Grounding Systems

Should I install an ungrounded, solid, or high-resistance grounding system? That is the question asked
by many designers and installers. The answer to this question depends on many Iactors. To make the
correct decision, you must completely understand the pros and cons oI each type oI system. But Iirst,
you must also understand the diIIerent types oI Iaults that can occur on your system and in what
Irequency they may appear.
Faults and Failures. Faults can damage equipment and Iacilities, drive up costs due to lost
production time, and lead to employee injuries, and even Iatalities. The Iour types oI Iaults include:
O Line-to-ground Iaults, which represent about 98 oI all Iailures.
O Phase-to-phase Iaults, which account Ior about 1.5 oI all Iailures.
O 3-phase Iaults, which make up less than 0.5 oI all Iaults and are oIten caused by
human error. Failure to remove a grounding breaker, leaving ground clusters on
systems, and liIting a truck bed into an open wire system can cause this type oI Iault.
O Arcing Iaults are intermittent Iailures between phases or phase-to-ground. They`re
discontinuous currents that alternately strike, extinguish, and strike again.
Now that we`ve addressed the diIIerent types oI Iaults that can appear on an electrical system,
it`s time to provide an overview on the three main types oI grounding systems you may
encounter in the Iield.
Grounding systems.
1. Ungrounded. Electrical power systems that are operated with no intentional connection to
earth ground are described as ungrounded. Although these systems were standard in the `40s
and `50s, they`re still in use today. The main advantage oI this type oI grounding system is
that it oIIers a low value oI current Ilow and reliability during a Iault. UnIortunately, this type
oI system also oIIers some big disadvantages. One major disadvantage to an ungrounded
system is in the diIIiculty in locating a line-to-ground Iault. Finding the Iault is a time
consuming process. For that reason, it`s oIten done on the weekends so a company doesn`t
have to shut down its normal production processes. In addition, the Iault must be located and
repaired quickly because iI a second Iault occurs, the Iault acts like a phase-to-phase Iault
extending the repair process.
Advantages
O OIIers a low value oI current Ilow Ior line-to-line ground Iault (5A or less).
O Presents no Ilash hazard to personnel Ior accidental line-to-ground Iault.
O Assures continued operation oI processes on the Iirst occurrence oI a line-to-ground
Iault.
O Low probability oI line-to-ground arcing Iault escalating to phase-to-phase or 3-phase
Iault.

isadvantages
O DiIIicult to locate line-to-ground Iault.
O Doesn`t control transient overvoltages.
O Cost oI system maintenance is higher due to labor involved in locating ground Iaults.
O A second ground Iault on another phase will result in a phase-to-phase short circuit.
. Solidly grounded. This type oI grounding system is most commonly used in industrial and
commercial power systems, where grounding conductors are connected to earth ground with
no intentional added impedance in the circuit. A main secondary circuit breaker is a vital
component required in this system, although it has no bearing in other grounding systems.
This component is large in size because it has to carry the Iull load current oI the transIormer.
Back-up generators are Irequently used in this type oI grounding system in case a Iault shuts
down a production process. When this happens, the generators become solidly grounded.
However, it`s important to note that the generators aren`t designed Ior the larger short circuit
current associated with solidly grounded systems.
A solidly grounded system has high values oI current ranging between 10kA and 20kA. This
current Ilows through grounding wires, building steel, conduit, and water pipes, which can
cause major damage to equipment and shut down production processes. When a line-to-
ground Iault occurs, arcing can create Ilashesgenerally in the terminating box. In this
enclosed area, water is turned to steam, causing the terminating box. To locate the Iault, all
you need to do is Iollow the smoke.
Advantages
O Good control oI transient overvoltage Irom neutral to ground.
O Allows user to easily locate Iaults.
O Can supply line-neutral loads.
isadvantages
O Poses severe arc Ilash hazards.
O Requires the purchase and installation oI an expensive main breaker.
O Unplanned interruption oI production process.
O Potential Ior severe equipment damage during a Iault.
O High values oI Iault current.
O Likely escalation oI single-phase Iault to 3-phase Iault.
O Creates problems on the primary system.
. High-resistance grounding. High-resistance grounding (HRG) systems are commonly
used in plants and mills where continued operation oI processes is paramount in the event oI
a Iault. High-resistance grounding is normally accomplished by connecting the high side oI a
single-phase distribution transIormer between the system neutral and ground, and connecting
a resistor across the low-voltage secondary to provide the desired lower value oI high side
ground current. With an HRG system, service is maintained even during a ground Iault
condition. II a Iault does occur, alarm indications and lights help the user quickly locate and
correct the problem or allow Ior an orderly shutdown oI the process. An HRG system limits
ground Iault current to between 1A and 10A.
Advantages
O Limits the ground Iault current to a low level.
O Reduces electric shock hazards.
O Controls transient overvoltages.
O Reduces the mechanical stresses in circuits and equipment.
O Maintains continuity oI service.
O Reduces the line voltage drop caused by the occurrence and clearing oI a ground Iault.
isadvantages
O High Irequencies can appear as nuisance alarms.
O Ground Iault may be leIt on system Ior an extended period oI time.
Grounding oI an electrical system is a decision many oI us Iace on a daily basis. As we`ve
seen, several methods exist to accomplish this task, each oIIering its own advantages and
disadvantages. As an electrical designer or installation proIessional its up to you to make the
Iinal decision as to when best to install the most appropriate system.

Grounding System esign & Planning
A grounding design starts with a site analysis, collection oI geological data, and soil
resistivity oI the area. Typically, the site engineer or equipment manuIacturers speciIy a
resistance-to-ground number. The National Electric Code (NEC) states that the resistance-to-
ground shall not exceed 25 ohms Ior a single electrode. However, high technology
manuIacturers will oIten speciIy 3 or 5 ohms, depending upon the requirements oI their
equipment. For sensitive equipment and under extreme circumstances, a one (1) ohm
speciIication may sometimes be required. When designing a ground system, the diIIiculty and
costs increase exponentially as the target resistance-to-ground approaches the unobtainable
goal oI zero ohms.
ata Collection
Once a need is established, data collection begins. Soil resistivity testing, geological surveys,
and test borings provide the basis Ior all grounding design. Proper soil resistivity testing
using the Wenner 4-point method is recommended because oI its accuracy. This method will
be discussed later in this chapter. Additional data is always helpIul and can be collected Irom
existing ground systems located at the site. For example, driven rods at the location can be
tested using the 3-point Iall-oI-potential method or an induced Irequency test using a clamp-
on ground resistance meter.
ata Analysis
With all the available data, sophisticated computer programs can begin to provide a soil
model showing the soil resistivity in ohm-meters and at various layer depths. Knowing at
what depth the most conductive soil is located Ior the site allows the design engineer to
model a system to meet the needs oI the application.
Grounding esign
Soil resistivity is the key Iactor that determines the resistance or perIormance oI an electrical
grounding system. It is the starting point oI any electrical grounding design. As you can see
in Tables 2 and 3 below, soil resistivity varies dramatically throughout the world and is
heavily inIluenced by electrolyte content, moisture, minerals, compactness and temperature.
Type of Surface Material
Resistivity of Sample in Ohmmeters
ry Wet
Crusher granite w/ Iines 140 x 106 1,300
Crusher granite w/ Iines 1.5 4,000 1,200
Washed granite pea gravel 40 x 106 5,000
Washed granite 0.75 2 x 106 10,000
Washed granite 1-2 1.5 x 106 to 4.5 x 106 5,000
Washed granite 2-4 2.6 x 106 to 3 x 106 10,000
Washed limestone 7 x 106 2,000 to 3,000
Asphalt 2 x 106 to 30 x 106 10,000 to 6 x 106
Concrete 1 x 106 to 1 x 109 21 to 100

Soil Types or Type of Earth Average Resistivity in Ohm-meters
Bentonite 2 to 10
Clay 20 to 1,000
Wet Organic Soils 10 to 100
Moist Organic Soils 100 to 1,000
Dry Organic Soils 1,000 to 5,000
Sand and Gravel 50 to 1,000
SurIace Limestone 100 to 10,000
Limestone 5 to 4,000
Shale`s 5 to 100
Sandstone 20 to 2,000
Granites, Basalt`s, etc. 1,000
Decomposed Gneiss`s 50 to 500
Slates, etc. 10 to 100









Ground Characteristics, Lightning Protection Grounds, Radio
Frequency Grounds, and Practical Grounding Systems

Earth characteristics, grounding material characteristics, beneIits and practical issues related
to grounding systems
Buried Radial Characteristics of a Buried Radial Wire from C up to Radio
Frequencies The earth electrode system oI a radio transmitter using a vertical mast as
the radiator consists oI a number oI buried wires radiating Irom a common connecting
point directly under the antenna. For high eIIiciency power radiation the eIIective
series resistance looking into the earthing system must be as low as possible. This
program models a single isolated radial Irom DC up to 30 MHz ...
Counterpoise Behaviour of Coil-Loaded Antenna Counterpoise, or Artificial
Ground The primary purpose oI this program is to calculate the number oI turns on a
loading coil oI given length and diameter needed to resonate a wire to 1/4-
wavelength. The wire length must thereIore be less than 1/4-wavelength ...
Resistance Measurement of Soil Resistivity & Calculation of Earth Electrode
Resistance
Simple Methods oI Measuring Resistance Between Electrodes Stray soil
currents Ilowing in the vicinity and electro-chemical potentials on electrodes,
make soil resistance measurements impossible using the ohms range oI a
multirange meter. Much larger test currents must be used. Errors due to
electrodes becoming polarised by DC test currents can be reduced by rapidly
reversing a DC supply or by using 50 Hz AC power via an isolating
transIormer ...
Typical Soil Characteristics oI Various Terrains An ohm-metre is the
resistance between opposite Iaces oI a 1-metre cube oI the material. The above
values are averages taken over large distances ...
Resistivities oI Various Materials Resistivities in ohm-metres at 20 C ...
Calculate Soil Resistivity When Resistance oI One Rod is Known To obtain a
measurement representative oI the soil in the vicinity oI the rod and down to a
useIul depth, the rod should be driven to a depth oI at least 0.5 metres,
preIerably 1 metre. It should be spaced away Irom any other buried conductors
by at least Iive times its own depth in the soil ...
The 4-Rod (Wenner) Method oI Measuring Soil Resistivity The Iour rods need
not be oI same diameter but should all be Iorced into the soil to approximately
the same depth and tamped in at the soil surIace ...
The 3-Rod Method oI Measuring Soil Resistivity All three rods are at the
same depth and have the same diameter ...
Resistance oI Buried Plates and SurIace Mats Run this program ...
Resistance oI 1 Rod, and Arrays oI 2, 3, 4 Rods in Parallel Run this program
...
Resistance oI a System oI Shallow-Buried Radial Wires Run this program ...
Notes on Behaviour oI Earth Electrodes at Radio Frequencies Basic soil
characteristics, Resistivity Rp and Permittivity K, change very little versus
Irequency. But as Irequency increases the magnitude oI the soil impedance Z
decreases due to the shunt capacitance. The capacitance in shunt with Rp is K
times 8.85 picoIarads and thereIore Z has a negative angle ...
Shallow-Buried 2 Choosing Length & Number of Shallow-Buried Radials Version
A buried radial is a lossy single-wire transmission line. It has Iour primary
parameters, R,L,C & G. It has secondary parameters: Alpha the attenuation constant
and Beta the phase constant closely related to the velocity Iactor. The characteristic
impedance is complex with components Ro and Xo. All these parameters can be
estimated Irom line dimensions oI length, wire diameter and burial depth in
conjunction with soil resistivity and permittivity ... (See Version 3 below)

Shallow-Buried 3 Choosing Length & Number of Shallow-Buried Radials Version
This is Version 3 oI the inIormation and computer program above.
Soil Skin Skin epth in the Ground vs. Frequency for Given Soil Characteristics
Alternating currents in the ground are attenuated exponentially as depth increases, like
Exp(-A*Depth). Where A is an attenuation Iactor depending on soil resistivity R,
permittivity K, and on Irequency ...

Purposes of Grounding
Grounding system has three main purposes:
Overvoltage protection
Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines can cause
dangerously high voltages to the electrical distribution system wires. Grounding provides an
alternative path around the electrical system oI your home or workplace minimizes damage
Irom such occurances.
Voltage stabilization
There are many sources oI electricity. Every transIormer can be considered a separate source.
II there were not a common reIerence point Ior all these voltage sources it would be
extremely diIIicult to calculate their relationships to each other. The earth is the most
omnipresent conductive surIace, and so it was adopted in the very beginnings oI electrical
deistirution systems as a nearly universal standard Ior all electric systems.
Current path in order to facilitate the operation of overcurrent devices
This purpose oI grounding is the most important one to understand. Grounding system
provides certain level oI saIety to humans and property in case oI equipment damages.

Grounding operation in electrical distribution network
The main reason why grounding is used in electrical distribution network is the saIety: when
all metallic parts in electrical equipments are grounded then iI the insulation inside the
equipments Iails there are no dangerous voltages present in the equipment case. Then the live
wire touches the grounded case then the circuit is eIIectively shorted and Iuse will
immediatly blow. When the Iuse is blown then the dangerous voltages are away.
The saIety is the primary Iunction oI grounding. Grounding systems are designed so that they
do provide the necessary saIety Iunctions. Grounding also have other Iunctions in some
applications but the saIety should not be compromised in any case. Grounding is quite oIten
used to provide common ground reIerence potential Ior all equipments but the existing
building grounding systems might not provide good enough ground potential Ior all
equipments which might lead to ground potential diIIerence and ground loop problems which
are common problems in computer networks and audio/video systems.
How electric shock happens
The "hot" wire is at 120 volts or 230 volts (depends on the mains voltage used in your
country) and the other wire is neutral or ground. II a person were to touch the neutral wire
only, no shock would result simply because there is no voltage on it. II he were to touch the
hot wire only, again nothing would happen to him unless some other part oI his body were to
become grounded. A person is considered to be grounded iI he comes in contact with a water
pipe, metal conduit, the neutral or ground wire, or stands bareIoot on a concrete Iloor.
In other words, neither wire is a shock hazard unless a person is grounded, and then only the
hot is a potential shock hazard. OI course, iI a person were to touch both wires at the same
time, he would be shocked simply because his body is completing connection between "hot"
and "ground" wires.
Metal case safety
Back in the early days, equipment and appliances Iitted with the two wire power plug were
readily accepted to be saIe Irom shock hazard because the metal housing was not connected
to either wire oI the line cord (called Iloating case).
One oI the problems with appliances and equipment which have a "Iloating metal case" is
that a shock hazard exists iI the case comes into contact with the hot wire. This so called
"Iault condition" may happen in many ways with some oI the more common causes being a
"pinched" line cord, Iailure oI installation systems, or movement oI components due to shock
or vibration which will cause the "hot wire" terminal to touch the case.
Naturally, iI Ior any reason the case does become "live,"then a person touching it may be
shocked iI he is grounded. II this "hot chassis" is connected to another chassis or instrument
by a typical shielded cord, then that chassis or instrument will become hot also. The entire
purpose oI the present three wire system is to provide a separate ground path which will
eIIectively eliminate any possibility oI shock.



II the live wire touches the grounde metal case the ground connection in the case causes that
the situation becomes a showrt circuit as drawn in picture below.

This short circuit situation causes very high current surge to Ilow in the circuit which will
cause the distribution panel Iuse to blow almost immediatly. The cureent in short circuit
situation can be pretty high because oI the low resistance oI the mains distribution wiring.
The integrity oI the separate ground path is directly related to the quality oI the chassis/green
wire/ground pin combination. When the ground pin is removed, the separate ground path is
destroyed and then Iault conditions may cause shock hazards.
Grounding and interference susceptibility
Whenever audio equipment is operated without a ground (Iloating chassis), strange things can
happen. Under certain conditions the ampliIier will be more susceptible to radio Irequency
interIerence (picking up radio stations or CB. radio). Also, without a suitable ground,
ampliIiers sometimes "hum" more when the musician picks up his instrument and provides a
"pseudo" ground through himselI.
The only solution is to Iind a ground point to connect to the chassis. Sometimes this may just
cause more problems than it helps.
Grounding in wiring
Today's modern (US.) mains cable consists oI three separate wires: black, white, and green.
The green wire is always connected to the large ground pin on the plug, and the other (green)
end connected to the chassis oI the equipment. The black wire is always considered to be the
"hot wire," and as such, is always the leg which is connected to the switch and Iuse. The
white wire is always the neutral or common wire.
European coloring is a little bit diIIerent. The ground wire is here green wire with yellow
stripe. Neutral wire is blue. Live wire in Brown (additional colors Ior the live wires used in 3
phase systems are black and black with white stripe).
Any modiIication oI the above 3 wire mains system completely eliminates the protection
given by the three wire conIiguration. The integrity oI the separate ground path is also
directly related to the quality oI the receptacle and the wiring system in the building itselI.
The neutral (grounded conductor) must be solidly connected (bonded) to the home's ground
system at the Iirst disconnect (main panel). This keeps large voltage diIIerences Irom
developing between the neutral and ground.
Currents in grounding wire
Ground wires should not carry current except during Iaults. II the ground wire carries any
current there will be a potential diIIerence between diIIerent grounding points (bacause the
current Ilowing in wire causes voltage drop because wire resistance). This is why a common
wire which works as neutral and grounding wire is very bad thing.
When there is separate wiring Ior grounding you can't still completely avoid the current
Ilowing in grounding wires ! There will always be some capacitive leakage current Iorm the
live wire to the ground wire. This capacitive leakage current is caused by the Iact that the
wiring, transIormers and interIerence Iilters all have some capacitance between the ground
and live wire. The amount oI current is limited to be quite low (limited to be between 0.6 mA
to 10 mA depending on equipment type) so it does not cause dangers and big problems.
Because oI this leakege current there is always some current Ilowing in the ground wire and
the ground potentials oI diIIerent electrical power outlets are never equal.
The leakege current can also cause other type oI problems. In some situations there are
ground Iault detect interrupter (GFCI) circuits in use the leakage current caused by many
equipments together can make the GFCI to cut the current. Typically GFCI circuits are
designed to cut current when there is 30 mA or more diIIerence in currents Ilowing in live
and neutral wires (the diIIerence oI those current must Ilow to ground). Some GFCI circuit
can cut the mains Ieed even at 15 mA leakage current which may mean that iI you connect
many computer equipments (each oI them having 0.5 to 2 mA oI leakage) to GFCI protected
power outlet you can cause the GFCI to cut the power Ieed.
Ground wire resistance
In europe it is not important how much ohms the grounding is but the maximum current
beIore the unit switches oII is important. So a grounding oI 230 volts and a saIety oI 24 volts.
We say it must be less then 30 mA in our body. So Ior 16 amps and 24 volts it is 1.5 ohms.
This means that the maximum voltage on the case is 24 volts even when all current is Ilowing
thru the grounding wire. In places where even this 24V is considered very dangerous (Ior
example in hospitals) the ground resistance must be made lower to make sure that there is
never dangrous voltage present in the case. For example in Finland the grounding resistance
Ior medical room outles must be less than 0.2 ohms to be considered saIe.
The above is the objective, and all the crap around it is just to make it diIIicult. Ground
means something connected to the surrounding and it must be less then x ohms measured
with AC and the wire must handle the short circuit current present in the circuit without
overheating.


elphi Grounding Systems

Delphi Grounding Systems oIIer easy, one-step preassembly oI multiple wiring harnesses to
one centrally located grounding base. While most systems today are limited by the number oI
parts you can preassemble, this simple, manual process allows the assembly oI multiple
components (limited only by the length oI the grounding bolt). They have the added
Ilexibility oI allowing preassembly either at the wiring harness plant or vehicle assembly line.
The systems Ieature an innovative ring terminal design that allows the assembly oI several
stacked terminals onto one grounding bolt. The terminals are secured into position utilizing
their unique locking and anti-rotation latches. These design Ieatures help to ensure integrity
oI the preassembled harnesses and to optimize the electrical and mechanical interIaces.
Delphi's grounding systems provide simplicity and Ilexibility. The terminal has one standard
base design with Iive diIIerent crimp sizes oIIered. This allows unmatched Ilexibility in the
build sequence, since all assemblies use the one, common ring design. The terminal's simple
design allows production with high-speed stamping processes, which helps improve
manuIacturing costs compared to traditional systems.
Benefits
O Improves buildability and system integrity
O No chassis modiIication necessary Ior OEMs (original equipment manuIacturers)
O Simple design can be produced with high-speed stamping processes
O Assembly without additional tools required
O Assembly is in a clockwise direction and counter-clockwise is possible
O Common terminal design
O Five crimp sizes available
O Flexible assembly allows 1 to 5 terminals per standard bolt (bolt length determines the
limit)
O Anti-rotation: between terminal-to-bolt and terminal-to-terminal
O DeIined position (angle) oI ring terminals to bolt
O Packaging comparable to conventional systems



System sealing with heat shrink

Single ring terminal Ior grounding system

Ring Terminal esign Features

The assembly sequence is Ilexible, because the ring terminal has a standard, common base
design.

One-ring terminal on grounding bolt

Two-ring terminals typical locked position

Three-ring terminals typical locked positions

Four-ring terminals typical locked positions



Typical Applications
Delphi Grounding Systems are designed Ior automotive and commercial vehicle interiors and
industrial applications, whenever multiple grounding points are required.
Part Numbers
elphi
Stripped
Part
Number
elphi
Single
Part
Number
Cross-
section
(mm

Material Plating Material
Thickness
Hole
(mm
Bolt
13673776 13673775
0. 50 to
0.75
CuSn6 Tin
0.8

6.4

M6
13673774 13673773 1.00 to 2.
00
CuSn6 Tin
0.8

6.4

M6
13673772 13673771 2.00 to
4.00
CuSn6 Tin
0.8

6.4

M6
13673770 136737769 6.00 to
12.00
CuSn6 Tin
0.8

6.4

M6
13673768 136737766 6.00 to
12.00
CuSn6 Tin
0.8

6.4

M6

ANTENNA NOTES FOR A UMMY
The RF Ground
One oIten hears about the need Ior a ground or ground system. There are recommendations to
run 1/4 wave counterpoise(s) and do other things to ensure a good RF ground is available Ior
optimum perIormance. In this section, let's take a look at what a ground is and isn't and
whether one is needed or not. In general, there are 3 separate uses Ior a ground system in the
typical ham shack: saIety ground, lightning ground and RF ground. We will evaluate in detail
only the RF ground here, aIter brieIly taking a look at the other types oI grounds.
The Safety Ground. First, we'll take a look at the saIety ground system. In most houses and
buildings one oI the wires in the normal electrical wiring is connected to ground Ior saIety
purposes. Certainly we do not want to risk anyone being electrocuted by touching the chassis
oI any oI our radios or other appliances. The best way to ensure that doesn't happen is to
connect the grounded electrical wire to the chassis. Then iI someone touches the chassis, they
are at ground potential and no harm is done. This ground system should be part oI the
electrical wiring oI the building. II it isn't, that problem should be Iixed beIore going any
Iurther! All electrical codes require a Iunctioning ground system as a normal part oI home
and building electrical wiring.
But then we run an additional ground wire Ior our radio equipment. Normally this additional
ground wire is connected, either directly or indirectly to the chassis oI the radios, tuner,
ampliIiers, etc. So we now have the situation where the chassis oI our equipment is connected
to ground through 1) the house electrical system and 2) our additional ground wire. One
could certainly ask the question: Why 2 separate connections Ior the same thing?
Under normal circumstances having 2 ground connections will be unnoticable. Problems can
occur, however, iI the house ground comes loose. In that case, the entire house would be
grounded through the radio ground connection. While that might be better than having no
saIety ground at all, that probably is not the purpose most hams had in mind. OI course, the
proper action is to Iix the house ground! In that case, the additional ground is not needed Ior
saIety purposes.
In any case, the issues surrounding a saIety ground are covered by the building electrical
codes. For Iurther inIormation on saIety grounding, consult the electrical codes and
guidelines Ior house and building electrical wiring.
Lightning Ground. Another use Ior a ground connection is to divert lightning which may
strike an antenna to the ground, thereby by-passing problems in the shack. However, iI the
antenna is connected to our rig and our rig is connected to the ground, then all oI the current
Irom lightning striking the antenna must pass through the antenna, Ieedline, radio and ground
connection. Most likely it will burn up lots oI things on its way there!
The subject oI a lightning ground is an entirely diIIerent matter, since its purpose should be to
bypass the current Irom a lightning strike away Irom our house and equipment. This subject
is important, but beyond the scope oI this dicussion. Additional inIormation is available in
various books on antennas and Irom companies that specialize in lightning arrestors and
diverters.
RF Ground. So, now we have ensured that our equipment is grounded Ior saIety and
lightning purposes. What is the reason and utility oI providing an RF ground? Let's take a
look at 2 Iairly common ham situations.
Balanced Transmission Line. In the Iirst situation, we will consider that the transmitter is
using a Ieedline to a remote antenna. II we look at the RF circuit oI such a station setup, it
would look similar to the Iollowing Iigure:


Using this Iigure as a guideline, it is apparent that the current Irom the transmitter, I
t
, will be equal to
the current Irom the antenna, I
a
, plus the current going to the ground, I
g
. II our transmission line is
balanced, however, we know that the current on both Ieedline conductors is equal. So iI I
t
I
a
, then
obviously I
g
0. And iI I
g
0, then we can disconnect the ground wire and not observe any
diIIerence.
For this situation, the purpose oI the RF ground is to make up Ior deIiciencies in the balance
oI the antenna. Any excess (i.e. common mode current) will be bypassed to ground instead oI
going back to the rig and radiating Irom power cords, etc. But, it should also be apparent that
whatever current goes to ground represents energy that is produced by the transmitter and is
not radiated. That represents an ineIIiciency in the system. Although the ground may appear
to solve some RF Ieedback problems, it does so at the expense oI antenna system eIIiciency.
It would be better to get rid oI the common mode current by improving the Ieedline balance.
In this case the presence oI the ground should have no eIIect on a properly installed antenna
system.
End Fed Random Wire. The second situation is where our antenna consists oI an end Ied
wire. The RF circuit Ior this setup is shown in the Iollowing Iigure. As can be seen there is no
direct return path Ior the antenna current, I
t
, so thereIore the return path is through the ground
connection and thus I
g
must be equal to I
t
.

So, what happens iI we disconnect the ground? According to the Iigure there would be no
return path Ior current, we would have an open circuit and the system would not work. In
practice, though, there would always be some sort oI return path, through our house wiring,
even through someone's Iingers touching the case. OI course we probably don't want our
house wiring or our bodies to be part oI our antenna system! In this case, the RF ground is
absolutely necessary to avoid problems. So what do you do when a good RF ground
connection is not available?
The answer can be seen by comparing the preceeding two Iigures. We can see that the need
Ior the RF ground is due to the lack oI a return path and due to not having a balanced
antenna/Ieedline system. So iI we can't get a good RF ground, we can convert the antenna to
a more balanced system by adding the missing antenna element. Some people choose to call
it a counterpoise or artiIicial ground, but as can be seen, it is really just making up Ior the
lack oI a current return on an unbalanced antenna.

The MapleNet 6 Point Grounding System:

1. Provide an attachment point Ior the lightning or static discharge
2. Provide a saIe path to ground
3. Dissipate the energy into a low impedance ground system
4. Bond all ground points together
5. Protect AC power with UPS/Battery Backup
6. Protect all data lines with surge protectors or optical isolation














Grounding System esign and Lightning Strike Analysis

Our comprehensive grounding system design improves reliability, reduces
maintenance costs, and reduces downtime
The requirements Ior ground resistance levels are becoming more stringent these days
because oI the lower operating voltages and higher operating speeds in today's electronics.
For example, telecommunications companies typically require an earth resistance oI less than
5 ohms, which is less than halI the resistance considered high-perIormance a Iew years ago.
The engineers at E&S Grounding Solutions can help you plan and execute an electrical
grounding design that will provide the best perIormance ground system available, within the
constraints oI your available area, budget, and equipment being protected.
As the experts in electrical grounding solutions, we use specialized design soItware to model
and build an electrical grounding system design based on the soil data, design goals, and
other Iactors. AIter modeling the area, we will engineer an electrical grounding system design
that will meet your perIormance objectives.
Soil resistivity testing is critical for high performance electrical grounding
system design
Accurate soil resistivity data enables precise designs and predictable results. The type oI soil,
moisture, electrolytic content, and temperature also aIIect soil resistance. Frost line depth,
water table level, bedrock, and available space dictate some speciIics oI the grounding system
design. We determine soil resistivity using the Wenner 4 Point test method, or by analyzing
soil samples. See our section on Soil Resistivity Testing Ior more inIormation.
When the soil resistivity oI an area is so high that a low resistance ground isn't Ieasible,
bonding and other requirements, such as transient voltage surge suppression (TVSS)
equipment can be implemented to achieve good perIormance.
As part oI our electrical grounding system design, the engineers at E&S Grounding Solutions
provide a written recommendation along with a drawing oI the site illustrating the
recommended grounding conIiguration, quantity and location oI the electrical grounding
electrodes, grounding electrode spacing, and models.
Human safety is critical during ground potential rise events in work place
areas
Electrical grounding saIety systems are required to protect personnel working where ground
rise potential hazards are known to exist. In Iact, Iederal law mandates that all known hazards
must be eliminated Irom the work place Ior the saIety oI workers. Substations are always
considered workplaces and step and touch potentials must be eliminated to ensure the saIety
oI work personnel. And, although transmission and distribution towers or poles are not
always considered work places and are oIten exempt Irom these requirements, as soon as
equipment is installed that is not related to the electric utility company and requires outside
vendors to support the new equipment, it is now considered a workplace.
Cellular telecommunications, environmental monitoring, and microwave relay equipment are
good examples oI equipment that, when installed on a high-voltage tower, turns the tower
into a work place. Federal law 29 CFR 1910.269 speciIically states that step and touch
potentials must be eliminated on transmission and distribution lines that include any related
communication equipment. This would make the elimination oI step and touch potentials
required. See our section on step and touch potential Ior more inIormation.
Grounding System esign and Lightning Strike Analysis
Our comprehensive grounding system design improves reliability, reduces maintenance
costs, and reduces downtime
The requirements Ior ground resistance levels are becoming more stringent these days
because oI the lower operating voltages and higher operating speeds in today's electronics.
For example, telecommunications companies typically require an earth resistance oI less than
5 ohms, which is less than halI the resistance considered high-perIormance a Iew years ago.
The engineers at E&S Grounding Solutions can help you plan and execute an electrical
grounding design that will provide the best perIormance ground system available, within the
constraints oI your available area, budget, and equipment being protected.
As the experts in electrical grounding solutions, we use specialized design soItware to model
and build an electrical grounding system design based on the soil data, design goals, and
other Iactors. AIter modeling the area, we will engineer an electrical grounding system design
that will meet your perIormance objectives.
Soil resistivity testing is critical for high performance electrical grounding
system design
Accurate soil resistivity data enables precise designs and predictable results. The type oI soil,
moisture, electrolytic content, and temperature also aIIect soil resistance. Frost line depth,
water table level, bedrock, and available space dictate some speciIics oI the grounding system
design. We determine soil resistivity using the Wenner 4 Point test method, or by analyzing
soil samples. See our section on Soil Resistivity Testing Ior more inIormation.
When the soil resistivity oI an area is so high that a low resistance ground isn't Ieasible,
bonding and other requirements, such as transient voltage surge suppression (TVSS)
equipment can be implemented to achieve good perIormance.
As part oI our electrical grounding system design, the engineers at E&S Grounding Solutions
provide a written recommendation along with a drawing oI the site illustrating the
recommended grounding conIiguration, quantity and location oI the electrical grounding
electrodes, grounding electrode spacing, and models.


Human safety is critical during ground potential rise events in work place
areas
Electrical grounding saIety systems are required to protect personnel working where ground
rise potential hazards are known to exist. In Iact, Iederal law mandates that all known hazards
must be eliminated Irom the work place Ior the saIety oI workers. Substations are always
considered workplaces and step and touch potentials must be eliminated to ensure the saIety
oI work personnel. And, although transmission and distribution towers or poles are not
always considered work places and are oIten exempt Irom these requirements, as soon as
equipment is installed that is not related to the electric utility company and requires outside
vendors to support the new equipment, it is now considered a workplace.
Cellular telecommunications, environmental monitoring, and microwave relay equipment are
good examples oI equipment that, when installed on a high-voltage tower, turns the tower
into a work place. Federal law 29 CFR 1910.269 speciIically states that step and touch
potentials must be eliminated on transmission and distribution lines that include any related
communication equipment. This would make the elimination oI step and touch potentials
required. See our section on step and touch potential Ior more inIormation.
A lightning strike analysis can save lives and sensitive equipment from injury and
damage

Lightning is a random and unpredictable event. Globally, some 2000 ongoing thunderstorms
cause about 100 lightning strikes to the earth each second. Did you know that total equipment
damage costs Irom lightning strikes is aproximately 150 million dollars every year in the
United States? The average lightning strike will cost approximately $30,000 in equipment
damage. However, iI the building and equipment is properly grounded personnel injury and
equipment damage can be reduced or eliminated entirely. In Iact, a Lightning Strike Analysis
is a critical component in comprehensive cell site grounding design.
The purpose oI a lightning protection system Ior a building is to provide a path Ior the
lightning strike to pass through without damaging personnel or sensitive equipment in the
building. A lightning protection system provides a low-resistance path Ior the strike to Ilow
through. The main components oI a lightning protection system are:
O Grounding rods
O Air terminals
O Down conductors
The option to install a lightning protection system is a critical decision Ior the purposes oI
saIety oI personnel, protection oI property, insurance costs, and downtime. The engineers at
E&S Grounding Solutions provide lightning stike analysis based on the requirements set out
in the 2000 edition oI NFPA 780 Risk Analysis Guidelines (National Fire Protection
Association Standard Ior the Installation oI Lightning Protection Systems).





















REFERENCES:
http://ecmweb.com/mag/electricbasicsgroundingsystems2/
http://www.esgroundingsolutions.com/about-electrical-grounding/how-to-do-
electrical-grounding-system-design.php
http://www.smeter.net/grounds/radio-ground-systems.php
http://www.epanorama.net/documents/groundloop/whygrounding.html
http://delphi.com/manuIacturers/auto/ee/connect/other/groundingsys/
http://www.comportco.com/~w5alt/antennas/notes/ant-notes.php?pg9
http://www.esgroundingsolutions.com/electrical-grounding-services/grounding-
system-design-and-lightning-strike-analysis.php
















NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AN TECHNOLOGY
Laoag City


In partial IulIillment oI the requirements in
ECE SAFETY



Submitted by:
Edwin Oandasan 1r.
BS ECE-05




Submitted to:
ENGR. EILBERT CASTRO
INSTRUCTOR






February 2011