5.

Imperial Russia, revolutions, emergence of Soviet State 1853 - 1924

ALEXANDER II (1855- 81): EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS; MILITARY, LEGAL, EDUCATIONAL, LOCAL GOVERNMENT REFORMS; LATER REACTION

Background of the Peasantry

2 types o state peasants inhabitants of crown estates o landlords peasants serfs Serfs were bound to land, state peasants had much more freedom Allocation of land was inefficient for produce Serfs were not allowed to earn money so they paid in labour (berschina) State peasants paid rent

Emancipation of the Serfs

Failings of Serfdom 80% of Russian population were serfs Bad for Serfs o Increase in productivity did not match population growth o Worse poverty Bad for nobility o System did not provide enough income for changing economy Bad for State o Did not encourage innovation or experiment o Led to Russia falling behind international community economically Instability o Food shortage led to unrest, led to peasant violence outbreaks Detriments of Change Nobility o Loss of land and service o Avoid weaknesses they saw in other western countries where the serfs had been emancipated o Feared loss of autocracy Serfs o Did not associate their problems with the Tsar or the system, but with their landlords o The majority of peasants neither understood nor were interested in their rights

All were scared of the implications of emancipations and change in general Introducing Emancipation

Alexander II used the defeat of the Crimean War to show the need for change o Reinforced through Nicholas I attitude to serfdom Used growing unrest of serfs to encourage fears of revolution from below Used full weight of autocratic power Serfs believed they would be emancipated after those who had been drafted had finished their service at war. When this did not happen, there was more unrest November 1857 plan of actions was released Each province was to form a committee to address the issue (they did so reluctantly) 58 60 meetings were held with province representatives Feb 1861 Emancipation decree was published The Decree

Serfs received land from states of nobility Compensation was paid to the nobility by the state The peasants had to repay the state for this (49 yr mortgage) The mir was established for administering the land Impacts of Emancipation

Peasants o Were not happy with the decree Did not want to pay for land that their family had been farming for generations Did not blame Tsar, thought that their landlords were lying Couldnt afford the 49 yr mortgage, they were paying for revenue lost which was often twice the value of the land o Many aspects stayed the same The mir did not encourage initiative or experiment The strip system continued Peasants were still outside the main body of law, binding them to their lifestyle Peasants liked the mir because it provided collective security o Land distribution Each peasant wanted more land due to the population pressure There was not enough to go around -> unemployment Land was distributed unfairly in quality and quantity Nobility o Unprepared for life without serfs

o Nobility were forced to sell a lot of land o Were no longer able to act as a stabilising force o Their position and power were based on serfdom -> Emancipation condemned them as a class

Other Reforms
Local Government Prior to his ascension there was no local govt -> admin inefficiency The zemstva (locally elected councils) were established 1864 Zemstva had responsibility for public education, health, economic development, public services and infrastructure Alexander II wanted to retain nobility as a bulwark, so the seats were divided between classes Taxing continued to favour nobility 1870 similar system was set up in towns (duma) Legal Reform Different types of courts and officials were ill trained and illiterate 1864 major reforms occurred Salaries were set high to avoid bribery, public trials were introduced, appeal courts were set up This meant the judiciary was mostly independent and fair The education of the officials put them in position to become radicals Military Reform Failures of the military outline in the result and impacts of the Crimean war Comand structure was inflexible and inefficient Punishment was severe and barbaric The parade ground was more important than actual combat in training Service for conscripts was 25 years -> became seen as a sentence and undesirable 1861 Miliutin appointed minister for War Decentralised administration and supply Set up army schools Length of service reduced PEASANTS WERE TREATED THE SAME AS NOBLES!! -> nobility rejected this idea Education Primary education was increased Schools were no longer affiliated with the church -> ministry of education Universities were given control over administrative matters Censorship was cut down majorly

Scholarships and financial aid were given, foreigners could attain degrees as well -> more people had access to education Due to the growth of radical ideas fostered by the encouragement of educations, Golvonin was replaced by Tolstoy (ministers of education) Womens education was furthered Economy

Reutern -> minster for finance 1862 Created unified treasury and centralised administration 1862 budgets were published Railway network was extended to encourage exports Banks and savings associations set up so money lenders were not relied upon Pale of Settlement limit the areas in which Jews could settle to border lands 1865 Pale was abolished to further economy, anti-Semitism was still strong. Foreign Policy

Peaceful Europe Complete annexation of Warsaw to guard Western border Austria, Britain, France were opposed to these demands Threat from Napoleon forced powers to cooperate, and Alexander got most of his demands Quadruple Alliance Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia great powers had special rights and responsibilities and therefore rights to intervene on other sovereignties Holy Alliance Alexander IIs doing, commitment to Christianity in international and domestic relations Encouraged expansion in Asia Encouraged Franco-austrian rivalry which backfired leading to to Polish revolt Withdrew from European affairs to focus on internal reforms until 1873 Dreikaiserbund

 Policies of Alexander III (1881- 94) and Nicholas II (18951917): backwardness and attempts at modernization; nature of tsardom; growth of opposition movements
The New Conservatism Counter- reforms Safeguard system ( August 1881) gave governor generals and police more power o Arrest and imprison suspects for 3 months o Close down and fine local press o Close down zemstva and duma o Immediately applied to 10 provinces including St Petersburg and Moscow o Police state eroded the press, judicial system and compromised the zemstvas authority Land captains centrally appointed delegates of the governor generals who could interfere with the local government. Wanted to return to autocratic system rejected liberalism Russification Russification = attempting to create a single Russian nationality out of the multinational Russian Empire. Admired Bismarkian Germany which had a single united nationality Successes o Caucasian and Turkik learned to speak and read Russian o Ukraine were described as little russians despite their distinct national identity Negative consequences o Eroded power of Georgian and Armenian landowning elites o Imposed Russian language on Baltic provinces o Abolished Finlands army, introduced Russia as the official language, abolishing the Finnish government component in each province o Onslaught on Polish culture in terms of language and military as well as oppression. o Jews also had their rights severly violated. Denied vote, limits on education, pale of settlement. 2/3 of jews were expelled due to violence and pogroms

Economic Development Although Alexander had made considerable progress with Russias economy, so had Britain and Germany The type of revolution that worked in Britiain and Germany could not be achieved in Russia because o Economy had been hindered by serfdom and its abolution o The country was so large in terms of population and geography o The autocracy feared the proletariat o Russia had to spend beyond its means to maintain a competitive military establishment o The depression had forced most of Europe into protectionism (tariffs on imported goods) Finance Ministers: Nikolai Bunge (1881-7) tried to control expenditure Ivan Vyshnegradsky (1887-92) increased taxes, secured French loans o Put pressure on the peasantry o 1891-91 = worst famine in 19th century. 2 million lives. Witte (Prime Minister) (1892 1900) o 2 phases of industrialisation unstable first phase, impoverishment, dislocation and social protest second phase increased wealth eased tensions and created a more complex and harmonious society o Saw that Russia could begin its industrialisation with the most modern methods and techniques and therefore achieve industrial efficiency more quickly o 7 years of rapid industrialisation followed o Compress and accelerate first phase o Loans from the French o Trans-siberian railway o Gold standard increased inflow of foreign capital o Social Policies Factory inspectorate controlling use of child and female labour Limit hours for workers Permit trades unions o Russia ran up huge debts as a result of Wittes policies Agriculture Contrast between industrial and agricultural policies after 1881 o Ministry of Interior focused on peasantry and agriculture, Witte focused on industry 2 confliction directions Shortcomings of emancipation o Inadequate land provision o Rural population expansion o When govt most needed to export grain prices were depressed 1891 -2 Famine poor govt response. Peasants still had to pay tax 1900 Agricultural crisis

o consequence of huge population growth o Peasant riots o Govt responded with force and set up Commission on Agriculture Stolypin o Weaken Mir and give peasants more independence worked!! Opposition Workers o World economy slump 2900 wage cuts, strikes, lockouts etc. o Govt forms trade unions and exploits nationalism and anti Semitism o 1881 assassination Nicholas II makes state more oppressive Universities oppressiveness of govt on curriculum causes strikes Populists Marxists o Marxism = emergence of a new political and economic order, equal and fair with no classes and therefore no class struggle. o New ideas were needed to accommodate the revolution Marxism o Appealed to intelligentsia through its scientificness and utopian vision Social democrats Socialist Revolutionaries o Wanted to help the people o More emotional view of revolution appealed to the peasants o Party was based on political group in areas of rural unrest o Party s incoherence and lack of long term programme meant that it relied upon short term economic distres Liberals o Liberalism: intellectuals, education reforms made it more popular o Union of Liberation Aimed to end autocracy

 Significance of the Russo-Japanese War; 1905 revolution; Stolypin and the Duma; the impact of WWI on Russia
Russo Japanese War Causes of Russian making o Russias aims Expansionist policy in the Far East make up for relative decline in Europe - Witte Obtain Ice-free port Distract attention from domestic troubles o Territorial disputes between Russia and Japan over: Korea Manchuria o 1904 Russian Govt rejects Japanese proposals for the settlement of Korea Course o Russia greatly underestimated the strength of Japan o Emporer Meiji (196 1914) had made great reforms o Japan gained Port Arthur (Korea) and Mukden (Manchuria) in early 1905 o Final defeat at sea in May 1905 o Predictable commanders strategy of Russia o Distances over which supplies had to be transported in Russia Consequences o Russian govt obliged to make peace Treaty of Portsmouth o Japanese gain Manchuria and Korea o National humiliation o Incompetence of govt revealed o Excited social unrest that it had aimed to dampen o Build up of tension which led to 1905 revolution

The 1905 Revolution Causes o Govt responsibility - Witte Repression Taxation Lack of leadership o Social unrest o Economic recession o Bad harvests o Peasants = anger over mortgage payments o Workers = anger over unemployment and wages o Russo Japanese War defeat Revolution (1905 - 6) o Bloody Sunday Gapon o Strikes in major cities

o Liberals = Milyukov leads the Union of Unions o Peasant revolts = seizure of land o Workers = Soviets formed Mutinies in services Resolution o Liberals = October Manifesto Duma Civil rights o Peasants = mortgage lowered and eventually abolished o Workers = crushed o Fundamental laws restate tsars absolute power Significance of 1905 o First broad based challenge to stardom, o Was it a revolution? o Russian govt is not easy to overthrow

Stolypin President of the Council of Ministers - July 1906 suppression first and then reform reform should be introduced as a way of reducing bitterness on which opposition fed industrial progress couldnt solve Russias problems, rapidly growing population must be fed Shortages in food had been created by o Bad harvests in the 1890s o Govts land policies Peasants were scared that govt would seize their land because they couldnt pay their mortgages o Govt announced that outstanding repayments would be cancelled Wager on the strong o Aim: create prosperous, productive peasants supporters of tsarist regime o Means: Replace strip system with fields similar to those in western Europe Voluntary resettlement of the peasants to populate remoter areas Standard historian view: he had little real chance of reforming agriculture since the Russian Peasantry was so backward and time constraints

Dumas Tsar Nicholas II limited power of the Duma o Substantial loan from France meant less hold on the govts finances o 2 houses 1 elected, 1 state appointed. State apt could veto any decision by elected o Tsar had Supreme Autocratic Power Vyborg Appeal

o Reformists demanded that Duma had more power o Caused Duma to be dissolved o Encouraged people to not pay taxes and disobey conscription resulted in scattered violence o Stolypin policy of repression Martial Law, military courts were used to quell disturbances 1st Duma (1906) Character Dominated by reformist parties Clash between revolutionaries and right wing parties Election rigged by Stolypin to produce more co-operative deputies from moderate parties Dominated by right-wing parties again willing to co-operate Achievements Short lived little achieved Dissolved in disorder little achieved Committees did achieve effective work in social reform Social reform work continued, but prepared to criticise govt

2nd Duma (1907) 3rd Duma (1907 12)

4th Duma (1912 14)

Impact of WWI on Russia The socialist parties abandoned their policies and committed themselves to the national war effort in all warring countries Bolsheviks were vilified as traitors The pressure of total war on all countries was immense; of the 6 empires engaged in WWI, only Britain and France survived. Inflation o Russia had largest gold reserves of any European country o Government spending rose from 4m to 39m during the war increased taxation and foreign loans o Gold standard was abandoned govt printed more money, led to longterm inflation Food supplies and transport o Requisitioning of supplies by military made it difficult for peasants to sustain agricultural output. o Inflation made trading unprofitable so peasants began hoarding o Army had first claim on food and transport o Lack of transport meant that urban areas stopped receiving food from the country o There was a growth in railways but it did not meet the demands of war o 1916 Petrograd and Moscow were receiving only a 1/3 of their food and fuel needs.

The army o Russia put less than half the troops into the field per capita than Germany or France did o Largest army of all countries o Lack of equipment o Problem was not lack of resources but poor administration. Role of the Tsar o Strong central leadership was desperately needed o 1915 Nicholas II had taken over direct command of Russias armed services in order to rally the nation around him as Tsar o He was now personally responsible for Russias performance o Morale o High at the start but with food shortages and long casualty lists o 1916 pessimism and defeatism

 1917 Revolutions: February/March Revolution; Provisional Government and Dual Power (Soviets); October/November Bolshevik Revolution; Lenin and Trotsky
February/March Revolution Background opposition to the tsar o 1916 all sections of population thought Tsar was inept o First moves in February revolution were not made by the revolutionary parties but by the Tsars strongest supporters o MISTAKE: Tsar refused to cooperate with non-govt organizations. o MISTAKE: dismissed dumas appeal to replace his cabinet with a ministry of national confidence whose members would come from the Duma o Progressive bloc was formed as a result Kadets, Octobrists, Nationaliss Industrialists o AIM: prevent revolution to enable to the govt to end the war o Bloc tried to persuade him to make concessions o Unstable govt 4 PMs in 15-16 o Rasputin: achievement in reorganizing the armys medical supplies system. o Rasputin and Alexandra became the focal point of the growing hatred of Tsardom. They thought that if he had become a part of it, the system wasnt worth saving Revolution o What made February 1917 different was the range of opposition to the govt and the speed with which it turned into a revolution o 25 February: Petrograd paralyzed by a city-wide strike o When contingents of police and militia were sent in, they either fought each other or joined the demonstrators o Alexander Kerensky, leading SR member in the Duma, called for the tsar to stand down as head of state or be deposed. o Petrograd Soviet: Mensheviks had set up the soviet made up of: Provisional committee reformist elements of the old duma Soviet representing the striking workers and rebellious troops o Tsar abdicates on 2nd March. o Bolsheviks Neither in 1905 or February revolution All their leaders were in exile o Petrograd According to Trotsky Petrograd achieved the Feb. rev. There was no struggle anywhere except in Petrograd 2000 casualties The high-ranking officers who first told Nicholas to stand down Aristocratic Duma members refused to disband on tsars orders Army could not control population o Length of war destroyed Tsardom

Provisional Government and Dual Power Prince Lvov leader of Provisional Govt old duma in new form Weaknesses of Prov. Govt. o Not elected lacked authority judged on how well it dealt with nations problems o Limited by unofficial partnership with Petrograd Soviet Kerensky SR leader, chairman of Soviet and minister in Prov. Govt. Soviet Order Number 1 decrees of Provisional Govt in regard to military affairs had to be approved by Pet. Sov. Prov. Gov had no control over army Early Co-operation o Widespread elation in Petrograd o Willingness to maintain state authority by people o Allowed Prov. Gov. achievements Amnesty for political prisoners Trade unions were legal 8 hr working day replace of tsarist police with peoples milita full civil and religious freedoms preparations for the election of a constituent assembly o these changes did not regard issues of war and land. <- lenin exploits this! The Bolsheviks o Led by Stalin and Kaminev o Lenin sent Letters from Afar until his arrival 3rd April 1917 Accused of being a German Agent (Germany had been giving the Bolsheviks financial aid) April Thesis: WWI should be turned into a class war for Russia Bolsheviks should not co-operate with other parties Overthrow provisional govt Transfer power to workers Demand that authority pass to the soviets Peace bread land ; All power to the soviets Problems for the provisional Govt o War Govt cant afford to stop fighting Pet. Sov. Wanted peace Kerensky supports war o Land Prov. Govt. not genuinely commited to land reform Enabled Bolsheviks to steal a march and gain peasant support o July Days Prov. Govt was proven strong enough to put down and armed uprising. o Kornilov Affar Bolsheviks gain some power Prov. Govt weakened.

October/November Revolution October 7 10 16 23 24 25 26 Lenin returned to Petrograd Bolshevik central committee voted for a rising Military Revolutionary Committee was set up by the Petrograd Soviet Kerensky closed down Bolshevik newspapers The military revolutionary Committee took defensice measures to secure key positions in Petrograd Bolsheviks seized control of Petrograd Congress of Soviets, approved new government with Lenin as president Fall of the Winter Palace

Communist: Liberal: Revionist:

Inevitable result of class struggle Lenin = good Popular Bolsheviks werent popular and exploited govt collaps

Popular revolution but Bolsheviks betrayed people by imposing brutal authoritarian state.

 Lenins Russia (1917 24): Consolidation of new Soviet State; Civil War; War Communism; NEP; Terror and coercion; foreign relations
Consolidation of New Soviet State Most people did not expect the new govt to last because of the economic crisis, opposition from other political groups and the advancing Germans December 1917 Lenin set up the Cheka Bolsheviks attempted to satisfy population Decree on Land o Estates of the crown, church and aristocracy went to the peasants State Capitalism o Economic policy before War communism o Nationalize banks and railways Decree on Peace Lenin knew a civil war was needed and therefore he wanted a quick peace with Germany. Brest Litovsk Russia ost 33% of population and arable land 6 billion marks November 12th 1917 Constituent Assembly election won by Right Socialists Revolutionaries. Lenin shut down the constituent assembly on January 6th

Civil War By spring 1918 armed opposition was developing in many parts of Russia AIM: to stay in power Reds (Bolsheviks) Trotsky, War Commissar Whites: extsarist commanders, Kadets, SRs, Right wing political organisations Kolchak Greens: peasant forces Foreign Intervention: (June 1918) o Britain, France, Italy, USA, Japan o Worried about spread of communism o Bolsheviks were in debt to them o Wanted Russia to rejoin the war against Germany May Aug 1918 White gains, Sept = red gains 1919 Reds faced several fronts, Trotsky prevailed, foreign powers withdraw Whites lacked political unity or leadership, attacks were unco-ordinated Communists were defending a central region with infrastructure Conscription was used (May 1918), rapid building of army

War Communism The state took control of industry workers committees were abolished. Did not make it more efficient Trade unions were not allowed and people were prevented from moving between cities Food was rationed black market. Priority given to army Money became worthless

Cheka to seize food from the peasants famine 7m deaths. People opposing the government were shot without trial or sent to labour camps

New Economic Plan March 1921 28 Capitalism was restored in that free strade in grain was reinstated, requisitioning was ended New currency Larger factories and industrial concerns (steel plants and coal mines) remained under state control By 1928, Russian industrial output had reached the 1914 level. Scissor Crisis 1923 food prices fell while tools and manufactured goods remained expensive Electrification Soviet power + electrification = communism Lenin. Foreign trade western countries hoped that this return to capitalism meant defeat of communism