are There?

There are literally hundreds of different, yet often interrelated, LLS. As Oxford has developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy, it is useful to summarise it briefly here. First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS, "which directly involve the subject matter", i.e. the L2 or FL, and indirect LLS, which "do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless" (p. 71). Second, each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies "aid in entering information into longterm memory and retrieving information when needed for communication". Cognitive LLS "are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language". Compensation strategies "are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). Oxford (1990a, 1990b) also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strageties "help learners exercise 'executive control' through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning". Affective LLS "enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes related to language learning". Finally, social strategies "facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation" (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). A more detailed overview of these six main types of LLS is found in Oxford (1990a, pp. 1821), where they are further divided into 19 strategy groups and 62 subsets. Here, by way of example, we will briefly consider the social LLS that Oxford lists under indirect strategies. Three types of social LLS are noted in Oxford (1990a): asking questions, co-operating with others, and empathising with others (p. 21). General examples of LLS given in each of these categories are as follows: Asking questions 1. Asking for clarification or verification 2. Asking for correction Co-operating with others 1. Co-operating with peers 2. Co-operating with proficient users of the new language

Empathising with others 1. Developing cultural understanding 2. Becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings (Oxford, 1990a, p. 21) Although these examples are still rather vague, experienced L2/FL teachers may easily think of specific LLS for each of these categories. In asking questions, for example, students might ask something specific like "Do you mean...?" or "Did you say that...?" in order to clarify or verify what they think they have heard or understood. While at first glance this appears to be a relatively straightforward LLS, in this writer's experience it is one that many EFL students in Japan, for example, are either unaware of or somewhat hesitant to employ. What is important to note here is the way LLS are interconnected, both direct and indirect, and the support they can provide one to the other (see Oxford, 1990a, pp. 14-16). In the above illustration of social LLS, for example, a student might ask the questions above of his or her peers, thereby 'co-operating with others', and in response to the answer he or she receives the student might develop some aspect of L2/FL cultural understanding or become more aware of the feelings or thoughts of fellow students, the teacher, or those in the L2/FL culture. What is learned from this experience might then be supported when the same student uses a direct, cognitive strategy such as 'practising' to repeat what he or she has learned or to integrate what was learned into a natural conversation with someone in the target L2/FL. In this case, the way LLS may be inter-connected becomes very clear.

2. USING LLS IN THE CLASSROOM

With the above background on LLS and some of the related literature, this section provides an overview of how LLS and LLS training have been or may be used in the classroom, and briefly describes a three step approach to implementing LLS training in the L2/FL classroom.

Contexts and Classes for LLS Training

LLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of classes for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself. In this case, texts such as Ellis and Sinclair's (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training or Rubin and Thompson's (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner might be used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning process, the nature of language and communication, what language learning resources are available to them, and what specific LLS they might use in order to improve their own vocabulary use, grammar knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Perhaps more common are integrated L2/FL courses where these four skills are taught in tandem, and in these courses those books might be considered as supplementary texts to help learners focus on the LLS that can help them learn L2/FL skills and the LLS they need to acquire them. In this writer's experience, still more common is the basic L2/FL listening, speaking, reading, or writing course where LLS training can enhance and complement the

L2/FL teaching and learning. Whatever type of class you may be focusing on at this point, the three step approach to implementing LLS training in the classroom outlined below should prove useful.

Step 1: Study Your Teaching Context

At first, it is crucial for teachers to study their teaching context, paying special attention to their students, their materials, and their own teaching. If you are going to train your students in using LLS, it is crucial to know something about these individuals, their interests, motivations, learning styles, etc. By observing their behaviour in class, for example, you will be able to see what LLS they already appear to be using. Do they often ask for clarification, verification, or correction, as discussed briefly above? Do they co-operate with their peers or seem to have much contact outside of class with proficient L2/FL users? Beyond observation, however, one can prepare a short questionnaire that students can fill in at the beginning of a course, describing themselves and their language learning. Sharkey (1994/1995), for instance, asks students to complete statements such as "In this class I want to/will/won't....", "My favourite/least favourite kinds of class activities are...", "I am studying English because...", etc. (Sharkey, 1994/1995, p. 19). Talking to students informally before or after class, or more formally interviewing select students about these topics can also provide a lot of information about one's students, their goals, motivations, and LLS, and their understanding of the particular course being taught. Beyond the students, however, one's teaching materials are also important in considering LLS and LLS training. Textbooks, for example, should be analysed to see whether they already include LLS or LLS training. Scarcella and Oxford's (1992) Tapestry textbook series, for example, incorporates "learning strategy" boxes which highlight LLS and encourage students to use them in L2/FL tasks or skills. One example from a conversation text in the series states: "Managing Your Learning: Working with other language learners improves your listening and speaking skills" (Earle-Carlin & Proctor, 1996, p. 8). An EFL writing text I use has brief sections on making one's referents clear, outlining, and choosing the right vocabulary, all of which may be modelled and used in LLS training in my composition course. Audiotapes, videotapes, hand-outs, and other materials for the course at hand should also be examined for LLS or for specific ways that LLS training might be implemented in using them. Perhaps teachers will be surprised to find many LLS incorporated into their materials, with more possibilities than they had imagined. If not, they might look for new texts or other teaching materials that do provide such opportunities. Last, but certainly not least, teachers need to study their own teaching methods and overall classroom style. One way to do so is to consider your lesson plans. Do they incorporate various ways that students can learn the language you are modelling, practising or presenting, in order to appeal to a variety of learning styles and strategies? Does your teaching allow learners to approach the task at hand in a variety of ways? Is your LLS training implicit, explicit, or both? By audiotaping or videotaping one's classroom teaching an instructor may objectively consider just what was actually taught and modelled, and how students responded and appeared to learn. Is your class learner-centred? Do you allow students to work on their own and learn from one another? As you circulate in class, are you

encouraging questions, or posing ones relevant to the learners with whom you interact? Whether formally in action research or simply for informal reflection, teachers who study their students, their materials, and their own teaching will be better prepared to focus on LLS and LLS training within their specific teaching context.

Step 2: Focus on LLS in Your Teaching

After you have studied your teaching context, begin to focus on specific LLS in your regular teaching that are relevant to your learners, your materials, and your own teaching style. If you have found 10 different LLS for writing explicitly used in your text, for example, you could highlight these as you go through the course, giving students clear examples, modelling how such LLS may be used in learning to write or in writing, and filling in the gaps with other LLS for writing that are neglected in the text but would be especially relevant for your learners. If you tend to be teacher-centred in your approach to teaching, you might use a specific number of tasks appropriate for your context from the collection by Gardner and Miller (1996) in order to provide students with opportunities to use and develop their LLS and to encourage more independent language learning both in class and in out-of-class activities for your course. As Graham (1997) declares, LLS training "needs to be integrated into students' regular classes if they are going to appreciate their relevance for language learning tasks; students need to constantly monitor and evaluate the strategies they develop and use; and they need to be aware of the nature, function and importance of such strategies" (p. 169). Whether it is a specific conversation, reading, writing, or other class, an organised and informed focus on LLS and LLS training will help students learn and provide more opportunities for them to take responsibility for their learning3.

Step 3: Reflect and Encourage Learner Reflection

Much of what I have suggested in this section requires teacher reflection, echoing a current trend in pedagogy and the literature in L2/FL education (see, for example, Freeman & Richards, 1996, and Richards & Lockhart, 1994). However, in implementing LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL classroom, purposeful teacher reflection and encouraging learner reflection form a necessary third step. On a basic level, it is useful for teachers to reflect on their own positive and negative experiences in L2/FL learning. As Graham suggests, "those teachers who have thought carefully about how they learned a language, about which strategies are most appropriate for which tasks, are more likely to be successful in developing 'strategic competence' in their students" (p. 170). Beyond contemplating one's own language learning, it is also crucial to reflect on one's LLS training and teaching in the classroom. After each class, for example, one might ponder the effectiveness of the lesson and the role of LLS and LLS training within it. Do students seem to have grasped the point? Did they use the LLS that was modelled in the task they were to perform? What improvements for future lessons of this type or on this topic might be gleaned from students' behaviour? An informal log of such reflections and one's personal assessment of the class, either in a notebook or on the actual lesson plans, might be used later to reflect on LLS

training in the course as a whole after its completion. In my experience I have found, like Offner (1997), that rather than limiting my perspective to specific LLS such reflection helps me to see the big picture and focus on "teaching how to learn" within my L2/FL classes. In addition to the teacher's own reflections, it is essential to encourage learner reflection, both during and after the LLS training in the class or course. In an interesting action research study involving "guided reflection" Nunan (1996) did this by asking his students to keep a journal in which they completed the following sentences: This week I studied..., I learned..., I used my English in these places..., I spoke English with these people..., I made these mistakes..., My difficulties are..., I would like to know..., I would like help with..., My learning and practising plans for the next week are... (Nunan, 1996, p. 36). Sharkey (1994/1995) asked her learners to complete simple self- evaluation forms at various points during their course. Matsumoto (1996) used student diaries, questionnaires, and interviews to carry out her research and help her students reflect on their LLS and language learning. Pickard (1996) also used questionnaires and follow-up interviews in helping students reflect on their out-of- class LLS. In a writing class, Santos (1997) has used portfolios to encourage learner reflection. These are just a few examples from the current literature of various ways to encourage learner reflection on language learning. As Graham declares, "For learners, a vital component of self-directed learning lies in the on-going evaluation of the methods they have employed on tasks and of their achievements within the...programme" (p. 170). Whatever the context or method, it is important for L2/FL learners to have the chance to reflect on their language learning and LLS use.

An Example of LLS Training

Let me give one example of implementing LLS training within a normal L2/FL class from my experience in teaching a TOEFL preparation course in Canada. After studying my teaching context by considering my part-time, evening college students (most of whom were working) and their LLS, the course textbook and other materials, and my own teaching, I became convinced that I should not only introduce LLS but also teach them and encourage learners to reflect on them and their own learning. To make this LLS training specific and relevant to these ESL students, I gave a mini-lecture early in the course on the importance of vocabulary for the TOEFL and learning and using English, and then focused on specific vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) by highlighting them whenever they were relevant to class activities. In practising listening for the TOEFL, for example, there were exercises on multi-definition words, and after finishing the activity I introduced ways students could expand their vocabulary knowledge by learning new meanings for multi-definition words they already know. I then talked with students about ways to record such words and their meanings on vocabulary cards or in a special notebook, in order for them to reinforce and review such words and meanings they had learned. In order to encourage learner reflection, later in the course I used a questionnaire asking students about their vocabulary learning and VLS in and outside of class, and the following week gave them a generic but individualised vocabulary knowledge test where students provided the meaning, part of speech, and an example sentence for up to 10 words each person said he or she had 'learned'. I marked these and handed them back to students the

next week, summarising the class results overall and sparking interesting class discussion. For a more detailed description of this classroom activity and a copy of the questionnaire and test, see Lessard-Clouston (1994). For more information on the research that I carried out in conjunction with this activity, please refer to Lessard-Clouston (1996). What became obvious both to me and my students in that attempt at LLS training was that vocabulary learning is a very individualised activity which requires a variety of VLS for success in understanding and using English vocabulary, whether or not one is eventually 'tested' on it. Though this is just one example of implementing LLS training in a normal L2/FL class, hopefully readers will be able to see how this general three step approach to doing so may be adapted for their own classroom teaching.

3. REFLECTIONS AND QUESTIONS FOR LLS RESEARCH Important Reflections

In my thinking on LLS I am presently concerned about two important issues. The first, and most important, concerns the professionalism of teachers who use LLS and LLS training in their work. As Davis (1997, p. 6) has aptly noted, "our actions speak louder than words", and it is therefore important for professionals who use LLS training to also model such strategies both within their classroom teaching and, especially in EFL contexts, in their own FL learning. Furthermore, LLS obviously involve individuals' unique cognitive, social, and affective learning styles and strategies. As an educator I am interested in helping my students learn and reflect on their learning, but I also question the tone and motivation reflected in some of the LLS literature. Oxford (1990a), for example, seems to describe many of my Japanese EFL students when she writes: ...many language students (even adults)...like to be told what to do, and they only do what is clearly essential to get a good grade -- even if they fail to develop useful skills in the process. Attitudes and behaviours like these make learning more difficult and must be changed, or else any effort to train learners to rely more on themselves and use better strategies is bound to fail. (Oxford, 1990a, p. 10) Motivation is a key concern both for teachers and students. Yet while teachers hope to motivate our students and enhance their learning, professionally we must be very clear not to manipulate them in the process, recognising that ultimately learning is the student's responsibility4. If our teaching is appropriate and learner-centred, we will not manipulate our students as we encourage them to develop and use their own LLS. Instead we will take learners' motivations and learning styles into account as we teach in order for them to improve their L2/FL skills and LLS. The second reflection pertains to the integration of LLS into both language learning/teaching theory and curriculum. The focus of this article is largely practical, noting why LLS are useful and how they can or might be included in regular L2/FL classes. These things are important. However, in reflecting on these issues and attempting to implement LLS training in my classes I am reminded that much of the L2/FL work in LLS appears to lack an undergirding theory, perhaps partially because L2/FL education is a relatively young discipline and lacks a comprehensive theory of acquisition and instruction itself. As Ellis (1994) notes, much of

the research on LLS "has been based on the assumption that there are 'good' learning strategies. But this is questionable" (p. 558). As my own research (Lessard-Clouston, 1996, 1998) suggests, L2/FL learning seems to be very much influenced by numerous individual factors, and to date it is difficult to account for all individual LLS, let alone relate them to all L2/FL learning/teaching theories. The related challenge, then, is how to integrate LLS into our L2/FL curriculum, especially in places like Japan where "learner-centred" approaches or materials may not be implemented very easily. Using texts which incorporate LLS training, such as those in the Tapestry series, remains difficult in FL contexts when they are mainly oriented to L2 ones. How then may FL educators best include LLS and LLS training in the FL curriculum of their regular, everyday language (as opposed to content) classes? This final point brings us to this and other questions for future LLS research.

Questions for LLS Research

Following from these reflections, then, future L2/FL research must consider and include curriculum development and materials for LLS training which takes into account regular L2/FL classes (especially for adults) and the learning styles and motivations of the students within them. While Chamot and O'Malley (1994, 1996) and Kidd and Marquardson (1996) have developed materials for content-based school classes, it is important to consider the development and use of materials for college and university language classes, especially in FL settings. On the surface at least, it would appear that the language/content/learning strategies components of their frameworks could be easily transferred to a variety of language classroom curricula, but is this really the case? One model to consider in attempting to do so is Stern's (1992) multidimensional curriculum, which allows for the integration of LLS and LLS training into its language, culture, communicative, and general language education syllabuses. A pressing need for further research involves developing a comprehensive theory of LLS that is also relevant to language teaching practice. Moving beyond taxonomies of LLS, various types of studies into LLS use and training must consider a wide range of questions, such as: What types of LLS appear to work best with what learners in which contexts? Does LLS or LLS training transfer easily between L2 and FL contexts? What is the role of language proficiency in LLS use and training? How long does it take to train specific learners in certain LLS? How can one best assesss and measure success in LLS use or training? Are certain LLS learnt more easily in classroom or non-classroom contexts? What LLS should be taught at different proficiency levels? Answers to these and many other questions from research in a variety of settings will aid in the theory building that appears necessary for more LLS work to be relevant to current L2/FL teaching practice. In considering the above questions concerning LLS and LLS training, a variety of research methods should be employed. To date much of the LLS research appears to be based in North America and is largely oriented towards quantitative data and descriptions. In fact, one report on more qualitatively-oriented LLS data by LoCastro (1994) sparked an interesting response from major LLS figures Oxford and Green (1995). While calling for

collaborative research in their critique, Oxford and Green's (1995) comments in many ways discourage such work, especially for those who do not work within North America or use a quantitatively oriented research approach. However, as LoCastro points out in her response, ...there are different kinds of research which produce different results which may be of interest. Research dealing with human beings is notoriously fuzzy and shows a great deal of variation. (LoCastro, 1995, p. 174). I would concur with this observation. In listing the above questions and calling for more research on LLS, I also hope that more case studies, longitudinal studies, and learner's selfdirected qualitative studies, like the one by Yu (1990), will be carried out and will receive greater attention in the literature in L2/FL education.

4. HELPFUL LLS CONTACTS AND INTERNET SITES

As readers may want to take up my challenge and address the issues and questions for research I have outlined here, in this final section I focus on where they may find additional information and resources to help them in their LLS teaching and research. In addition to checking the sources listed in the reference section at the end of this article, there are a number of contacts which readers may find useful for obtaining more information on LLS, LLS training and/or research, and in networking with others involved with or interested in LLS within various aspects of L2/FL education. Three such contacts are noted here.

Where Can I Get More Information?

1. The Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT) Learner Development National Special Interest Group (N-SIG), formed in 1994, encourages learner development and autonomy, which involves and encompasses LLS. It publishes a quarterly, bilingual (English-Japanese) newsletter called Learning Learning and organises presentations at the annual JALT conference each autumn. For more information one can access the Learner Development N-SIG homepage or contact the co-ordinator: http://www.ipcs.shizuoka.ac.jp/~eanaoki/LD/homeE.html Dr. Jill Robbins Doshisha Women's College English Department Tanabe-co, Tsuzuki-gun Kyoto-fu 610-03 JAPAN Email: robbins@gol.com 2. The International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) Learner Independence Special Interest Group (SIG) has an international network of members who are interested in learning styles and LLS, learning centres, and related topics. In addition to publishing a newsletter, Independence, it occasionally holds related events. For more information either visit the Learner Independence SIG home page or contact the co-ordinator, Jenny Timmer, through email to IATEFL at: <113017.205@compuserve.com>.

http://www.man.ac.uk/IATEFL/lisig/lihome.htm 3. The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA) at the University of Minnesota publishes a newsletter, The NESSLA Report (the Network of Styles and Strategies in Language Acquisition) and maintains a Second Language Learning Strategies website. In order to subscribe to the newsletter, contact CARLA as follows: http://carla.acad.umn.edu/slstrategies.html CARLA Suite 111, UTEC Building 1313 5th St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN 5514 U.S.A. Email: carla@tc.umn.edu The area of LLS is a major but quickly developing aspect of L2/FL education, and interested teachers and researchers are advised to check the internet sites listed here for the most upto- date information on this topic. In accessing these WWW pages one will also find links to related sites and organisations5.

Conclusion
This paper has provided a brief overview of LLS by examining their background and summarising the relevant literature. It has also outlined some ways that LLS training has been used and offered a three step approach for teachers to consider in implementing it within their own L2/FL classes. It has also raised two important issues, posed questions for further LLS research, and noted a number of contacts that readers may use in networking on LLS in L2/FL education. In my experience, using LLS and LLS training in the L2/FL class not only encourages learners in their language learning but also helps teachers reflect on and improve their teaching. May readers also find this to be the case.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my students for their input on LLS and LLS training, and Birgit Harley and Wendy Lessard-Clouston for their input on the issues presented in this overview and for their helpful comments on earlier drafts.

Notes
1. The Author: Michael Lessard-Clouston is Associate Professor of English, School of Economics, Kwansei Gakuin University, 1-1-155 Uegahara, Nishinomiya, 662 Japan.

2. See, for example, the work of Bialystok (1990), Bongaerts & Poulisse (1989), Dornyei & Thurrell (1991), Kasper & Kellerman (1997), McDonough (1995), Poulisse (1989), and Willems (1987) on communication strategies. 3. For more examples of specific types of LLS training, refer to the works listed in the reference section. Oxford's (1990a) book, for instance, offers chapters with practical activities related to applying direct or indirect LLS to the four language skills or general management of learning. 4. For recent discussions of this issue and others related to autonomy and independence in language learning, see Benson & Voller (1997) and the articles in Ely & Pease-Alvarez (1996). 5. The contact details provided in this section are current as of autumn 1997.

UNIT VI Educational Technology

Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by [1] creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources." The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology is "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational [2] Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee, educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as wiki's and blogs, and [3] activities. But there is still debate on what these terms mean. Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word "technology." Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as "smartphones" and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories in human behavior to educational technology. Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology. The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means "applied science." In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the "scientific method" is considered a "technology." Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology comes from the Greek "techne" which means craft or art. Another word, "technique," with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be extended to include the [citation needed] techniques of the educator. A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Bloom's 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational [5] Objectives. Bloom's Taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected
[4]

ofand what are the learning goals forlearners. However, Bloom's work does not explicitly deal with educational technologyper se and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies. According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Master's, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology or Instructional Systems Design. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term "educational technologist" as a term [citation needed] to describe themselves, preferring terms such as "educator." The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker.

History
Educational technology in a way could be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, e.g., paintings on cave walls. But usually its history starts with educational film (1900s) or Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s. The first large scale usage of new technologies can be traced to US WWII training of soldiers through training films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on the idea that people can learn through aural and visual reception, exists in many forms, e.g., streaming audio and video, or PowerPoint presentations with voice-over. Another interesting invention of the 1940s was hypertext, i.e., V. Bush's memex. The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs. Skinners work led to "programmed instruction" focusing on the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Advocating a mastery approach to learning based on his taxonomy of intellectual behaviors, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-based training" (CBT), Computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970s through the 1990s. In a more simplified form they correspond to today's "e-contents" that often form the core of "e-learning" set-ups, sometimes also referred to as web-based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and multimedia presentation. Frequent Multiple Choice questions with immediate feedback are added for self-assessment and guidance. Such e-contents can rely on standards defined by IMS, ADL/SCORM and IEEE. The 1980s and 1990s produced a variety of schools that can be put under the umbrella of the label Computerbased learning (CBL). Frequently based on constructivist and cognitivist learning theories, these environments focused on teaching both abstract and domain-specific problem solving. Preferred technologies were microworlds (computer environments where learners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext. Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid90's, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computerbased learning (CBL), focused on the interaction between the student and computer drills plus tutorials on one hand or micro-worlds and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW. Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-mediated communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires

scenarization of flexible learning activities. In addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining learning communities and associated knowledge management tasks. It also provides tools for student and curriculum management. In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major role in full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on paper, videos and occasional CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-conferencing etc. Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid designs that mix presence courses (usually in the beginning and at the end of a module) with distance activities and use various pedagogical styles (e.g., drill & practise, exercises, projects, etc.). The 2000s emergence of multiple mobile and ubiquitous technologies gave a new impulse to situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and authentic (e.g., workplace) settings.

Theories and practices

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks have been present in the educational technology literature. These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Each of these schools of thought are still present in today's literature but have evolved as the Psychology literature has evolved.

Behaviorism
This theoretical framework was developed in the early 20th century with the animal learning experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, B.F. Skinner and many others. Many psychologists used these theories to describe and experiment with human learning. While still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor with many educators.

Skinner's contributions
B.F. Skinner wrote extensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysis of Verbal [6] [7] Behavior and wrote "The Technology of Teaching", an attempt to dispel the myths underlying contemporary education as well as promote his system he called programmed instruction. Ogden Lindsley also developed the Celeration learning system similarly based on behavior analysis but quite different from Keller's and Skinner's models.

Cognitivism
Cognitive science has changed how educators view learning. Since the very early beginning of the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm had begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. After memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. It is important to note that Computer Science and Information Technology have had a major influence on Cognitive Science theory. The Cognitive concepts of working memory (formerly known as short term memory) and long term memory have been facilitated by research and technology from the field of Computer Science. Another major influence on the field of Cognitive Science is Noam Chomsky. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information

Processing Theory. In addition, psychology as applied to media is easily measured in studying behavior. The area of media psychology is both cognative and affective and is central to understanding educational technology.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a learning theory or educational philosophy that many educators began to consider in the 1990s. One of the primary tenets of this philosophy is that learners construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different perspectives. Constructivist learning environments require students to utilize their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. Under this framework the role of the teacher becomes that of a facilitator, providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge. Constructivist educators must make sure that the prior learning experiences are appropriate and related to the concepts being taught. Jonassen (1997) suggests "well-structured" learning environments are useful for novice learners and that "ill-structured" environments are only useful for more advanced learners. Educators utilizing technology when teaching with a constructivist perspective should choose technologies that reinforce prior learning perhaps in a problem-solving environment.

Instructional technique and technologies

Problem Based Learning, Project-based Learning, and Inquiry-based learning are active learning educational technologies used to facilitate learning. Technology which includes physical and process applied science can be incorporated into project, problem, inquiry-based learning as they all have a similar educational philosophy. All three are student centered, ideally involving real-world scenarios in which students are actively engaged in critical thinking activities. The process that students are encouraged to employ (as long as it is based on empirical research) is considered to be a technology. Classic examples of technologies used by teachers and Educational Technologists include Bloom's Taxonomy and Instructional Design.

Theorists
This is an area where new thinkers are coming to the forefront everyday. Many of the ideas spread from theorists, researchers, and experts through their blogs. Extensive lists of educational bloggers by area of interest are available at Steve Hargadon's "SupportBloggers" site or at the "movingforward" wiki started by [8] Scott McLeod. Many of these blogs are recognized by their peers each year through the edublogger [9] awards. Web 2.0 technologies have led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and the number of educators formally and informally discussing it. Most listed below have been around for more than a decade, however, and few new thinkers mentioned above are listed here. Alan November Seymour Papert Will Richardson John Sweller Don Krug
[10]

Alex Jones George Siemens David Wiley David Wilson Bernard Luskin

Benefits

Educational technology is intended to improve education over what it would be without technology. Some of the claimed benefits are listed below: Easy-to-access course materials. Instructors can post the course material or important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they prefer and can obtain the [11] study material very quickly Student motivation. Computer-based instruction can give instant feedback to students and explain correct answers. Moreover, a computer is patient and non-judgmental, which can give the student motivation to continue learning. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of computers used for instruction, students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in computer-based [12] classes. The American educator, Cassandra B. Whyte, researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and successful academic performance and by the late 1980s, she wrote of how important computer usage and information technology would become in the higher education experience [13][14] of the future. Wide participation. Learning material can be used for long distance learning and are accessible to a [15] wider audience Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work on word processors, which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies, the students are better at [11] critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network with students they know Subjects made easier to learn. Many different types of educational software are designed and developed to help children or teenagers to learn specific subjects. Examples include pre-school software, computer [12] simulators, and graphics software A structure that is more amenable to measurement and improvement of outcomes. With proper structuring it can become easier to monitor and maintain student work while also quickly gauging modifications to the instruction necessary to enhance student learning. Differentiated Instruction. Educational technology provides the means to focus on active student participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans. Students are encouraged to use multimedia [16] components and to incorporate the knowledge they gained in creative ways.

Criticism
Although technology in the classroom does have many benefits, there are clear drawbacks as well. Lack of proper training, limited access to sufficient quantities of a technology, and the extra time required for many implementations of technology are just a few of the reasons that technology is often not used extensively in the classroom. To understand educational technology one must also understand theories in human behavior as behavior is affected by technology. Media Psychology is the study of media, technology and how and why individuals, groups and societies behave the way they do. The first Ph.D program with a concentration in media psychology was started in 2002 at Fielding Graduate University by Bernard Luskin. The Media Psychology division of APA, division 46 has a focus on media psychology. Media and the family is another emerging area affected by rapidly changing educational technology. Similar to learning a new task or trade, special training is vital to ensuring the effective integration of classroom technology. Since technology is not the end goal of education, but rather a means by which it can be accomplished, educators must have a good grasp of the technology being used and its advantages over more

traditional methods. If there is a lack in either of these areas, technology will be seen as a hindrance and not a benefit to the goals of teaching. Another difficulty is introduced when access to a sufficient quantity of a resource is limited. This is often seen when the quantity of computers or digital cameras for classroom use is not enough to meet the needs of an entire classroom. It also occurs in less noticed forms such as limited access for technology exploration because of the high cost of technology and the fear of damages. In other cases, the inconvenience of resource placement is a hindrance, such as having to transport a classroom to a computer lab instead of having inclassroom computer access by means of technology such as laptop carts. Technology implementation can also be time consuming. There may be an initial setup or training time cost inherent in the use of certain technologies. Even with these tasks accomplished, technology failure may occur during the activity and as a result teachers must have an alternative lesson ready. Another major issue arises because of the evolving nature of technology. New resources have to be designed and distributed whenever the technological platform has been changed. Finding quality materials to support classroom objectives after such changes is often difficult even after they exist in sufficient quantity and teachers must design these resources on their own. Experimental evidence suggests that these criticisms may have limited basis. See, for example, the work done [17] by Sugata Mitra. A recent presentation summarizes the research and Dr. Mitra's current research [18][19] initiative.

Educational technology and the humanities

Research from the Alberta Initiative for School Improvement (AISI) indicates that inquiry and projectbased approaches, combined with a focus on curriculum, effectively supports the infusion of educational technologies into the learning and teaching process.
[20]

Technology in the classroom

There are various types of technologies currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are: Computer in the classroom: Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any teacher. With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material, illustrate [21] how to use new programs, and show new websites. Class website: An easy way to display your student's work is to create a web page designed for your class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student work, famous quotes, trivia games, and so much more. In today's society, children know how to use the computer and navigate their way through a website, so why not give them one where they can be a published author. Just be careful as most districts maintain strong policies to manage official websites for a school or classroom. Also, most school districts provide teacher webpages that can easily be viewed through the school district's website. Class blogs and wikis: There are a variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being implemented in the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue, such as a journal,thoughts, ideas, and assignments that also provide for student comment and reflection. Wikis are more group focused to allow

multiple members of the group to edit a single document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product. Wireless classroom microphones: Noisy classrooms are a daily occurrence, and with the help of microphones, students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of the day. Mobile devices: Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphone can be used to enhance the experience in [22] the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback. See alsoMLearning. Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control of computer applications. These enhance the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a computer screen. This not only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive so the students can draw, write, or manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard. Online media: Streamed video websites can be utilized to enhance a classroom lesson (e.g. United Streaming, Teacher Tube, etc.) Digital Games: The field of educational games and serious games has been growing significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the classroom and have a lot of positive [23] feedback including higher motivation for students.

There are many other tools being utilized depending on the local school board and funds available. These may include: digital cameras, video cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, document cameras, or LCD projectors. Podcasts: Podcasting is a relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish files to the Internet where individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by a subscription. The primary benefit of podcasting for educators is quite simple. It enables teachers to reach students through a medium that is both "cool" and a part of their daily lives. For a technology that only requires a computer, microphone and internet connection, podcasting has the capacity of advancing a students education beyond the classroom. When students listen to the podcasts of other students as well as their own, they can quickly demonstrate their capacities to identify and define "quality." This can be a great tool for learning and developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Podcasting can help sharpen students vocabulary, writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation skills. Students will also learn skills that will be valuable in the working world, such as communication, time management, and problem-solving.

Although podcasts are a new phenomenon in classrooms, especially on college campuses, studies have shown the differences in effectiveness between a live lecture versus podcast are minor in terms of the [24] education of the student.

UNIT VII Teaching Chronology, Contemporary Affairs

The Teaching of Chronology

by Dorothea Beale, Principal of the Cheltenham Ladies' College
Volume 2, no. 2, 1891/92, pgs. 81-90

So teach me to number my days, that I may apply my heart unto wisdom. How far this little candle sheds its beams. It is a much disputed matter how we shall begin to teach history. I think the practical teacher will say there is nothing like the stories of antiquity--of the world's childhood--for the early education of the childhood of to-day. The delightful tales, e.g., of the Odyssey, as related by Hawthorne in his "Tanglewood Tales, " or the stories of Arthur and Charlemagne, related with all the little touches which the true artist--one who loves the little ones--knows how to introduce, will form the best groundwork for history to the child; these awaken the imagination and save him from ever becoming a Casaubon, a Dryas-dust. But, on the other hand, there is much to be said for the view recently enunciated by the Emperor William, that children should begin with their own times and read history backwards. We want to give reality to history by showing that it is not something remote, to be found in books only; we want to show that the life of each child forms part of history; then we may lead him on to see that the whole world is different for each man that has lived, better for each noble life, and to feel quite early that God has sent him into the world with some work ready for him, and that his business is to do that work. Not that I would put this into so many words, but endeavour, but bringing the child's life into immediate relations with the history of his own time, to help him to realise this as the reflective powers develop. We must ever be careful not to stimulate prematurely the moral and religious feelings. "He shall grow up as a tender plant"--this is the ideal for the perfect child, and Froebel's teaching was a sermon on that text. But the true educator will, in planting the first seeds of thought on any subject, bear in mind the later developments, without actually presenting these to the mind of the child.

The object of an Educational Union to which both parents and teachers belong is, as I understand it, to help us to see better how school and home can work in union and supplement one another. I propose, therefore, to explain a system, long used in our college, but which is even more suitable for home teaching than for the school--at least in its initial stages. The Methode Mnemonique Polonaise is much valued in France. It was introduced to my notice more than thirty years ago, and used by first at Queen's College, London. It can be adapted to various purposes, but I shall dwell now on its applications as a record of time, and show the different ways in which it can be used by little children, though it is equally well adapted for Tom Brown at Oxford (who seems to have used it) and for the mature student of history. It may be made for little ones into a system of object lessons, of hieroglyphics, if you will, which appeal to the childish imagination, and help him to realise something of the proportion of things, and, whilst looking at the world, as each of us must, from our own "pin-point," yet see life in relation to the lives of others. The practice of representing to the eye by means of diargams [sic] the facts of science, physical and social, is becoming more common: we have jagged lines indicating fluctuations in the winds or in the stocks: in an American record which has been sent to me, there are coloured squares representing the thousands of children who are regular in their attendance at school, black squares standing for the defaulting thousands. By such means we can see at a glance what the mind finds it difficult otherwise to realise. Now the system to which I refer is of a similar kind, but adapted to time. Since 100 years is about the limit of man's life, and we generally speak of centuries in history, we take for biography, or for history, a square divided into 100 squares, thus, and it is read as a page of ten lines:-<diagram 1> Now this may represent the life of a man or that of a century. To a little child it should stand at first for the former, as we must proceed from the known to the unknown, for his own life. The first square stands for the time before he is a year old--i.e. The year "nought" of his life; the second square for the time when he is one year old, and so we mark the squares accordingly. The first line gives the first decade of life, in the second line we have all the tens, in the third all the twenties, and so on; whilst, looking vertically downwards, we have in the first row all the numbers ending with zero; in the second those ending with one, and so on. A child very quickly learns to read on a black chart the number corresponding to any square in the century of squares; a line somewhat thicker is given down the centre to help the eye, and it is easy to remember that the fifty comes just beyond the central horizontal line and five beyond the central vertical line.

Now as soon as the child is able to understand it I would rule such a square and put it into a little glazed frame with a removable back, say a transparent slate; it would be well to have the frame oblong, so that there may be room along the left side to make a few entries of anniversary days. Then I would put in the events of the child's life. Let me give specimens. Mary is fourteen. On the top of the frame stands "Mary Jones, December 20, 1876." In the first square of Mary's chart is a little yellow star: a new life has come to light, and faint yellow paint covers the first fourteen squares, not yet the fifteenth, which the one passing away. In the fourth square is another star: Harold makes his appearance, and his birthday is in the margin. In the next square there is a black circle, like a star or sun eclipsed--that is grandpa's death. The next year school life begins for Mary in the Kindergarten--shall we have a little plant just peeping above the ground? A ship will tell of the year that papa and mamma sailed for India and left their children; another, in the opposite direction, will tell of their return some years later. In the next line Mary enters on her eleventh year; she is ten years old, and has done with the units. She is to go now to school; but before she goes, on the first morning, her chart is taken from its frame, perhaps a simple doorway drawn, or something more picturesque, and the day entered in the margin, and a few words of prayer offered that she may there learn things which make her truly wise; and each year as the birthday comes round the blanks are diminished, new events are added, over one more square the yellow light extends. I am sure parents will devise some very beautiful horoscopes which may take the place the those wonderful framed samplers of old times, which it will be a joy for their children to look at in later life, as they remember the birthday addition each year, the sorrows and the joys there noted down, the prayers of the family for each new-comer, and the marriage days. When the child has learnt the use of such a chart, he may be led on to fit these private records into the world's history. Now we can begin to speak of centuries. It will be easy for children to think of the century as a man who dies a hundred years old--who dies as the last minute of the year 99 expires. Then the Queen's life could be put into the century, and its relation shown to the child's own life. All would remember the Jubilee. "It was when Mary was ten years old; she saw the illuminations." She can count back on the chart fifty years to '37, and there she puts a crown. Then the story might be <diagram 2> told of the Queen's early life, and all those familiar incidents which give to historical people a personal life (the principal ones are marked in the proper squares): for instance, the Queen's marriage; the birth and marriage of the Empress Victoria; the birth and marriage of the Prince of Wales; the death of Prince Albert, &c.

Later, what are called historical events, as opposed to biographical, are more prominent-e.g. The Russian War, the Indian Mutiny, the first Great Exhibition, and striking contemporary events. The history of the Queen's life involves that of her predecessor, her sailor uncle William, and so on, back to the beginning to George, her grandfather; the Battle of Waterloo brings in Napoleon, the Revolution, &c. I venture to think that a child who begins history thus--not at the Creation, nor even at the Christian era, but at his own "nativity"---will get to understand it better than if he tried to survey the world from any other "pin-point" in time. But when one century has been thus treated, I would place before the child a map, in which the eighteen Christian centuries are brought together thus on a small scale with some characteristic to give it individuality: <diagram 3> Later, we should make such a chart on a larger scale, and with room for ruling and marking important events. We use charts coloured for various periods of English History-e.g., the Roman occupation, the various Royal Houses. * The four periods of five centuries each, form good divisions for Modern History. In the first line we have, roughly, from Augustus to the fall of Rome, and in England the period of Roman occupation. In the second line we have the period of barbarian settlements--tribes are changing into nations. In the third line we have, speaking roughly, the Mediaeval period. In the fourth, Modern History. In the first instance, the greatest prominence should be given to English History, events in contemporaneous history being very gradually introduced. One great good of this plan of laying out a map of history from the parents' point of view, is that the well-read and cultured mother can do excellent work--can do exactly what the school wants done,--without having that systematic knowledge of history which only the school-teacher can be expected to possess. Thus the mother or sister, with the chart before her, may choose the period or episode most familar [sic] to her; the frame-work will prevent the events, which are given out of their historical order, from being shaken together into a chaos. It requires considerable thinking power to understand time-relations in history. "Lord Wolseley," said a girl to whom his lordship was kindly showing things he had brought from Egypt--"Lord Wolseley, did you know that Pharoah?" "Please, ma'am," said a young servant to her mistress, "did you know Queen Elizabeth?" If from the first things are fitted into their places, there will be preparation for the systematic teaching of later school and college life. Suppose the mother had been reading Stanley's "Eastern Church." She might give that dramatic description of the Council of Nicaea, or scenes from the catastrophe of the fifth

century, which is especially well described in Shepherd's "Fall of Rome," and made vivid in the narrative of Kingsley's "Hypatia." In connection with the second line would come the Arthurian, Carlovingian, and Alfred legends, the life of Mahomet, the formation of the future European States, ready to become "Christendom," and able to unite in common warfare against the common foe. Sir James Stephen's essay on Hildebrand will give life to the eleventh century; the final settlement of the Northmen in England, as related in the Bayeux tapestry, will interest old and young. Then come stories of the Crusaders. In the thirteenth century we have the history of St. Louis so beautifully related by the Sieur de Joinville. Michelet's "History of France" gives most interesting accounts of the Albigensian Crusade under De Montfort. Then comes the foundation of the orders of the Friars, the Salvation Army of that date, and the suppression of the Templars. Later, Shakespeare's plays, Scott's novels, all will fit in. White's "Eighteen Christian Centuries" is invaluable for such lessons, and, above all, it creates an appetite for more. Gibbon's ponderous style is quite unsuitable for the young, to say nothing of other objections, but there is a useful abridgment. Milman's "Latin Christianity" is most useful. Such books as Miss Yonge's "Cameos," and "Landmarks," and many historical tales, will come in useful. Now for apparatus. For elder children I have had a little book prepared which contains much on which I cannot touch in an article. But to little children I give blank sheets, which they can paint and colour, and for some time we let them mark in important events of English history alone; at first making very distinct marks, and colouring the chart for different periods. Into this framework we can subsequently introduce contemporary events abroad. The child would learn first only English kinds, as she would the shape of a constellation. In France movable beads are used to mark the different events; this I have found an excellent plan for little children at home. Or children can mark in events with the pencil. Then a game can be made by a number of children trying who can set up most quickly the dates agreed on in the model chart--white, black, and other coloured counters representing different sovereigns, &c.; or small chessmen may stand for kings, chess castles for sieges, chess bishops for churchmen, knights for war, pawns for famous men. Older pupils like to make a pictorial chart for themselves. I have one giving the reign of Queen Mary: 1553, her accession, and a picture of the Tower, to which Northumberland and others were sent; 1554, a block telling of executions consequent on Wyatt's rebellion, and a dove with an olive branch to tell of Philip's intercession for Elizabeth; 1555, there is a picture of a martyr at the stake: and a hand in flames for Cranmer; 1557, a scroll stands for the first covenant in Scotland, and a sword for the war with France; 1558, a heart with the word Calais reminds us of Mary's words, and a crown marks the accession of Elizabeth. For grown-up students, who are reading a short period, we have exercise books ruled on a larger scale, in ten lines and they simply write in words anything they wish to remember, and thus acquire a knowledge of dates without learning them.

I give as an appendix a specimen chart of the sixteenth century. The crown may mark the accession of Henry VIII, Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth; here we have portraits. There is Henry's divorce in 1553, after which follow in quick succession, in about eleven years, five marriages, two executions of queens, and those of Fisher, More, Cromwell, and others. In Elizabeth's reign the Armada, the battle of Zutphen, and Sir Philip Sydney's death; and in the first line an important literary decade--the first publication of the three books of "The Faerie Queene;" Shakespeare's first poems and first plays; Bacon's Essays, and Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity. The Fleur de Lys marks the French Kings, Francis I., Henry II., the husband of Catherine de Medicis, and her three sons. Lastly, the accession of Henry IV. The Maltese cross marks the accession of the holy Roman Emperor, Charles V., and his successors. The crescent, the advance of Mahommedan power in Europe under Soleyman the Magnificent, and in India under Baber. The daggers point to the assassination of Guise, Massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the assassination of William of Orange, followed soon after by that of Henry III. In Church History the crosses mark the Diet of Worms, the sanction of the order of Jesuits by the Pope, the Council of Trent, and the edict of Nantes, which marked the temporary pacification in France. How valuable some such tabulated knowledge is as a basis of historical teaching, all who have tried the system are agreed. The chief advantages of this system over every other memoria technica are-1. That it forms a framework, which from the first saves events from getting shaken into disorder in the memory: and the frame can be made large or small, filled but scantily at first, and gradually expanded. 2. It can be adapted to any purpose--political history, church history, literary history the progress of scientific discovery. 3. It shows at a glance the contemporary history of different countries, yet 4. It is compact in form, so that it can be easily remembered. 5. Even if the precise date of any event is not retained yet the general position becomes as familiar to the mind as the relative positions of places in a map of Europe. I am sure those who have once learnt in their youth to use the chart will never discard it and will, as they go on to think about the philosophy of history, find that the way in which events present themselves to the mind's eye is most helpful and suggestive. The day of "Mangnall's Questions," "Brewer's Guide," and "Pinnock's Catechisms" is gone by in the work of education, and we have learned to feel that the chief work of the educator is not to give facts, but to order them so that they can fit into the "forms of thought." In the beautiful myth with which more than one poet of our day has made us familiar, we read that the forlorn Psyche in the course of her wanderings came to the temple of

Aphrodite, and there the goddess assigned to her the task of sorting out and arranging innumerable seeds, and to her diligence and obedience was granted at last the vision which she had lost through her faithless impatience--the vision of the God of Love. Is this, perhaps, one of the teachings unfolded in the myth--the supreme joy is to know love but the vision of God is to be attained only by the patient discipline, by the ordered knowledge through which that which seems chaos is transformed into a

Kosmos, and we are able to think God's thoughts after Him?"

Contemporary Affairs
Contemporary Affairs covers the events of today that are shaping our tomorrows. This obliges us to take measures to understand their antecedents as well as their current and future implications Contemporary events testify to the quickening decay of 21st century socioeconomic, financial and even political systems. This serious financial market, commercial and general economic decline is a clear signal that the Bush and Obama administrations' round of stimulus imposed on the public has failed miserably. Now there is increasing talk of a multiple trillion dollar bailout coming down the pipeline in the near term! These are serious time, of HISTORIC proportions, and in our opinion this thing is very likely to prove even more catastrophic than the Great Depression, primarily because the military options used to alleviate the pressures of that Depression are really not available today. It would not be rationale to initiate a third world war, given that so many of the big and medium powers are now nuclear powers, and therefore a third world would involves the real possibility of destroying the planet, or at the very least making it inhabitable for human beings. No people, no profits...even the most rampant speculator-cowboy capitalist has to think twice about that...but, on the other hand, how long can this "stimulus-bailout" hustle, the powers that be are using now, continue before people get sick of it and say enough is enough? Which in that case would put the issue squarely at the danger point between a war to gain some one else's

capital and wealth or dismantling the current political economic structures that dominate the globe to collapse totally? That is a situation where the current discredited political economic structure is replaced by something that is at least tolerable to the majority of the globe's population and thus conducive to preserving and advancing human life, civilization and society. Tough choice, I admit. But one that we seem more and more destined to face with each passing day more will require even more from us. Whatever the eventual outcome, for the intermediate period all of us regular people will have to husband our resources carefully and shrewdly to avoid being pushed into a state of destitution. And don't doubt that it is happening to many people just like you and I. If you do doubt it, check out these two articles: 5 Pieces of Advice for the New Paupers Homeless Man Panhandles Internet

The Gaza Tragedy

The courageous attempts to assist the besieged Palestinian community of Gaza by people such as the Green Party Presidential candidate Cynthia McKinney, who was part of a maritime effort to bring medical aid to the people of the area, the forthright denunciation of the zionist aggressors by many adherents to Judaism such as UK television personality Alexei Sayles and many others of his faith, the outrage of groups ranging from regional semi-governmental agencies such as the African Union, the Arab League and the vast majority of the United Nations Organization to civil and human rights organizations, are indicators of the rapidly diminishing support for the Zionist agenda. The aggression against the original people of Palestine at the hands of those who style themselves as Jews is especially tragic. The Jewish faith has derived many benefits from it historic association with the original Palestinians. For example Canaan's great Mother Goddess Asherah which the Jewish faith initially borrowed from Palestine Canaan being the Greek name for the Phoenician area of Palestine. (See the numerous works of Dr. Diana Adelman of the UK's University of Sheffield and Dr. Bill Dever University of Arizona on the subject of Asherah). In fact it was the integration of the Jewish religious community into the Canaanite society that was the critical factor of the survival of those who embraced early Judaism. Ironically, in recent history (the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries) many who claim to be followers of Judaism have embraced the sick imperialism and colonialism of their tormentors in Europe. This very dangerous turn of events has led many of the Jewish faith to denounce the zionist state as practitioners of Nazi like atrocities. Here are the words of a British MP, who was brought up as a zionist himself: "Sir Gerald, who was brought up as an orthodox Jew and Zionist, told MPs: "My grandmother was ill in bed when the Nazis came to her home town .. a German soldier shot her dead in her bed. "My grandmother did not die to provide cover for Israeli soldiers murdering Palestinian grandmothers in Gaza."

"The present Israeli government ruthlessly and cynically exploit the continuing guilt from gentiles over the slaughter of Jews in the Holocaust as justification for their murder of Palestinians." "MP makes Israeli troops Nazi link" http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/manchester/7834487.stm His words, whether he intended them to do or not, make it clear, one must choose between belief in Judaism and the amoral creed of zionism.

Analysis of Global Integration

This analysis of the expanding global economic integration tendency is from the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Cultural View does not agree with the majority of the views of the CSIS expressed in this piece but it is an excellent source of information of a statistical nature which can be used to construct a more people friendly analysis of globalization. The first thing to remember is that there are two main elements of this phenomena. There the system that most people think of when they hear phrases such as global trading system, globalism, global economics, commerce and finance -- namely, the lop-sided economy of the global system as currently constituted. And then there is the multi-faceted movement around the world to build alternative continental and regional options to the status quo such as the African Union and the Bolivarian effort in South America and Cuba. The point is this, no matter which side of the issue you come down on, you are bound to find something of use in this short piece.

$$$$$ Economic Integration

According to the UN Development Program, the accumulated wealth of the 225 richest individuals in the world is equivalent to the combined annual earnings of the 2.7 billion people at the bottom of the global income ladder. March of Globalization Despite the rising international debate against continued economic liberalization, we believe that further global integration will continue out to the year 2025. The benefits of integration to both developed and developing countries are clear. The Euro area's GDP now rivals that of the United States while the UN maintains that economic integration has allowed a number of developing countries to achieve in 30 years what it took industrialized nations up to 100 years to accomplish.2 Consider, for example, that real per capita GDP in Asia more than doubled between 1980 and 2000. While there may be temporary setbacks along the path to deeper integration, the world has clearly benefited from liberal economic reforms and continued momentum for greater integration appears to be likely in the long-term

BRIC Economies The BRIC countriesBrazil, Russia, India and Chinawill increasingly define the world's new economic center of gravity. According to a report from Goldman Sachs, if they can consolidate conditions conducive to structural growth, the total GDP of the BRIC economies by the year 2025 could equal half the aggregate level of the G-6 countries (United States, Japan, Germany, UK, France and Italy). By 2040, assuming strong and sustained growth rates by the BRIC countries, they could overtake the G-6 altogether. However, the massive populations of the BRIC countriesequal to 40 percent of global population in 2025will prevent economic growth from being translated dramatically in per capita income gains and the concentrated growth will exacerbate growing income inequity. For instance, Forbes Asia magazine's annual list of the richest Chinese found that there are now ten billionaires in China compared to three only a year ago. Meanwhile, GNI per capita in China remained under $1,300 in 2004. Inequality Income disparities will not be limited to the BRIC countries alone. Global aggregate output growth has increased on average by more than 3.6 percent annually over the last quarter century, and we expect the trend to continue through 2050. While this growth in global GDP and falling poverty rates indicate a rising economic sea level, global income inequalities have also grown. The fact remains that a staggering 2.8 billion people live on less than $2 a day. The costs for basic commodities continue to fluctuate, meaning that it is increasingly difficult for the poorest of the poor to meet daily requirements for life. These disparities - between the haves and have-nots- are fueling populist backlash against global inequity and integration. Globalization's greatest enemy is not its absolute success, but its relative concentrations. DID YOU KNOW? During the 1990s the economies of developing countries that were integrated into the world economy grew more than twice as fast as the rich countries. The non-globalizers grew only half as fast and continue to lag behind.3 During the 1990s, the average annual rate of growth of gross domestic product (GDP) for developing countries as a whole increased to 4.3 percent.4 15 percent of the world's population, located in the high-income countries, accounts for 56 percent of total consumption, while the poorest 40 percent, living in low-income countries, accounts for only 11 percent of consumption.5 The poorest 10 percent of the world's people have only 1.6 percent of the income of the richest 10 percent, and the richest 1 percent receives as much income as the poorest 57 percent.6 Multinational corporations virtually control economic integration; two-thirds of international trade is accounted for by just 500 corporations.7 International trade is expanding faster than the world's economy adding evidence to the claim that trade is one of the main engines of economic growth.8 International trade has grown 12-fold since World War II and is expected to grow 6 percent annually for the next 10 years. In 1947 the average trade tariff on manufactured imports globally was 47 percent; by 1980 it was only 6 percent.9 The US and Canada are the largest trading partners in the world. In 2003, two-way trade in goods

and services surpassed $441.5 billion.10 In absolute terms, FDI to developing countries increased from $36 billion in 1991 to $178 billion in 2000.11 Use the questions below to structure a discussion on the promise and peril of economic integration. We offer some suggested sources to complement your consideration of these important issues. Discussion Questions

An integrated global supply chain means that, as Nobel Laureate Milton Friedman put it, It is possible to produce a product anywhere, using resources from anywhere, by a company located anywhere, to be sold anywhere. What vulnerabilities are intrinsic in this systemthe just in time supply chainfor countries, governments and organizations? How do labor and the mobility of people (migration) Fit into the logic of this globally integrated economic system? In such a system, what is the importance of traditional notions of state sovereignty? What will a potential shift of the economic center of gravity from the traditional G-6 countries United States, Japan, Germany, UK, France and Italyto the BRIC countries mean? Does it signal hope for a new wave of economic growth and new engines of regional prosperity to drive the global economy or does this signal the fading importance of Europe and the US? Will the rise of the BRIC countries signal the rise of middle classes within those countries or a further expansion of inequity in income distribution? How can governance challenges in each of the BRIC countries derail their economic growth? Resource challenges? Demography and population? The threat of conflict? 2.8 billion peoplenearly 45 percent of the world's populationlive on less than two dollars a day. To what extent can global economic growth address addressing this massive needespecially in the face of information technology and the ability to quickly organize political and social movements? The rise of radical Islam, opposition movements to environmental degradation and urban-rural divides in China and India, and the Bolivarian movement in Venezuela led by Hugo Chavez are all examples of how perceived inequality in the global playing field can manifest itself into political movements. What is the long-term impact of such movements to the further integration of the world economy? How can the benefits of globalization be more widely distributed and the costs minimized? What specific role should the United States play in addressing global inequity? What specific role should current global powers (the EU, Japan) and rising powers (China, India, Brazil) play?

Our Problems and Shortsightedness Threaten the Survival of Human Civilization

We human beings are at a crossroads. The state of the environment which should d be a common issue, cutting across ethnicity, age, gender, religion, economic status, social standing, partisan politics, geography and all other distinctions, is instead a political football. This is very dangerous as the state of the environment is the determinant of our state of existence as beings. Let me repeat that: The degradation of the atmosphere, the water, the soil, backwards energy policies and the other environmental problems, are a literal and current threat to human existence. Environmental factors, the land, water, the air, the weather are all essential to human civilization. Without these factors there could be no human culture. No agriculture, no industry, nothing. If we kill the earth we will have MURDERED our species and every other living thing on the planet. It is patently obvious that humanity must come together and develop real sustainable development. Hence for the past few decades there has been growing dialog about how best to utilize our precious Mother Earth. The late President of the small African country of Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah wrote, "Every society is placed in nature. And it seeks to influence nature, to impose such transformations upon nature, as will develop the environment of the society for its better fulfillment. The changed environment, in bringing about a better fulfillment of the society, thereby alters the society. Society placed in nature is therefore caught in the correlation of transformation with development. This correlation represents the toil of man both as a social being and as an individual. This kind of correlation has achieved expression in various socialpolitical theories. For a social-political theory has a section which determines the way in which social forces are to be deployed in order to increase the transformation of society." If we fail to harmonize our social-political theory, so that our input into the ecological system of , which we are a mere part of, albeit the most sentient part, we will find that we have become the most destructive part of the ecology. And we have further problems, such as socioeconomic inequality based on ethnicity, gender, age, religion and social status. America's public and private sectors have to be re-engineered radically if the society is going to be able to compete effectively in the new era. No amount of preemptive foreign and military policies will change that fact. Indeed, such policies will only aggravate the situation. Instead of waging endless wars, for the aggrandizement of a minuscule minority of the population, we should be busy improving education, social services, creating meaningful employment, with livable wages. We should be removing the glass ceiling that short changes and ignores the talents of women and other similarly disadvantaged demographic sectors. These talented sectors that have been traditionally ignored by the prevailing powers have to be given access to capital, a proportional share of the society's general commerce and corporate leadership, if the society wishes to build a prosperous and stable future for the citizenry. But instead we seem to be going in the opposite direction. Not to long ago the venerable civil rights movement, the NAACP, the original rainbow

movement, made the following disturbing, but cogent, observation: An Arab-American Secret Service agent, traveling to join the President's security detail in Texas, was removed from a commercial flight because his ethnicity apparently unnerved a pilot. "Get rid of women any way you can," and similar reported statements from a major retailer's CEO reveal a systematic campaign that government officials call the most blatant and widespread discrimination against women seen in decades. At some of this country's largest corporations, African-American employees are finding hangman's nooses in their workplace in a cruel and crude attempt at intimidation. The dismantling of affirmative action plans in California, Texas, Washington, and Florida has led to a dramatic decline in Latino and African-American students at some of America's finest public universities. "As you can see, today the hard-fought gains of the movements for equal opportunity, made possible by the sacrificial support and encouragement given by caring people like you, are in jeopardy. Why? Because we are letting a minority of mean-spirited politicians and demagogues reformulate and redefine what "civil rights;' equality" and "civil liberties" mean in America. The historic and ongoing quest for equality is threatened today by a distorted, nostalgic view of what the "real" America was like before all these "troublemakers" (folks like you and me) carne along. Add to that the current fervor to suppress virtually all internal dissent for the sake of the war on terrorism and national unity, and we have a dangerous and potentially disastrous scenario on our hands for our constitutionally protected civil rights and civil liberties." From the "NAACP's 2002 National Survey an Race, Gender and Equality in America," MEMO FROM: Julian Bond, Chair NAACP This sociopolitical approach is an impediment to extended democracy and general profitability. One can not build a free society using a foundation based on selective inclusion of whole groups of people...groups of people who, in the aggregate, are in fact the majority of the citizens. America is in a general cultural crisis, if you will a systemic crisis. Each such crisis in society should give a fresh impetus to the study of sociological, historical and philosophical underpinning of the society. The problems facing human societies today are the result of a long historical, philosophical and general social evolution. The degree of success with which they will be solved depends upon an intelligent understanding of these historical, social and philosophical concepts . A vision of the future depends upon an understanding and intelligent interpretation of the past. Those who have no concept of the social forces, conditions, and movements, the play of ideas and the philosophies, that have come out of the past to shape the institutions of the present day....and refuse to come to grips with the reality that .History brings distant times and conditions into focus to help us evaluate our modern heritage. Similarly, it helps illuminate and identify approaching guideposts.( Page 1, "A World History of Physical Education", Debold B. Van Dalen, Elmer D. Mitchell, and Bruce L. Bennett ) can do nothing but hasten the demise of our common civilization. If people are to understand our common culture, our common human presence on this planet, we must understand history. History is the essential method for interpreting the past as a tool of understanding the present and of speculating on the possible and probable outcomes of the future. As such we must develop a cultural historiography oriented to the objective of preserving

our human civilization. Historiography, for those who are not familiar with the term, can be loosely defined as the mechanics of history, what sources are used, what was/is the method used and the biases of the writer/researcher, who or what societal sector was the history intended to influence, what were the dominant social, political and economic influences at the time the history was written and so forth. Clearly most of us use historiographical methods all the time in our approach to history. For example we know intuitively that the history from the point of view of a writer in the employ of King Leopold of Belgium would differ radically from the history as understood by the father of history Herodotus or even a Basil Davidson. As this is the case we have to develop a definitive historiographic system peculiar to broad, popular democracy. A history that can draw on the best achievements of humanity from the gender equality of the Iceni in Ancient Britain and the political economic egalitarianism that marked the traditional of the Table of the Sun in Nile Valley civilization to the many positive elements and movements that have emerged in the last few centuries. This would require a radical reassessment of virtually every discipline of study and every mode of application. Of course, it requires a serious and permanent study (and application) of the fields of philosophy, social and industrial psychology, the law, politics, economics and associated areas, organizational (including communication) science, military science, and cultural studies generally. Our common philosophical comprehension and posture is likewise important to salvaging our culture our civilization. Our ethics, mores, values, morals, beliefs are essentially complementary and non-antagonistic, at least the majority of the people of the world. This is something that has been demonstrated by religious leaders and even scholars such as Jung...all we need to do is recognize the common underlying human values we all share in our discrete systems of beliefs. We don't all have to believe in Taoism or maat or the red road or Buddhism or whatever to recognize that we share a common planet, we have a common heritage as human beings, that we have a common interest. In the book Formal Organizations the authors, Peter M. Blau and W., Richard Scott, discussed what they call the dialectical process of change, that is the fact that with each new innovation a new set of circumstances arise which much be addressed. They were specifically talking about industrial and commercial organizations, but it equally true in any human endeavor. What we need today is a social-political philosophy that accounts for this dialectic of change and upholds the indispensable role of thorough research methods, development of critical analytical skills and the publication of findings -- plus a humanistic and egalitarian view of our world. In short we must systematize the basic humanist and egalitarian sentiments of the majority of the world's peoples. This is essential to the survival of human culture. In the words of one authority: "Organizations dominate our socioeconomic landscape. Their influence in our everyday lives has increased steadily over time, particularly in the most developed regions of the world during the 20th Century. Today, we are born, work, pray and die in organizations, and, along the way, many of us derive our identities from our associations with them. Organizations are the building blocks of our societies, and a basic vehicle for collective action. They produce the infrastructure of our societies and they will fundamentally shape our futures. Because they are such an integral part of modern societies, we readily turn to them, or construct them when a problem exceeds our own personal abilities or resources. The ubiquity of organizations prompted Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon (1991) to question the use of the term "market economy" to describe the structure of economic interactions, suggesting that "organizational economy" would be the more appropriate term. As Richard Scott (1992: 3) points out, however, because organizations are so ubiquitous, they tend to "fade into the background, and we need to be reminded of their

impact." ... "Information--or knowledge work--can be defined as the creation, processing, usage, and maintenance of social knowledge. Knowledge is a systematised and integrated type of information. Information refers to facts about life, ideas, values, views, discoveries, perceptions, norms, rules, conclusions, data, experiences and interpretations. Knowledge can only be produced by referring to information. Knowledge is always related to social dimensions. For example, even if you read a book, you are referring to knowledge as a product of social relationships. Information and knowledge are not independent from social relationships. But there is a difference between knowledge that is individually produced and consumed (such as the notes that I make for my lectures or the unpublished essays I store on my computer) and knowledge that is generalised in a social process (such as the publishing of a book). The socialisation of knowledge is an important process that takes place permanently and is a necessary part of the existence and reproduction of social systems and society as a whole." " Software Engineering and the Production of Surplus Value," by Christian Fuchs We are in a global era, where transportation and communication advances have made contact easier and quicker. It is an era where the main battle is between those who wish to maximize democracy and those who want to maintain a narrow elitist, sexist and racist definition of democracy. You could say it is a struggle between elite democratic forms and egalitarian democratic forms. The former is a system of voting disenfranchisement, manipulation of electoral data, gerrymandering, electronic vote fraud and outright election theft. One of extreme economic impoverishment of whole demographic groups to enrich a numerically insignificant cabal of parasitic, but powerful social elements. . A democracy of redlining, racial profiling, environmental racism, cultural genocide, gentrification.. It is a democracy of the deliberate and cynical destruction of whole communities, families, agencies, enterprises, faith institutions, cultural processes; through varied means: the use of legal tools to deny other socioeconomic sector equal justice, full property and other rights.. It is a system of disproportion rates of imprisonment of specific communities and judicial bias. It is a democracy that takes the Constitution and edits its meaning to fit their narrow, avaricious goals and objectives. It is a democracy dominated by maniacal theorists who fantasize about the ultimate empire that will give them a permanent dominion over the entire planet and indeed beyond the confines of the earth. As such this kind of democracy is a source of constant warfare and militarization of society. It is a democracy marked by reforms in areas such as education, welfare and health that work against people instead of helping us. A democracy that victimizes the downtrodden by systematic and systemic mis-education, inundated with negative imageries by Madison Ave., the entertainment establishment, by the government, by the media and so on. To date they have been successful enough to turn many people into social zombies, possessed beings who have lost their humanity and any sense of true civilization and culture. The deliberate, large scale psych ops conducted against the people, deliberated by the media, educational institutions, false prophets of religion and the various cadres of snake oil dominating the current American scene are intended to disorientate the majority and make us dysfunctional beings. This psychological offensive against people is complemented by various criminal physical actions. Physical assaults and similar crimes perpetrated by both official and unofficial elements. This is law enforcement without justice, without respect for the rule of law. We live in a society that has exacerbated, rather than mitigated various problems general sexual

and gender exploitation, the "last hired first fired," syndrome and have added new torments, downsizing, re-orged, made redundant and the other attributes of the globalist liberal economic practices. The other kind of democratic system is whatever people, people like you and I, make of it. It can be a great paradise on earth, A paradise of individuals and groups striving to cooperate, to behave as fellow human beings, to institutionalize egalitarian and humanistic values and mores; and to minimize all the negatives plaguing human culture across the globe. To get there we need the right kind of organization, organizations that are suitable for didactic and pedagogical structures and outcome that are intended to serve common, that is, communalistic, community-oriented values and purposes. We can only do this by proper systematization of our basic human inclinations, the basic positive instincts that most people share. We need some form of organized expression of our VIEW of HUMAN CULTURE. This web site is a small step in that common effort. "To understand organizations is to understand our world." ... "Organizations are vital to the flow of information..." "Information--or knowledge work--can be defined as the creation, processing, usage, and maintenance of social knowledge. Knowledge is a systematised and integrated type of information. Information refers to facts about life, ideas, values, views, discoveries, perceptions, norms, rules, conclusions, data, experiences and interpretations. Knowledge can only be produced by referring to information. Knowledge is always related to social dimensions. For example, even if you read a book, you are referring to knowledge as a product of social relationships. Information and knowledge are not independent from social relationships. But there is a difference between knowledge that is individually produced and consumed (such as the notes that I make for my lectures or the unpublished essays I store on my computer) and knowledge that is generalised in a social process (such as the publishing of a book). The socialisation of knowledge is an important process that takes place permanently and is a necessary part of the existence and reproduction of social systems and society as a whole." "Software Engineering and the Production of Surplus Value," Christian Fuchs

UNIT VIII History Curriculum

Introduction

Approximately 90 miles north of San Francisco, on the Pacific Coast, sits Fort Ross State Park, a quiet and pleasant restoration of a small frontier settlement. In the 1820's, Fort Ross was the southern most Russian outpost in North America. For a brief moment, it reflected the outer limits of the expansionist ambitions of certain Russian leaders, who saw in the still politically chaotic Pacific coast of North America of the early nineteenth century a chance to extend Russian hegemony southward in the face of the rival British, American and Spanish claims.

The Russian effort was brief and unsuccessful. It had no real support from St. Petersburg (then the capitol of the Russian Empire) and was confronted by intense opposition from the rival claimants. The Russians abandoned the fort in the 1830's, withdrawing to Alaska where they were to sit for another generation until Secretary of State William Seward arranged to purchase that territory for the United States in 1867. Today, Fort Ross is a collection of restored log structures whose piquant history is an added attraction for visitors to a lovely section of the Californian coast. In one sense, however, Fort Ross is far more significant than its brief history would indicate. It represents the point of convergence of those elements of what we generally define as Western civilization in their movement to encircle the globe. Its founding and brief history brought to a culmination four millennia or more of expansion that ultimately embraced the whole world. Over five thousand years before the founding of Fort Ross, the Near Eastern civilizations out of which western civilization was to spring, were inventing civilization itself in the fertile crescent from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. Some two millennia later, Israel gave birth to Judaism which became the religious foundation of western civilization. A millennium thereafter the Greeks began the development of western philosophy and science. Between the Semitic peoples of western Asia and the Hellenic peoples of the Greek isles, the contributions of these two civilizations were spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin during the course of the millennium immediately prior to the rise of Christianity. Two thousand years ago, Christianity was born out of the Jewish people and within its first millennium synthesized its understanding of Jewish religious civilization with the contributions of Greek philosophy and civilization and spread throughout Europe. The energies of the West thus organized and released, the following millennium saw the Christianized Russians move eastward across Siberia and the Bering Straits and the Christianized Spanish, French, Dutch, and British peoples move westward across the Atlantic, away from their European heartlands, to colonize vast new territories and implant western civilization within them. The eastward movement of the Russians and the westward movement of the other European nations finally met - after having girdled the globe - in northern California at Fort Ross, thereby completing literally millennia of migration, settlement and cultural transformation. The consequences of this western globe-girdling have become quite apparent in the twentieth century as the entire world has entered the embrace of western civilization. While Western Civilization has succeeded in girdling the globe it has done so at every step by absorbing important elements from the other civilizations it has encountered sometimes more and sometimes less, so that 150 years after the building of Fort Ross, Western Civilization had been transformed; first into modern civilization and then into

world civilization. Today, the history of humanity needs to be based on an understanding of that interplay of civilizations and how the new world civilization now emerging is more than simply western civilization but is indeed an amalgam of the world's civilizations that has been continuing since the very beginning of time. The history of the world can be looked upon as the story and the record of how humanity emerged as a single entity in East Africa tens of thousands of years ago, progressively divided itself into sharper and finer divisions racial, ethnic, and national while at the same time moving to a world unified on a more complex basis. Today we have reached the point where a unified world history can be seen and understood by all. What remains is to reorganize our teaching of world history to incorporate the worldwide perspective while at the same time not falling into the trap of making all historical events equal so as to give equal weight to all peoples and places at all times or to equate the history of public events with that of private behavior. This curriculum is designed to do just that. It takes what may be called a "civilizational" approach, looking at different civilizations, first and foremost West and East, but also North and South. We shall try to understand how civilizations in the various areas of the world either interacted or acted separately from one another over nearly ten thousand years of human history. In doing so we will follow several themes: 1. the common source and ties binding the human race as a whole as well as its separation into various subgroups; 2. the pattern of human migrations which populated and have organized the populations of the world, first creating the distinctions among humans and, in the last five hundred years, bringing about their reamalgamation; 3. the frontier (in the sense that Frederick Jackson Turner used the term) as the driving force behind those migrations and the consequences of successive frontiers in bringing about human development or the lack of frontiers in retarding that development; 4. the role of human invention in responding to those frontier challenges and in repeatedly reinventing the world which human beings occupy, examining the human capacity to invent things that can elevate us or things that can destroy us; 5. the other great force driving humanity, namely, the force of religious belief which, more than any other human factor, has galvanized humans to decisive action or to change themselves. 6. humans and their institutions, the way in which humans have organized their lives and cultures to respond to the first five.

All of these themes have been of vital importance in guiding human history since the beginning and in every subsequent era. They form the basis for our understanding of how humans function in history. These are the themes on which we will focus in this curriculum. The study of history is a matter of selection and judgment. Human activity is carried on at so many levels and with so many facets that any attempt to record and make sense of its history requires selection and the exercise of judgment in evaluating the record produced by what is selected. In this respect history is prismatic rather than systematic. That is to say, what is selected and studied is based upon the questions asked, i.e., what facet is being explored. Thus the study of world history will involve examining the historical record through examining that (or those) facets which have been most influential in shaping the history of the world. Consequently, it will have much more to do with public affairs than, let us say, if we were to study the history of the family which involves more of the private dimensions of life, a different facet in most respects. The selection of one facet or another does not necessarily reflect on the importance of that facet in the overall scheme of things but on the questions being asked. This curriculum will focus on the facet of world history and will concentrate on issues of public importance first and foremost, looking at personal and private matters only insofar as they bear on those of public importance. If human life is a prism, the different faces of the prism also act as a control on the historian's judgment. In other words, while the historian looks at history and makes his or her selection on the basis of a particular view into the prism, the face of the prism itself must be to some degree controlling since it can only show the historian what is there and the historian must honestly try to discover what the face has to reveal. Thus, while every historian, like every human being, comes with a particular set of leanings or judgments, he or she would not be a historian if he or she was not bound by the historical realities reflected back by the particular face of the prism and by other faces as well. The orientation of this curriculum is toward the identification and exploration of those peoples, civilizations, and forces that have molded the world as we know it. If this at times seems "Eurocentric," it should be understood as accurately reflecting the forces that have shaped the world which have been heavily influenced by European civilization at least since the late Middle Ages. The curriculum's approach to European and other civilizations, however, is not at all Eurocentric. Indeed, it shares in the critique of Eurocentrism which often has distorted the perspective through which we in the West see the world.

For example, since the Age of Exploration and Discovery, the Eurocentric world has focused on Atlantic Europe and North America, relegating Asia, Africa, and South America to a secondary position. But if we emancipate ourselves from that perspective and go back before the rise of Islam, we will find a world centered on the Mediterranean including within it southern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa equally active in one common sphere of activity with close connections between them and between the part of each continent within the sphere to those parts beyond it. That is a very different perspective than the Eurocentric perspective of today. By the same token, when we speak of the conquest of the world by Western civilization, we are not simply or even basically speaking of military conquest. Nor is all of Western civilization European. In our own times, for example, just as Western industrialism and economic development has conquered the world, so, too, has rock music, a North American synthesis of African, Jewish, and southern white musical expression that has become the basis of popular musical culture around the world. The MTV station seen in Asia is located in India and develops that popular musical culture in the style of Indian music, which is notably different from the MTV broadcast in North America; the synthesis takes place but the music is unmistakably rock. In other words, just as "Eurocentrism" is a bias, so, too, is the assumption that Eurocentrism means a bias toward European white male elites. By now, various groups, many of them distinctly outside of the original European elites, have participated in the conquest of the world by Western civilization and both the role of "elites" and those outside must be noted fairly and fearlessly.

The Common Source of Humanity

The combination of archeological and DNA explorations has brought us to a knowledge of a common source of all humanity in East Africa, even though contemporary theory holds that there was literally a first woman and a first man and that all subsequent humanity are descended from them. The history of the emergence of the first two homo sapiens and the spread of their descendants around the world in such a way that they became separated into various subgroups teaches us about the unity and diversity of humanity both. Both are critically necessary and how human history is, in one respect or another, an interplay of that unity and diversity with both contributing to human behavior either in its underlying uniformities and similarities or in its manifest differences.

Human Migration

A major source of the separations and differences for tens of thousands of years that is now becoming a major source of human reintegration is to be found in the pattern of human migration. Those migrations, beginning from East Africa, populated and organized the populations of the world, generated the differences among peoples, yet brought different peoples into contact in different ways, at times hostile, at times symbiotic, and at times friendly. The very process of migration has changed individuals and peoples by bringing them into contact with new and unfamiliar environments and creating circumstances that have forced them to adapt and adjust to those new and different environments and circumstances. Humans appear to have a drive to migrate and at the same time the act of migration keeps humanity on its toes.

The Frontier

The term "frontier" was transformed by Turner from the European definition describing the border or border zone between two states or countries to what became the American one, describing the border between the settled and unsettled, the "civilized" and the "wilderness." The frontier, in Turner's view, was a dynamic process. As a result, the central political problem of growth is not simply how to handle the physical changes brought by each frontier, real as they are. It is how to accommodate newness, population turnover, and transience as a way of life. This is the frontier situation. It is a recurring one in history and needs to be understood if we are to find ways to solve our problems, or at least meet them adequately, and at the same time, preserve those characteristics which have enabled certain countries to continue to develop for a period far longer than has been historically true in the case of other countries and societies. The frontier is not merely a dramatic imagery but a very real process, indeed the basic socio-technical process that informs the experience of certain people and countries. As a process, it is dynamic and essentially progressive, although fraught with problems of its own, as is every other dimension of human life. A frontier in the sense used here involves ten characteristics: 1. Frontier activities are those devoted to the exploration of that which was previously unknown and the development of that which was previously "wild" or undeveloped.

2. The frontier involves extensive new organization of the uses of the land (or space), uses so new that they are essentially unprecedented but so much a part of the process in question that they will be applied across the length and breadth of the continent. 3. The frontier involves an expanding or growth economy based on the application of existing technologies in new communities or new technologies in settled communities. 4. The frontier movement, though manifesting itself as a single "whole," actually coalesces a number of different "frontiers," both geographic and functional, that exist simultaneously and successively; each with its own goals, interests, character, and frontiersman, yet all tied together by their common link to the central goals, interests, and character of the larger frontier of which they are parts. 5. The frontier generates opportunities to grow, change, risk, develop, and explore within its framework amid elements of risk and action, and demands responses involving courage, freedom, and equality. 6. There must be reasonably free access to the frontier sector of society for all who want it. 7. A frontier situation generates a psychological orientation toward the frontier on the part of the people engaged in conquering it, endowing them with the "frontier spirit." 8. The "feedback" from the frontier leads to the continuous creation of new opportunities on many level of society, including new occupations to be filled by people who have the skills to do so, regardless of such factors as family background, social class, or personal influence, thus contributing to the maintenance or extension of equality in the social order. 9. The frontier feedback must influence the total social structure to the point where the society as a whole is significantly remade. 10. The direct manifestations of the frontier can be found in every section of a country or region at some time (usually sequentially) and are visible in a substantial number of localities that either have, or are themselves, frontier zones. In essence, these frontier characteristics are what the frontier spirit is all about. To manifest itself, a frontier needs a great deal of freedom and willingness to take risks that really are risks that is to say, without some outside source protecting the risk-takers from negative consequences because that same outside source will limit the benefits which can be gained from the positive results. People with the frontier spirit see opportunity where others see only danger; will tend to say "yes, it can be done," rather than

immediately responding "no, it has never been done before." Most can handle the ups and downs of risk-taking and are able to begin again, if necessary. The frontier spirit animates two types of people: frontiersmen and pioneers. Frontiersmen are those who go out ahead of the camp and who gain their primary satisfactions from exploring something new or from the fallout of being first at something and thus freer with regard to it than those who follow them. They may or may not gain the more conventional benefits of pioneering but often do not, nor are those their primary interest. Pioneers, on the other hand, seek those conventional gains. First and foremost, they follow the frontiersmen to plant settlements where only explorers have gone before them; in the imagery of the land frontier, to farm the land rather than merely trap furs on it, not to invent computers but to establish networks in cyberspace and profit from them. In sum, frontiersmanship and the frontier spirit are as much a part of culture as of personality. Personality may be the most important when we try to identify individuals with that spirit, but certain cultures appear to produce more people with those personality traits than do others. Some cultures seem to have a penchant to produce a modal personality that is frontier- oriented. Even in such cases, no doubt, we are talking about a minority of the population, but a minority significant and large enough to influence the entire society. This is similar to the case of other kinds of revolutionary movements, particularly religious, where whole populations are moved by key minorities in key positions.

Human Invention

The application of the foregoing principles and the human "package" that they produce is expressed through the role of human invention in response to those frontier challenges. The new circumstances brought about by migrations and frontiers can only be mastered through human invention of all kinds, in technology, in ideas, in mores and ways of living, as individuals, in families, groups, and society. While Americans are more conscious of the role of invention than most, since American society has given such a prominent place to inventors and inventions in very concrete and visible ways, humanity in general has tended to think of invention primarily in the realm of technology and not sufficiently in other human realms. One can make a good case that history is about invention, its furtherance, and resistance to it and its consequences, as well as the impact of inventions themselves.

Religious Belief

The by now well documented apparent need of human beings to "believe in something," that is to say, to reach out beyond themselves as individuals to transcendent powers that outlive the human lifespan, has been recognized as a dominant human psychological characteristic if nothing else. In fact, humans, in their reaching out, have developed religious belief which in its more primitive forms simply answer those psychological needs but in its largest and highest expression provides humans not only with the satisfactions of belief but with guidance as to how they should live their lives. Great systems of religious belief not only provide humans with great satisfactions but place great demands on them to be better than they might otherwise be if they imply followed their own natural inclinations. Indeed, human nature as expressed in human psychology may lead humans to satisfy the aforementioned needs through religious belief, but true religion serves to raise humans beyond their natures. Within human nature there is the capacity to go beyond normal human limitations, but since that requires great effort, there must be a will to do so. Religious belief and religions have been the great forces driving that will. A proper understanding of history would provide an understanding of how this is so, the various forms it has taken, and how to evaluate those forms in light of our transcendent goals for human improvement and the improvement of the world.

Humans and Their Institutions

History is dynamic. It moves along forward, backward, and sideways. Every kind of human behavior can be found within it. It does not seem to follow any clear rules. At least for some, generalizations from or about history seem to be futile or impossible. Yet the dynamics and confusions of history should not obscure the truth that humans make, transmit, preserve, and change their history through their institutions. No matter how attractive any particular story or actor in history may appear to be, the significance of the story or the actor is only in proportion to the degree to which institutions are involved. By institutions, we mean the structures of civilization, the forms which political and social life take, and the organized or structured expressions of particular cultures or ways of life. Civilizations are, in the last analysis, congeries of institutions, among which are law, religion, government, economies, educational systems - one could go on to list many others.

Institutions and Cultural Orientations

While there are many different kinds of cultural orientations that inform and shape the institutions of civilization, all may be reduced to one or another of three basic models or ideal types. They are hierarchy, organic development, and covenant. Particular polities and societies are, in most cases, some combination of all three but every one has a dominant orientation to one or another. Hierarchies organize authority, power, and status in a pyramidal fashion with clear divisions between higher and lower elements in the pyramid and greater authority and status, and usually power as well, ascribed to the higher and less to the lower. Hierarchies may be more rigid or more flexible, but in the end they always come out to be hierarchies. The model of a hierarchy is the pyramid. Hierarchies are often, one might even say usually, established by conquest, sometimes by conquest from the outside and sometimes by conquest from within. They are frequently maintained by force or at least by the threat of force. Organic development describes social organizations generated by what seems to be accident or chance, whereby people in specific situations respond in limited ways to deal with specific situations or tasks. Over time institutions are formed as a result of those limited responses, adhering to one another and persisting through the generations. There seems to be little in the way of overarching design in the institutions, societies, or the civilizations produced by this kind of development. In one sense organic development is less a matter of higher or lower than hierarchy, but in another, history reveals that the end result of these kinds of incremental developments is usually the development of an elite occupying the center of the polity, society, or civilization, with the rest of the population outside of the central circle located in the peripheries, what Robert Michel referred to as "the iron law of oligarchy." This suggests that without planning and making provisions to the contrary, authority, power and status will inevitably gravitate toward a central elite, leaving the others outside. When people perceive themselves to be equals, they reject submission to power pyramids or to the iron laws of oligarchy and choose to establish their institutions and societies by reflection, choice, and design. They do so by covenanting among themselves, that is to say, coming together and agreeing to morally based pacts that provides for the constitutionalized distribution of authority and power among themselves to preserve as much liberty and equality as possible within a political and social order where institutions necessarily restrict liberty to some extent to enable people to live in society and recognize

those necessary inequalities generated by the human condition and needed for society to survive and flourish. Covenants are designed to provide that all those entering society preserve some share in its shaping, either by acting together collectively or cooperatively, or by acting individually, thereby preserving basic liberties and equality. The result is a mosaic, or matrix of arenas of political and social organization framed by common institutions established by agreement. As indicated above, these three models are ideal types. In fact, in the real world they are usually combined in some way, with all civilizations, societies, and institutions having hierarchical, organic, and covenantal elements, but different ones begin from different starting points and emphasize one of these models more than the others. For example, East Asian civilizations as a rule are more hierarchical while English-speaking civilizations as a rule are more covenantal. Both have mixtures of other models within them and some specific countries or institutions may be predominantly of one of the other models. By the same token, continental European civilizations tend to be either hierarchical or organic, but in the modern period acquired elements of the covenantal model. We will deal with these models where appropriate in the following discussion. The models, their mixtures, and the struggles among them and between institutions, polities, or civilizations having one or another, made a decisive difference in history, in shaping the direction of parts of the world and then the world as a whole. Not only that, but their study adds a special spice to the study of history.

UNIT IX Learning Resources

Teaching & Learning Resources

Faculty members at IIMB are conversant with a wide range of the most up-to-date teaching and learning resources in use in management education across the globe. Alongside the traditional teaching methods, such as lectures and seminars, IIMB has a strong commitment to case-based and student-centered learning, where the emphasis is on the individual development of the learner throughout their time at the institute. The classroom approach used at IIMB is highly interactive and faculty members are constantly looking for new and effective ways to engage their students in the learning process. Many faculty members are actively involved with the initiatives promoted by organizations like the Strategic Management Forum of India and the Case Research Society, to improve faculty development in general and innovative teaching methods in particular. IIMB maintains its own Teaching and Learning Centre for Excellence, tasked not only with providing support for faculty in promoting teaching excellence and developing existing teaching skills, but also with a proactive approach to the further development of innovative teaching and learning in management education based on sound research methods. Working within this platform, a specially appointed committee made up of experienced IIMB faculty, oversees the institutes continuing efforts to promote excellence in teaching and learning at IIMB.

Teaching and Learning

[ Teaching | Learning | References ] Learning is skill acquisition and increased fluency. A teacher is anyone who affects the environment so that others learn. (By this definition you don't even have to be alive to be a teacher!) These notes describe some building blocks for effective teaching. They do not deliberately target teaching children with autism but you will certainly see that focus.

Foundations of effective teaching

The foundations of effective teaching are not all explicitly behavioral, or only for disabled people. They apply equally well to teaching any person with any degree of ability or disability. These principles should be mastered thoroughly by anyone who is going to teach your child. 1. Establish attention 2. Give instructions - define the task and provide resources to complete that task 3. Complete the task 4. Provide reinforcement Curriculum planning (what is taught when) requires an understanding of learning. Actually, all aspects of teaching depend on understanding how learning works.
Establish attention

I cannot pay attention to two conversations at once. I have tried too many times - it seems like something I should be able to learn, but I never will. You cannot talk to me and watch TV at the same time. Attention is a prerequisite for learning. Assessment The teacher assesses the level of his student's attention before presenting any task or information. Observe:

Eyes - visual focus frequently indicates mental focus Motor activity - talking, yawning, wiggliness (relative to norms) Recent and global history - is the student tiring?

Distractors and discomforts - noise, interesting people, animals, too hot or too cold

Interventions If attention is inadequate:

Verbal or visual reminder ("nagging") Reduce distractors, remedy discomfort Terminate (or interrupt) instruction - go play or choose another program Eat, sleep

Give instructions

Instructions can get better but they are never ever clear enough (Bush v. Gore, anyone?). Considerations:

Use known vocabulary, symbols, and materials - nothing novel, or all terms defined Be brief and uncluttered Be unambiguous - understanding what is expected does not depend on personal history, "common sense", or other missing context Everything must be accessible - readable, visible, audible, well-organized Monitor attention during instructions

Complete the task

Program for success. The task must be selected so the learner has at least an 80% chance of completing it successfully. Assessment

Teaching is a lot of work, particularly if you have many students. Structure tasks so that success (or at least some part) can be evaluated easily and quickly. Failure should be interrupted at a planned point that depends on the student's skill level and learning style.

Interventions Strategies to maintain or increase the success rate (percentage or frequency):

Prompt immediately - provide the answer, or in some cases, a similar example (some call this errorless teaching) Prompt after a small number of failures (such as, two) Break down the task into simpler tasks or a problem-solving strategy, and teach those first Monitor attention during task completion - repeat instructions, reduce distractions etc. as needed

Provide reinforcement

Whether simple "discrete trial" style immediate reinforcement, pleasure at having created something novel, or long-term payback like a college degree, the learner must get something from completing the task. There has been a lot of research on reinforcement, measuring the effects of reinforcement type, schedules, saturation, and other variables. One constant challenge is to find novel rewards.

Rewards are almost always positive (giving something) but there is nothing inherently wrong with "negative reinforcement" (removing something undesirable). Is a vacation a positive (day on the beach) or a negative (day off from work)? Intermittent reward can be stronger - the "payoff" is not predictable Delayed rewards can be less effective Knowledge that others are being rewarded can make rewards mode desirable Attempts to "reinforce" intrinsically satisfying activities can be counterproductive. People often don't like to be interfered with. Rewards lose effectiveness over time, novelty is powerful There is no such thing as "a reinforcer." Any reward or consequence is called reinforcing only if introducing it has the effect of increasing the frequency of the desired behavior. Positive attention can trump material gain A reward should not include a demand to perform yet another task Access to preferred activities increases rate of less preferred activities - "Premack principle" Surprises can be nice - "catch them being good"

Learning
Learning is a poorly understand biological process. We can measure it, we can "image" the brain to see what areas are active, but we know next to nothing about the biochemical changes that take place while (and after) someone listens to a lecture, reads a book, or practices the piano. Some important considerations: 1. Ability - the potential for skill acquisition 2. Learning style - different roads to learning 3. Repetition - repetition - repetition 4. Timing - task interspersal and skill maintenance
Ability

Don't put your toddler in calculus class. Actually, don't put any typically developing toddler in any class. The potential for learning must be there or the student will fail. On the other hand, if the potential is extremely high, teaching may be unnecessary.

Brain development: on average, the ability to learn increases through childhood and into late adolescence. 'Increase" refers not to the child's rate of skill acquisition but to the variety and complexity of skills that may be acquired. Toddlers are actually faster language learners than adults. Genetics: I've been trying for over twenty years to learn to play the piano. Mozart picked it up in a few days. This is the way it goes. Our definition of 'ability' and 'disability' is based on averages. By the Mozart standard, I am severely musiclearning disabled. Prerequisites: this seems obvious, but researchers are still discovering interesting things about how seemingly unrelated skills can interact. Who would have expected that learning to discriminate related sounds could affect the ability to read? Good days and bad days: ability is an average about which we all fluctuate from day to day and hour to hour. Mood, health, hunger, fatigue, and phases of the moon may all influence our ability at any instant.

Learning style

There is a lot of research on "how people learn," and a proliferation of "teaching methodologies," each claiming to be more successful than the others. The claims and measures are usually based on average results from a large group. Within any group, though, there is not a single average learner. The educational program that best develops any individual's potential is the one that best accesses his particular learning style. That's why IEPs have student profiles.

'Visual learners': this is a bit misleading, it doesn't necessarily mean someone has above-average ability to access visual information, rather, it indicates that aural (spoken) information gets lost (is inaccessible). Information printed can be scanned and rescanned as needed. Information spoken evaporates unless it is stored in the listener's short-term memory (or transferred to intermediate-term memory). Most people will answer me correctly if I ask "what is eight minus six," but fewer can correctly answer "what is four-hundred and thirty-six thousand two-hundred and twelve minus forty-seven thousand eight-hundred and sixty-eight".

Repetition

The analogy to muscle development is apt. Practice is essential to learning many - most skills (I need to find more time to play the piano!). Once a skill is developed, it needs to be maintained or it may be lost. After a certain point, more practice does not help, and may even be counterproductive (overtraining).
Timing

Teaching, practice, and testing all change the brain. Whether it's the growth of new cells, connections between cells, or the chemical contents of those cells, the right chemicals need time to be made and transported. Those processes take time. Some are practically instantaneous, others require minutes or hours, still others days or weeks. After a certain amount of practice the measurable skill level may continue to increase with time. Eventually it will probably decrease. Given an hour available to learn a task, it may be more efficient to spend half an hour over two days than the same hour every other day. (This is a made-up example, I may have it backwards! The point is that timing matters.) Task interspersal (mixing up a set of exercises) is one way to efficiently teach and maintain a set of skills in a given amount of time.

Teaching and learning - interesting reading

Effective Teaching Procedures, Christina Burk How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, John D. Bransford, Ann L. Brown, and Rodney R. Cocking, editors Precision Teaching, Athabasca University

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UNIT X Evaluation in History

OVERVIEW
Baseball is known as the national pastime of the United States, but teacher evaluation beats it hands down. Everybody does itsome with a vengeance, others with the casual disregard that physical and emotional distance afford. Most enthusiasts grow up with the game, playing a sandlot version as they go through school. Indeed, familiarity with the job of teaching and the widespread practice of judging teachers has shaped the history of teacher evaluation.
History of Teacher Evaluation

Donald Medley, Homer Coker, and Robert Soar (1984) describe succinctly the modern history of formal teacher evaluationthat period from the turn of the

twentieth century to about 1980. This history might be divided into three overlapping periods: (1) The Search for Great Teachers; (2) Inferring Teacher Quality from Student Learning; and (3) Examining Teaching Performance. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, teacher evaluation appears to be entering a new phase of disequilibrium; that is, a transition to a period of Evaluating Teaching as Professional Behavior. The Search for Great Teachers began in earnest in 1896 with the report of a study conducted by H.E. Kratz. Kratz asked 2,411 students from the second through the eighth grades in Sioux City, Iowa, to describe the characteristics of their best teachers. Kratz thought that by making desirable characteristics explicit he could establish a benchmark against which all teachers might be judged. Some 87 percent of those young Iowans mentioned "helpfulness" as the most important teacher characteristic. But a stunning 58 percent mentioned "personal appearance" as the next most influential factor. Arvil Barr's 1948 compendium of research on teaching competence noted that supervisors' ratings of teachers were the metric of choice. A few researchers, however, examined average gains in student achievement for the purpose of Inferring Teacher Quality from Student Learning. They assumed, for good reason, that supervisors' opinions of teachers revealed little or nothing about student learning. Indeed, according to Medley and his colleagues, these early findings were "most discouraging." The average correlation between teacher characteristics and student learning, as measured most often by achievement tests, was zero. Some characteristics related positively to student achievement gains in one study and negatively in another study. Most showed no relation at all. Simeon J. Domas and David Tiedeman (1950) reviewed more than 1,000 studies of teacher characteristics, defined in nearly every way imaginable, and found no clear direction for evaluators. Jacob Getzels and Philip Jackson (1963) called once and for all for an end to research and evaluation aimed at linking teacher characteristics to student learning, arguing it was an idea without merit.

Medley and his colleagues note several reasons for the failure of early efforts to judge teachers by student outcomes. First, student achievement varied, and relying on average measures of achievement masked differences. Second, researchers failed to control for the regression effect in student achievement extreme high and low scores automatically regress toward the mean in second administrations of tests. Third, achievement tests were, for a variety of reasons, poor measures of student success. Perhaps most important, as the researchers who ushered in the period of Examining Teaching Performance were to suggest, these early approaches were conceptually inadequate, and even misleading. Student learning as measured by standardized achievement tests simply did not depend on a teacher's education, intelligence, gender, age, personality, attitudes, or any other personal attribute. What mattered was how teachers behaved when they were in classrooms. The period of Examining Teaching Performance abandoned efforts to identify desirable teacher characteristics and concentrated instead on identifying effective teaching behaviors; that is, those behaviors that were linked to student learning. The tack was to describe clearly and precisely teaching behaviors and relate them to student learningas measured most often by standardized achievement test scores. In rare instances, researchers conducted experiments for the purpose of arguing that certain teaching behaviors actually caused student learning. Like Kratz a century earlier, these investigators assumed that "principles of effective teaching" would serve as new and improved benchmarks for guiding both the evaluation and education of teachers. Jere Brophy and Thomas Good produced the most conceptually elaborate and useful description of this work in 1986, while Marjorie Powell and Joseph Beard's 1984 extensive bibliography of research done from 1965 to 1980 is a useful reference.
Goals of Teacher Evaluation

Although there are multiple goals of teacher evaluation, they are perhaps most often described as either formative orsummative in nature. Formative evaluation consists of evaluation practices meant to shape, form, or improve teachers' performances. Clinical supervisors observe teachers, collect data on teaching

behavior, organize these data, and share the results in conferences with the teachers observed. The supervisors' intent is to help teachers improve their practice. In contrast, summative evaluation, as the term implies, has as its aim the development and use of data to inform summary judgments of teachers. A principal observes teachers in action, works with them on committees, examines their students' work, talks with parents, and the like. These actions, aimed at least in part at obtaining evaluative information about teachers' work, inform the principal's decision to recommend teachers either for continuing a teacher's contract or for termination of employment. Decisions about initial licensure, hiring, promoting, rewarding, and terminating are examples of the class of summative evaluation decisions. The goals of summative and formative evaluation may not be so different as they appear at first glance. If an evaluator is examining teachers collectively in a school system, some summary judgments of individuals might be considered formative in terms of improving the teaching staff as a whole. For instance, the summative decision to add a single strong teacher to a group of other strong teachers results in improving the capacity and value of the whole staff. In a slightly different way, individual performance and group performance affect discussions of merit and worth. Merit deals with the notion of how a single teacher measures up on some scale of desirable characteristics. Does the person exhibit motivating behavior in the classroom? Does she take advantage of opportunities to continue professional development? Do her students do well on standardized achievement tests? If the answers to these types of questions are "yes," then the teacher might be said to be "meritorious." Assume for a moment that the same teacher is one of six members of a high school social studies team in a rural school district. Assume also that one of the two physics teachers just quit, the special education population is growing rapidly, and the state education department recently replaced one social science requirement for graduation with a computer science requirement. Given these circumstances, the meritorious teacher might not add much value to the school system; that is, other teachers, even less meritorious ones, might be worth more to the system.

The example of the meritorious teacher suggests yet another important distinction in processes of evaluating teachers: the difference between domainreferenced and norm-referenced teacher evaluation. When individual teachers are compared to a set of externally derived, publicly expressed standards, as in the case of merit decisions, the process is one of domain-referenced evaluation. What counts is how the teacher compares to the benchmarks of success identified in a particular domain of professional behavior. In contrast, norm-referenced teacher evaluation consists of grouping teachers' scores on a given set of measures and describing these scores in relation to one another. What is the mean score of the group? What is the range or standard deviation of the scores? What is shape of the distribution of the scores? These questions emanate from a norm-referenced perspectiveone often adopted in initial certification or licensure decisions. The work of John Meyer and Brian Rowan (1977) suggests that there are yet other goals driving the structure and function of teacher evaluation systems. If school leaders intend to maintain public confidence and support, they must behave in ways that assure their constituents and the public at large that they are legitimate. Schools must innovate to be healthy organizations, but if school leaders get too far ahead of the packlook too different, behave too radicallythey do so at their own peril. When they incorporate acceptable ideas, schools protect themselves. The idea that teachers must be held accountable, or in some way evaluated, is an easy one to sell to the public, and thus one that enhances a leader's or system's legitimacy.
Trends, Issues, and Controversies

With the standards movement of the late 1990s came increased expectations for student performance and renewed concerns about teacher practice. Driven by politicians, parents, and, notably, teacher unions, school districts began an analysis of teacher evaluation goals and procedures. The traditional model of teacher evaluation, based on scheduled observations of a handful of direct instruction lessons, came under fire. "Seventy years of empirical research on teacher evaluation shows that current practices do not improve teachers or accurately tell what happens in classrooms" (Peterson, p. 14). Not surprisingly, in

this climate, numerous alternative evaluative practices have been developed or reborn. In the early twenty-first century, the first line of teacher evaluation consists of state and national tests created as barriers for entry to the profession. Some forty states use basic skills and subject matter assessments provided by the Praxis Series examinations for this purpose. Creators of the examinations assume teachers should be masters of grammar, mathematics, and the content they intend to teach. Though many states use the same basic skills tests, each sets its own passing score. The movement to identify and hire quality teachers based on test scores has resulted in some notable legal cases. Teachers who graduate from approved teacher education programs yet fail to pass licensure tests have challenged the validity of such tests, as well as the assignment of culpability. If a person pays for teacher education and is awarded a degree, who is to blame when that person fails a licensure examination? This is not an insignificant concern. In 1998, for example, the state of Massachusetts implemented a new test that resulted in a 59 percent failure rate for prospective teachers. Once a teacher has assumed a job, however, that teacher is rarely, if ever, tested again. In-service teachers typically succeed at resisting pressure to submit to periodic examinations because of the power of their numbers and their political organization. Despite the well-known difficulties of measuring links between teaching and learning, the practice of judging teachers by the performance of their students is enjoying a resurgence of interest. Polls indicate that a majority of the American public favors this idea. School leaders routinely praise or chastise schools, and by implication teachers, for students' test results. Despite researchers' inabilities to examine the complexity of life in schools and in classrooms, studies of relationships between teaching and learning often become political springboards for policy formulation. For example, William Sanders (1996) suggests that teacher effectiveness is the single greatest factor affecting academic growth. His work has been seized upon by accountability proponents to argue that teachers must be held accountable for students' low test scores.

Although there may be much to be gained from focusing educators on common themes of accountability through the use of standards and accompanying tests, there may be much to lose as well. The upside can be measured over time in greater collective attention to common concerns. The downside results when people assume teachers can influence factors outside their controlfactors that affect students' test scores, such as students' experiences, socioeconomic status, and parental involvement. A focus on scores as the sole, or even primary, indicator of accountability also creates the possibility for academic misconduct, such as ignoring important but untested material, teaching to the test, or cheating. As researchers have demonstrated, those schools that need the most help are often least likely to get it. Daniel L. Duke, Pamela Tucker, and Walter Heinecke (2000) studied sixteen high schools involved in initial efforts to meet the challenges of new accountability standards that emphasize student test scores. These schools represented various combinations of need and ability. The researchers found that the schools with high need and low ability (those with poor test scores and low levels of financial resources) reported the highest concerns about staffing, morale, instruction, and students. Thus, the schools that needed the most help, the ones that were the primary targets of new accountability efforts, appeared in this study to be put at greater risk by the accountability movement. Teachers' jobs involve far more than raising test scores. An evaluation strategy borrowed from institutions of higher education and business, sometimes referred to as 360-degree feedback, acknowledges the necessity of considering the bigger picture. The intent of this holistic approach is to gather information from everyone with knowledge of a teacher's performance to create a complete representation of a teacher's practice and to identify areas for improvement. Multiple data sources, including questionnaires and surveys, student achievement, observation notes, teacher-developed curricula and tests, parent reports, teacher participation on committees, and the like, assure a rich store of information on which to base evaluation decisions. Current models tend to place the responsibility with administrators to interpret and respond to the data. To be sure, there are risks involved. The strategy asks children to evaluate their teachers,

and it gathers feedback from individuals who possess only a secondary knowledge of a teacher's practices, namely parents and fellow teachers. Nonetheless, different kinds of information collected from different vantage points encourage full and fair representation of teachers' professional lives.
Toward Evaluating Teaching as Professional Behavior

At the turn of the twenty-first century, people continue to debate whether teaching is a true profession. Questions persist about educators' lack of selfregulation, the nebulously defined knowledge base upon which teaching rests, the lack of rigid entrance requirements to teacher education programs (witness alternative licensure routes), the level of teachers' salaries, and the locus of control in matters of evaluation. Yet school districts, state governments, the federal government, and national professional and lay organizations appear intent as never before on building and strengthening teaching as a profession. One simple example of a changing attitude toward teaching as a profession is that of the use of peer evaluation. Two decades ago, in Toledo, Ohio, educators advanced processes of peer review as a method of evaluation. At its most basic level, peer review consists of an accomplished teacher observing and assessing the pedagogy of a novice or struggling veteran teacher. School districts that use peer review, however, often link the practice with teacher intervention, mentoring programs, and, in some instances, hiring and firing decisions. Columbus, Ohio's Peer Assistance and Review Program, seemingly representative of many review systems, releases expert teachers from classroom responsibilities to act as teaching consultants. Driven by the National Education Association's 1997 decision to reverse its opposition to peer review, the idea has enjoyed a resurgence of popularity in recent years. Founded in 1987, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) is yet another example of people from different constituencies working together to advance the concept of teaching as a profession. The NBPTS attempts to identify and reward the highest caliber teachers, those who represent the top end of the quality distribution. Based on the medical profession's concept of

board-certified physicians, the NBPTS bestows certification only on those teachers who meet what board representatives perceive to be the highest performance standards. By the end of the year 2000, nearly 10,000 teachers had received board certificationthough this amounts to a tiny fraction of the nation's 2.6 million teachers. Widespread political and financial support, from both political conservatives and liberals, suggests this idea may have staying power. Teacher evaluation will grow and develop as the concept of teaching as a profession evolves. Computer technology is only beginning to suggest how new methods of formative and summative evaluation can alter the landscape. Perhaps most important is that as reformers confront the realities of life in schools, public knowledge of what it means to be a teacher increases. More people in more walks of life are recognizing how complex and demanding teaching can be, and how important teachers are to society as a whole. Teacher evaluators of the future will demonstrate much higher levels of knowledge and skill than their predecessors, leaving the teaching profession better than they found it.

UNIT VII. Identification of Individual differences: 1. Introduction

The unhappy circumstances of Phineas Gage are by now well known. Briey, as related by Antonio Damasio (1994) in his Descartes Error, Gage was working as the foreman for a railroad construction team in Vermont in 1848, when an explosion blew an iron bar through his left cheek, skull and the front of his brain. The bar exited the top of his head at high speed, and Gage managed to survive the blast. Although his post-accident IQ remained high according to standard measures, he nevertheless underwent radical personality changes and, perhaps more interestingly, seemed to lose the ability to make good decisions. In particular, he systematically made decisions that were, by any objective measure, not in

his long-run best interest. He eventually lost his job and family, and spent much of the rest of his life working as a sideshow attraction for a circus.We now know that Gage suffered damage to the ventromedial (VM) area of his prefrontal cortex (see, e.g., Damasio et al., 1994). People with damage in this area typically maintain good memory and score well across a wide range of personality and intelligence tests. However, they tend to have difculty in making good decisions. That is, they often make decisions that seem clearly contrary to their best interest, even when they claim that they know this is the case. Investigating the natures of the differences between VM and normal decision making has proved challenging, because VM patients perform as well as normal patients on many standard diagnostic tests. However, Bechara et al. (1994) describe one laboratory experiment in which VM patients perform remarkably differently than control subjects. This experiment has been dubbed the gambling task, because it involves turning over cards sequentially and earning and losing money, according to the markings on each card. Bechara et al. (1994) report that VM patients choose cards from bad decks systematically more often than people without such brain damage. In their experiment, a bad deck is one that yields high immediate rewards but higher future losses, so that on average a person playing a bad deck will lose money. A good deck, on the other hand, provides lower immediate rewards but even lower future costs, so that on average a person drawing from the good deck will earn money. The main result reported by Bechara et al. (1994) is that about 60% of VM patients draws are from bad decks, while this is true for only about one-third of their control subjects. Bechara et al. (2000) investigate three reasons, not mutually exclusive, for differences in behavior in the gambling task. These are that VM patients might be relatively (i) hypersensitive to reward; (ii) insensitive to punishment; or (iii) insensitive to future consequences. To discriminate these hypotheses they designed a new experiment, a variant of the gambling task, such that the bad decks yield low immediate punishment and even lower future earnings, while the good decks yield high immediate punishment and even higher future reward. Analysis of this experiments data allows them to conclude that neither (i) nor (ii) is supported by the experimental data, and that (iii) is a simple hypothesis consistent with the evidence. In this paper we discuss an alternative procedure for drawing inferences about the heuristics used by VM and control patients when playing the original gambling task. Our approach is to analyze data from the original environment using the statistical classication algorithm suggested by Houser et al. (2004). The goal of our analysis is not to provide new results about the behavior of people with VM damage. Indeed, experimentation over the last decade by Bechara and others has expanded the knowledge of VM behavior far beyond what one can expect to gain by a statistical analysis of a relatively old data set.

Rather, in this paper we demonstrate that the Houser, Keane and McCabe (HKM) classication procedure can be used to discern behavioral patterns that were not originally teased out of this data set, and that those patterns line-up well with what subsequent experimentation has already discovered. In particular, we show that hypothesis (ii) above, that VM patients might be relatively insensitive to losses, can be informed through an HKM analysis of the original gambling-task data. There are several reasons that behavioral researchers in all elds, including economics, psychology and neuroscience, might be interested in the HKM statistical approach. One is that HKM does not require the researcher to pre-specify the nature or number of the heuristics used by subjects. This is in marked contrast to many approaches to type-classication that require the investigator to pre-specify the universe of possible decision rules (e.g., the popular strategy suggested by El-Gamal and Grether (1995)). Especially when analyzing the behavior of people with brain damage, it seems likely that the usual introspective process that generates this universe may fare quite badly. 1 .In addition, HKM does not require that all subjects with a particular brain condition (in the present case, VM and control subjects) use the same heuristic. As discussed below, the idea behind the procedure is to group subjects according to similarities in their decision-making behavior, regardless of any known physical abnormalities they might possess. 2.The data set analyzed in this paper is small and unbalanced. It consists of seventeenVM patients, and eight lesion control subjects who have brain damage in an area outside of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (in particular, to the left-somatosensory cortex). Nevertheless, we demonstrate that a simple analysis can be conducted that groups subjects according to similarities in their decision making strategies (or heuristics), and that allows inference with respect to whether these heuristics differ in terms of their sensitivity to losses. We allow for two types of heuristics in our population. Our results indicate that fteen VM patients and two controls use one type of heuristic, while two VM patients and six controls use the other. The two heuristics do not differ with regard to the way they respond to losses, which lines up well with the results of subsequent experimentation reported by Bechara et al. (2000). 1.This is not to say that introspection necessarily works well when trying to explain the behavior of normal subjects: even in very simple environments it can be extremely difcult to write down a

model that explains or predicts individual decision making well. Also, while quite common, introspection is not the only procedure available to determine a universe of possible heuristics. Objective evidence from neuroeconomic studies of decision making might provide useful insights into the cognitive strategies used by both brain damaged and normal subjects (see, e.g., McCabe et al., 2001). 3. It is possible, of course, to incorporate this information into the HKM classication procedure. . Statistical methodology The statistical procedure used in this paper is developed in detail in Houser et al. (2004),and will be only briey described here. Papers that discuss closely related procedures for inference in multinomial choice frameworks include Geweke and Keane (1999a), Gewekeet al. (2001) and Houser (2003). The HKM approach is useful whenever an investigator is interested in drawing inferences about the nature of behavioral heterogeneity in a population, but does not feel comfortable taking a strong stand with respect to the nature of that heterogeneity. In particular, under relatively weak assumptions, the HKM algorithm draws inferences about both the nature and number of heuristics (or, equivalently, decision rules) used by subjects in a given population. A decision rule is a map from information to action. For example, if people sitting in a theatre are given the information that the theatre is burning, many will likely decide to act by leaving the building. Behavioral heterogeneity might exist even here: a few might decide to stay. Intuitively, the HKM approach allows one to draw inferences about both the nature and number of relationships that exist between the information people have and the actions they take, at least within a given context. While many interesting types of decisions are easily observed, it is usually the case that the information that resulted in a particular action is not. This is less the case in laboratory experiments. There, much (even most) of the information that is relevant to subjects laboratory decisions is under the control of, and therefore known to, the researcher. We exploit this control to specify the form of the heuristics that we investigate below. 2.1. The HKM classication procedure In order to provide additional detail about the HKM algorithm, we consider an experiment where subjects solve a T period dynamic decision problem. The gambling taskanalyzed below is an instance of this environment, although the discussion in this sectiois more general. Suppose that each period subjects choose either alternative A or B, each of which results in a nite monetary reward.

Payoffs can be stochastic, but the realizations of the random variables in period t occur before the decision at t is made, while the realizations of period (t + 1)s random variables occur after the decision at t. Each subjects total payoff is the sum of the rewards earned over the T periods. Subjects have complete information regarding the stochastic link between their current choices and future payoffs, but the link is complicated and it is difcult to determine the decision rule that maximises expected total payoffs. The goal is to learn about the dynamic decision rules that subjects actually use when solving this difcult problem. To do this, Houser et al. (2004) (henceforth, HKM) begin by assuming that subjects are rational in a weak sense. In particular, a subject will choose alternative A in period t if and only if, in period t, the value that they place on choosing A is greater than the value they place on choosing B. Because the problem is dynamic, the value that subjects place on A and B depend both on the immediate reward 3 This section follows Houser (2003) closely.D. Houser et al. / Games and Economic Behavior 52 (2005) 373385 377 to each choice and on the way subjects believe that choice will impact their future payoffs. The idea is that choices, in general, have both immediate and future costs and benets, and that even when people have the same information they might use it differently and draw different inferences about the immediate and future consequences of their decisions. This is the fundamental intuition that guides the HKM algorithm. To implement the HKM type classication procedure one posits that individual alternative valuations are additively separable into a contemporaneous component that captures the immediate net benet ofa choice (e.g., the alternatives immediate monetary payoff) and a future component that depends on a subjects information and accounts for the subjective way information is used to value alternatives. We use the term future component because it is natural for economists to think that this function might map a subjects information to his or her expected net future benets from taking a particular action. However, this need not be the case. For example, if a subject is myopic in the sense that they are focused only on immediate rewards, then the future component would be identically zero. A key advantage of the HKM algorithm is that it does not require one to take a strong stand on the nature of the future component. In the laboratory it is often reasonable to assume that the contemporaneous payoff structure is known (and is equal to the cash value of a choice), so that differences in choice behaviour between subjects who face otherwise identical contemporaneous returns can be traced to differences between the subjects future components. The idea put forth by HKM

(Houser et al., 2004) is to cluster subjects into groups that seem to have similar future components, while simultaneously drawing inferences about the future components forms. In this way, HKM avoid taking a strong a-priori stand on either the nature or number of decision rules at use in the population subjects. HKM (Houser et al., 2004) model the unobserved future component of each alternatives value as a parametric stochastic function of the subjects information set Int. Theinformation set can include anything the researcher believes is relevant to subjects whenmaking their decisions, such as choice and payoff histories. Then, the value that subject nassigns to alternative j {A, B} in period t, Vnjt(Int), given that they use decision rule k,can be writtenVnj t (Int| k ) = wnj t + F (In,t+1 | Int, j , k, nj t k), In,t+1 = H (Int, j ). Here, wnj t is the known immediate reward associated with alternative j . F () represents the future component. It depends on the alternative j and information set Int , and is characterised by a nite vector of parameters k , whose values determine the nature ofdecision rule k, and a random variable nj t k that accounts for idiosyncratic errors subjects make when attempting to implement decision rule k. (The researcher must specify the distribution of the idiosyncratic errors.) The function H () is the information sets stochastic law of motion. It provides the dynamic link between current information and actions and future information, and it is exogenous with respect to the decision rule. We denote the choice in period t of subject n following decision rule k with information Int by:378 D. Houser et al. / Games and Economic Behavior 52 (2005) 373385 dk(Int) = A if Znt (Int| k ) > 0,kK,B otherwise,where Znt(Int| k ) = VnAt(Int| k ) VnBt(Int| k ). The goal is to draw inferences about the parameters k (k K ), and about the probability with which each subject uses each decision rule. To do this HKM construct the likelihood function associated with this framework. This requires knowing the probability, conditional on a subjects information set, that they will choose A or B. The probability that subject n using decision rule k chooses alternative A at period t,

given that they have information Int is given by Pdk(Int) = A = PVnAt(Int) > VnBt(Int) wnBt + f (Int| k) > 0 , = PwnAt

where f () is a stochastic function that represents the differenced future components F (In,t+1 | Int, A, k, nAtk) F (In,t+1 | Int, B , k, nBtk). The conditional probability that B is chosen is one minus the conditional probability that A is chosen. With conditional choice probabilities in hand it is straightforward to construct the likelihood function needed to draw inferences about the different decision rules at use in the population, and the probability with which each subject uses each rule. Under the distributional assumptions made by HKM, the likelihood function corresponds to a mixture of normals probit model. This likelihood can be computationally burdensome to maximise, and numerical procedures such as Gibbs sampling are typically required. Interested researchers should consult Houser et al. (2004) for discussion on this point. 3. The gambling task Becharas gambling task (Bechara et al., 1994) is a sequence of static decision problems under ambiguity. The experimenter begins by giving a subject $2,000 in play money. The experimenter places four decks of cards in front of the subject, and tells him/her that they can earn more play money by turning over cards, and that his/her goal is to earn as much play money as possible. The subject is told that every card they choose will result in them earning some amount of money, and that there will be occasional cards that impose costs

on them. The subject is told nothing else. The subject then begins turning over cards, oneby-one, until they are told to stop by the experimenter. The stopping point is after 100 cards have been selected, although the subject does not know this in advance. The subject is told nothing about the payoff or cost distributions within any of the decks of cards. In fact, the decks have been constructed in a very particular way. The rst two decks, call them A and B, provide a positive payment of $100 for each card. However, they also have occasional very high costs. On average, turning over 10 cards in the A or B decks will have a net cost of $250. The C and D decks have lower rewards per card, $50, but also have lower occasional costs. On average, turning over 10 cards in the C or D decks yields a positive return of $250. For this reason, we will refer to decks A and B as the bad decks, and C and D as the good decks. The main result reported by Bechara et al. (1994) (see also Bechara et al., 1997) is that VM patients choose from the bad decks statistically signicantly more often than normal subjects. On average, around 60% of all VM patients draws are from the bad decks, whileD. Houser et al. / Games and Economic Behavior 52 (2005) 373385 379 this is true of only about one-third of the normal patients draws. This led to much speculation about the source of the behavioral difference. One question was whether VM patients were relatively insensitive to losses, and if this insensitivity could explain the difference. Subsequent research by Bechara et al. (2000), which used a new experiment designed to address this question, suggested that differences in loss aversion-behavior were not likely

the source of the different choices. The results we report below provide convergent evidence for this conclusion. 4. A simple model The Houser et al. (2004) approach to t