INDEX

INTRODUCTION REFRIGERATION SOLAR REFRIGERATION CUM WATER HEATER Design And Construction A solar ammonia absorption ICE MAKER

INTRODUCTION
While fossil fuels will be the main flues for thermal power, there is a fear that will get exhausted eventually in the next century. Therefore other system based on nonconventional and many countries are trying renewable

source. These are solar, wind, sea, geothermal and biomass. Solar energy can be major source of power; its potential is 178 billion MW, which is about 20,000 times the worlds demand. But so far it could not be developed on a large scale. Suns energy can be utilized as thermal and photovoltaic. The former is currently being used for steam and hot water production. Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the source of renewable energy and if only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be one of the most important supplies of energy specially when other source in the country have depleted. The surface of the earth receives from the sun about 1014 kW of the solar energy, which is approximately five orders of magnitude greater than currently being consumed from all resources. It is evident that sun will last for 1011 years. Even though the sunlight is filtered by the atmosphere one square meter of there land exposed to direct sun lightreceives the energy equivalent of about 1HP or 1kW. The technical utilization of solar energy can prove very useful. Utilization of solar energy is great important to India since it lies in a temperature climate of the region of world where sunlight is abundant for a major part of the year. The basic research in solar energy is being carried in universities and educational and research institutions, public sector institutions, Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited and Central Electric Limited are carrying out a co-ordinated programme of research in solar energy. The applications of the solar energy which are enjoying most success to-day are: Heating and cooling of residential building. Solar water heating. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products. Solar distillations on a small community scale. Salt production by evaporation of seawater or inland brines. Solar cookers. Solar engine for water pumping. Food refrigeration. Bioconversion and wind energy, which are indirect, source of solar energy. Solar furnaces.

 Solar electric power generation byI. Solar ponds. II. Steam generators heated by rotating reflectors (heliostat mirror), or by tower concept. III. Reflectors with lenses and pipes for fluid circulation (Cylindrical parabolic reflectors)

REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration is the cooling of a system below the temperature if its surroundings. The melting of ice or snow was one of the earliest methods of refrigeration and is still employed. Ice melts at 0 C. so when ice is placed in a given space warmer than 0 C, heat flows into the ice and the space is cooled or refrigerated. The latent heat of fusion of ice is supplied from the surroundings, and the ice changes its state from solid to liquid. The refrigeration done with the help of solar energy is called SOLAR REFRIGERATION. It is intended for food preservation and deserves top-priority in country like India. Solar air conditioning can be utilized for space cooling. Solar assisted heat pumps would provide both cooling and heating. Cold storage is very important for preservation and conservation of food articles. There are two method of solar refrigeration.

a. Vapour absorption refrigeration system that utilizes low grade thermal energy obtained from flat plate collectors with a little modification. b. Concentrating collectors to supply heat at a higher temperature to a heat engine which then drive the compressor of a conventional refrigerator. Solar refrigeration with an absorption system is a better way of direct utilization of energy. The vapour absorption system is a better replacing the compressor by a generator absorber assembly system can work with wide range of absorbents and refrigerants. In absorption system motive power required is very small, but still C.O.P. of the system is low.

SOLAR REFRIGERATION CUM WATER HEATER

SIMPLE SOLAR A DSORPTION REFRIGERATOR
Absorption systems Adsorption system control, easy give better C.O.P. better for small capacity, less Fabrication. Main components of solar Adsorption system Solar collector, adsorrber/generator module/s, condenser and evaporator Commercial units of solar Adsorption system Activated carbon/methanol system manufactured by BLM Co France

The unit price of the 5.5 kg ice maker is US $ 1500, 30% more than the conventional vapour compression system Zeolite/water system manufactured by Zeopower Co. of USA

Advantage of Solar Adsorption Refrigerators Energy saving using solar energy

Environmental Friendly: based on natural Refrigerants: H2O, NH3, Methanol, CO2 Low maintenance cost Simple to fabricate and operate

Drawback of Solar Adsorption Refrigerators Low COP: high thermal mass, poor Thermal conductivity of the Adsorbent Smaller Specific Cooling Power: larger cycle time

Intermitted Cycle: cooling effect occurs only during adsorption process SOLAR ADSORPTION REFRIGERATOR With Heat Recovery Performance Is Improved Using

Suitable adsorbent/adsorbate pairs Optimum cycle with respect to operating conditions Enhancing mass and heat transfer Reducing cycle time Mass Recovery with Pressure Equalization Increases the cooling COP mostly by 10%

 Regeneration COP 1.2 and SCP 300 W/kg of AC

COP 0.4 and SCP 290 W/kg of AC for mobile air conditioning

system
COP 1.35 and SCP 380 W/kg of AC for gas fired heat pump

Convective Thermal Wave

Features and Design Parameters Features Solar Energy Heated Activated Carbon Bed Up to 180 C Tap Water Preheating using Condenser Heat 36 C Hot Water heating using Hot Module Heat Average 50 C Zero Operating Cost Environment Friendly Design Parameters Refrigeration Capacity, Qe160 W Evaporator Temperature, Te-10 C Condenser Water Inlet Temperature, Tcw.i28 C Concentration Ration, CR 2.1 Solar Irradiation, It750 W/m2

 Temperature at Generator Outlet, Tg.o180 C Temperature at Adsorber Outlet, Ta.o52 C

CONCLUSION Solar Refrigerator cum Water Heater Designing and Testing of 160 W Cooling Capacity Solar Refrigerator cum Water Heater Designed with evacuated glass tube of size 70 mm outer glass tube outer diameter Tested with evacuated glass tube of size 57 mm outer glass tube outer diameter Experimental Results for Data Dated on 27/05/2007, between 6:00 am and 4:30 pm Cycle time / number of cycle6:00 amto 4:30 pm/ 70 to 75 min Evaporator temperature-7 C Cycle COP, solar COP and0.11 to 0.15/ 0.054 to 0.072 SCP 8.5 to 28.5 W/kg of activated carbon

 Hot water capacity / bulk temperature over 120 l per day / 50 to 55 C The Unit is Economically Viable Generating two utilities together, reducing the pay back period by half Environmental Friendly Using solar energy, using natural refrigerant

Design and Construction of a Solar Energy Refrigeration System Using Vacuum Concentric Tubes with Adsorption Abstract The R&D project that is envisioned here will consist in the physical construction of a Solar Refrigeration System. The theory, on which our design will be based, will be that of using an adsorption thermodynamic system based on the use of an Activated Charcoal and Methanol as working fluid. The Solar collector will consist of a Vacuum Concentric Tubes (VCT)(Tubes that are actually in our position in the Dom. Rep.) the refrigeration cycle will consist of a deadsorption of the methanol during the heating period of the solar radiation of the day. The vapor will condense and accumulate as a liquid during this period. During the night the process will invert and methanol will be absorbed by the Activated Charcoal and evaporate, lowing its pressure and temperature, producing ice in a refrigerated isolated

box. This box can be used as a refrigerated in remote places. It is our intention to establish an R&D process in order to fabricated a working commercial model that can produce refrigeration plus hot water simultaneously. Keywords: Solar Energy, Refrigeration and A/C, Vacuum Solar Tube Collector Introduction The Dominican Republic is at the present stage immersed in a critical situation due to the inability to satisfy the energy needs of its people. It struggles day to day in order to make the needed equilibrium between supply and demand of its electric power in the utility grid. Costs of producing electric power from fossil fuels are to big a burden to the nation. Therefore it is our intention with this R&D project to Adsorption cycles for solar cooling are described and past work reviewed, but is our intention to build a refrigeration system that will work with solar energy. Because of the fact that Vacuum Solar Tubes are available at economic values, it is our belief that due to their high efficiencies we can make a difference from previous research work done in this subject. Zeolites have been used as adsorbents in many systems but this work concentrates on activated charcoal adsorption. Refrigeration system that will work with solar energy. Because of the fact that Vacuum Solar Tubes are available at economic values, it is our belief that due to their high efficiencies we can make a difference from previous research work done in this subject. Zeolite have been used as adsorbents in many systems but this work concentrates on activated charcoal adsorption. of an underdeveloped country. Substitution of fossil fuels by solar energy is our goal in this segment of energy requirements, which represent more then 60 % of the consumption. (Air Conditioning, Refrigeration and water heating.) RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE The process that will be executed in this project is divided in three main sections. First, will be involved in the establishment of the thermodynamic theory used for the proper formulations and modeling, plus bibliographic search. Second, design of our prototype and selection and procurement of materials. Third, Construction and

experimentation of model, with all possible scenarios taken into consideration. In all sections of this project, students of last year of Mechanical Engineering will be involved as part of they thesis requirements. The University possesses mechanical engineering laboratories that can do all the necessary works indoors. We have all machine shops and tolls needed in our Campus Oriental in Santo Domingo. At the present time, we have all the needed Solar Vacuum Tubes in our possession. These tubes were bought in China, and specifications are given further in this paper. The central part of this R&D project is the use of the Solar Vacuum Tubes. Supplier was: Xu Guangwen, COAST CORP LTD, Section 1: THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OF REFRIGERATION PROPOSED. 1. ADSORPTION CYCLES FOR SOLAR COOLING Adsorption cycles for solar cooling are described and past work reviewed, but is our intention to built a refrigeration system that will work with solar energy. Because of the fact that Vacuum Solar Tubes are available at economic values, it is our belief that due to their high efficiencies we can make a difference from previous research work done in this subject. Zeolite have been used as adsorbents in many systems, but this work concentrates on activated charcoal adsorption A general study of the cycle thermodynamics shows that provided the latent heat of the refrigerant exceeds about 10(K) kJ/kg and the concentration change exceeds about l0% then the coefficient of performance (COP) can only be slightly improved by further increase. Looking at activated charcoal in particular, the Dubinin- Astakhov (D--A) equation is used to predict cycle COPS based on limited data available for chosen refrigerants and carbons. Of the refrigerants that are sub atmospheric at 10C. Methanol, acetonitrile, methylamine, and NO2 are suitable, with methanol giving the best COP. Of the refrigerants above atmospheric pressure at l0oC, ammonia, formaldehyde, and SO2 are suitable. Overall methanol gives the best COP, with 0.5 being achievable in a singlestage cycle. Insolation levels, and no firm electricity supply to power conventional systems. The most promising Solar

cooling could be a useful technology in areas of the world where there is a demand for cooling; high applications are vaccine storage and food storage (particularly fish). Solar thermal systems for refrigeration have been studied for some years, and many refrigerators built and tested. Earlier work concentrated on intermittent absorption cycles such as the ammoniawater machines built Exell [1. 2] and Van Paasen [3]. More recently, solid adsorption cycles have been examined. These have the advantage of requiring no rectifiers, valves, or liquid seals such as are needed in the ammonia water cycle. The adsorption cycle is best understood with reference to the p-T-x (pressure-temperature concentration) diagram of Fig. 1 and the schematic diagram of Fig. 2. The processes involved are as follows:

Figure 1.- p-T-x diagram of a Simple adsorption cycle

Starting in the morning with the valve open and at ambient temperature of about 30 C (Ta2 the rich concentration adsorbent in the generator/absorber is heated by solar energy until the pressure reaches a level that enables refrigerant to desorbed and be condensed in an air or water cooled condenser. 2. Refrigerant is driven off at constant pressure, the adsorbent becoming more and more dilute until the maximum cycle temperature of about 100C (Tg2) is reached. The condensed liquid is collected in a receiver.
1.

3. The valve is shut, and the adsorbent cools and reduces its pressure. At some stage of the evening or night its pressure will be the saturated vapor pressure of refrigerant at -10C, (Te) which is sufficiently low for ice production. 4. The valve is now opened, and the liquid refrigerant starts to boil in the evaporator. Initially the refrigerant within the evaporator and receiver simply cools itself, but having dropped below 0C it can start to freeze water. Adsorption is completed by the following morning, completing the cycle. During this process heat is released in the absorber and so the generator/absorber must be cooled be ambient temperature air or water. This ideal cycle can be used to calculate Cops with reasonable accuracy, but in practice an isolating valve is not necessary and processes c and d merge into a smooth curve and there are no sharp corners on the experimental p-T-.v diagram. The diagram used is essentially the same for all adsorption cycles. Although silica gel has been used in at least one closed-cycle refrigerating system, the vast majority of experience is with Zeolite or activated carbons. Critoph and Vogel [8] compared Zeolite and active charcoal with refrigerants R11. Rl2. R22, and R14 and in all cases found charcoal a preferable adsorbent for solar cooling. Meunier et al. [7..-...L0] have compared synthetic Zeolite water, synthetic Zeolite methanol and charcoal methanol Combinations. They find that activated charcoalmethanol gives a better COP Generally but that when the nighttime ambient temperature to evaporating temperature difference is particularly high then a Zeolitewater combination is better. However, this will also require a higher generating temperature from the solar collector during the day. Meunier, comparing AC35-methanol with Zeolite 13X-water, suggests that the Zeolite combination will only be superior when the temperature lift (adsorption-evaporating temperature) exceeds 45C.

Figure 2.- Schematic diagram of the simple adsorption cycle. The COP is based on heat input to the adsorbent rather than to the solar collector and so the reduced solar collector efficiency at higher temperatures may actually make charcoalmethanol combinations superior at even higher temperature lifts. There are other reasons for preferring charcoals: 1. Activated charcoals are cheaper than Zeolite.
2.

Activated charcoals can be made with properties to suit particular applications by Varying the activation time and temperature etc.

3.

Activated charcoals (particular coconut shell charcoal can be manufactured in the Dominican Republic.)

2. THERMODYNAMICS OF ADSORPTION CYCLES Consider the p-T-x diagram of Fig. 1. The various temperatures are: Ta1 = temperature at start of adsorption, Ta2 = temperature at end of adsorption, Te = evaporating Temperature, Tc = condensing temperature, Tg1 = temperature at start of generation, Tg2 = temperature at

end of generation. Te depends on the application; air conditioning, ice making, deep freeze, etc. Tc is a heat rejection temperature and Should be as near to ambient as heat transfer and economics will allow. Ta2 should be as low as possible so that the strong concentration is as high as possiblethis maximizes the concentration change in desorption, thus minimizing the quantity of charcoal that must be wastefully heated and cooled with the adsorbed refrigerant. Ta2 is also limited by ambient temperature and heat transfer considerations. Although Ta2 is not necessarily equal to Tc (different heat exchangers may be used and the ambient temperature may change between adsorption and desorption) it is useful to consider the simple case where they are equal. Both the pure refrigerant and the isosteres approximately obey Troutons rule, and assuming that the isosteres on the In pv vs. 1/T diagram are indeed linear, it can shown that Tg1 Ta1= Tg2 Ta2. In the case of solar cooling, Ta2 might vary between 25oC and 45C depending on ambient conditions, and Te could vary between 20oC for cold storage to +5oC for air conditioning. A few possible combinations are listed with calculated value of Tg1 in table 1. The values of Tg2 are normally within 2 to 5oC of the results for detailed calculations on specific pairs. Given that Tg1 is the temperature at the start of generation and that in practice Tg2 will be at least 10C Given that Tg1 is the temperature at the start of generation and that in practice Tg2 will be at least 10C Given that Tg1 is the temperature at the start of generation and that in
Application Freezing Ice Making Air Conditionin g Ambient Temperatur e Moderate Hot Moderate Hot Moderate Hot Te oC -20 -20 -10 -10 -5 -5 Ta2 oC 25 45 25 45 25 45 Tg1 oC 79 126 65 112 46 91

practice Tg2 will be at least 10C and Adsorber should be as close to ambient as possible to avoid excessively high solar collection temperatures. The assumption that Ta2 = Tc, is reasonable in many circumstances but may not be true for a diurnal cycle in a climate with large diurnal temperature variations. The maximum cycle temperature Tg2 is not fixed by the above relationships but is a design variable that must be optimized. The higher Tg2., the more refrigerant is driven off and so the greater the cooling effect per Unit mass of adsorbent. However, progressively less refrigerant is desorbed as the temperature rises, and the extra heat input is mainly used in sensible heating of adsorbent and refrigerant, rather than in desorption. Considering the ideal case of an adsorbent with negligible thermal mass and a refrigerant of negligible specific heat compared to enthalpy of vaporization, then the COP = Enthalpy of vaporization (at Te) / Mean heat of adsorption. Taking a base of Te = -10C, Tc = 30C, and Tg = 90C, then the ideal COP is 0.83. This may be compared with the Carnot COP of a similar cycle Te = - 10C, TA = 30C. Tg2 = 9OoC which is 1.09. The difference is, of course, due to the constant heat source and sink temperatures assumed in the Carnot cycle. This is a new and useful limitation on cycle efficiencies specific to adsorption or adsorption cycles. When taking account of the sensible heating and cooling of adsorbent and refrigerant, the COP is further reduced. For any particular application. Te,, Tc,. And Ta2 are fixed, and Tg1 and DH/L can be calculated. It can be seen that the refrigerant needs a high, and if possible a low cpR. Unfortunately. High latent heats tend to be associated with high specific heats and so a high specific heat must be tolerated. The adsorbent should have as low a specific heat as possible, but its main requirement is that it gives a high concentration change between Tg1 and Tg2 The reasoning presented as a theory and postulate, will provide a practical cycle COP with limitation lower than that of pure calculations, but more specific information must be provided to calculate the COPS. The objective of our research project will be to construct with the Vacuum Tubes in our possession a working model and find the parameters that will fit these equations.

Section 2: TUBULAR SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS 1.Solar Energy With Vacuum Tubes. Our Method Of Choice. Two general methods exist for significantly improving the performance of solar collectors above the Minimum flat-plate collector level. The first method increases solar flux incident on the receiver; the Second method involves the reduction of parasitic heat loss from the receiver surface, such as the Tubular Vacuum Solar Collectors. Tubular collectors, with their inherently high compressive strength and Resistance to implosion, afford the only practical means for completely eliminating convection losses by Surrounding the receiver with a vacuum on the order of 1O4 mmHg. The analysis of evacuated tubular Collectors are the principal topic of this section. 3. Evacuated-Tube Collectors. Evacuated-tube devices have been proposed as efficient solar energy collectors since the early 20th Century. In 1909, Emmett6 proposed several evacuated-tube concepts for solar energy collection, two of which are being sold commercially today. Speyer2 also proposed a tubular evacuated flat-plate design for high-temperature operation. With the recent advances in vacuum technology, evacuated-tube collectors can be reliably mass-produced. Their high-temperature effectiveness is essential for the efficient operation of solar air-conditioning systems and process heat systems. The level of evacuation required for suppression of convection and conduction can he calculated from basic heat-transfer theory. As the tubular collector is evacuated, reduction of heat loss first occurs because of the reduction of the Rayleigh number. The effect is proportional to the square root of density. When, the Rayleigh number is further reduced below the lower threshold for convection, the heat transfer mechanism is by conduction only. For most gases the thermal conductivity is independent of pressure if the mean free path is less than the heat transfer path length. 4. Optical Analysis of the CTC. (Concentric Tube Collector)

Since close packing of CTC tubes in an array can result in shading losses at any angle other than normal incidence, it is cost-effective to space the tubes apart and to use a back reflector in order to capture any radiation passing between the tubes. Evacuatedtube designs and concentrating designs should be closely packed to optimize solar energy collection. Beeklcy and Mather (ref) base analyzed the CTC in detail and their analysis is recommended for further studies. CTC arrays can collect both direct and diffuse radiation. Each radiation component must be analyzed in turn. 5. Thermal Analysis of the CTC The heat loss from a CTC occurs primarily through the mechanism of radiation from the absorber surface. The rate of heat loss per unit absorber area qL then can he expressed as gl= uc(tr-tc) Total thermal resistance 1/Uc. is the sum of three resistances:R1 radiative exchange from absorber tube to cover tube R2 conduction through glass tube R3___ convection and radiation to environment. The CTC energy delivery rate qu on an aperture area basis can be written as where At, is the projected area of a tube (its diameter) and Ar is the receiver or absorber area. The receiver-to-collector aperture area ratio is pDr./d. Qu =dr\d [earIeff-uc(tr-ta)] 5. Physical and Thermal Characteristics of the EvacuatedTube Solar Collector The tubes that are actually in our possession have the following characteristics: Tube is a new generation of sun-heat collect device with low cost but high efficiency of solar thermal conversion. Tube is made of all-glass body and has the configuration of two concentric Borosilicate glass tubes, Inner glass tube (Absorber glass tube) and Outer glass tube (Cover glass tube). There is a selective absorbing surface on the outside of inner glass tube (Absorber glass tube), this selective

absorbing surface is based as a layer of aluminum-nitrogen, this aluminum-nitrogen layer was manufactured using a special coated surface by using the process of magnetron sputtering. The jacket between cover (outer) and inner glass tubes is evacuated and permanently sealed off. These Tubes are widely utilized due to their high efficiency, low heat losses, long lifetime and low costs. Outside Diameter OD47 mm.

Specifications of Glass Vacuum Tubes: Tube material: Borosilicate glass, Configuration: Two concentric tubes Length: 1.5 meters, Cover tube diameter: 47mm Absorber tube diameter: 37mm Net weight of tube: 1.4kgs of 1.5 meter. Tube wall thickness: 1.6mm Transmittance of cover tube: 91% Solar absorptance (AM1.5): 93%Emittance (80 c): 6% Pressure of vacuum space: < 0.005Pa Stagnation temperature (typical): 200 c degree Heat loss coefficient of tube: < 0.8W/m2.c Impact resistance: withstand 25mm diameter hailstone without breaking glass strength (pressure tested): 1 Mpa Lifetime: 15 - 20Years

SOLAR AMMONIA ABSORPTION ICE MAKER Everywhere in our world, refrigeration is a major energy user. In poor areas, off grid Refrigeration is a critically important need. Both of these considerations Point the way toward refrigeration using renewable energy, as part of a Sustainable way of life. Solar-powered refrigeration is a real and exciting possibility Working with the S.T.E.V.E.N. Foundation (Solar Technology and Energy for Vital Economic Needs), we developed a simple ice making system-using ammonia as a refrigerant. A prototype of this system is currently operating at SIFAT (Servants in Faith and Technology), a leadership and technology training center in Lineville, Alabama. An icemaker like this could be used to refrigerate vaccines, meat, dairy products, or vegetables. We hope this refrigeration system will be a cost-effective way to address the worldwide need for refrigeration. This icemaker uses free solar energy, few moving parts, and no batteries! Types of Refrigeration Refrigeration may seem complicated, but it can be reduced to a simple strategy: By some means, coax a refrigerant, a material that evaporates and boils at a low temperature, into a pure liquid state. Then, lets say you Need some cold (thermodynamics would say you need to absorb some heat). Letting the refrigerant evaporate absorbs heat, just as your evaporating sweat absorbs body heat on a hot summer day. Since refrigerants boil at a low

temperature, they continue to evaporate profusely thus refrigerating even when the milk or vaccines or whatever is already cool. Thats all there is To it. The rest is details. One of these details is how the liquid refrigerant is Produced. Mechanically driven refrigerators, such as typical electric kitchen fridges, use a compressor to force the refrigerant Freon into a liquid state. Heat-driven refrigerators, like propane-fueled units and our icemaker, boil the refrigerant out of an absorbent material and condense the gaseous refrigerant to a liquid. This is called generation, and its very similar the way grain alcohol is purified through distillation. After the generation process, the liquefied refrigerant evaporates as it is re-absorbed by an absorbent material. Absorbent materials are materials, which have a strong chemical attraction for the refrigerant the way grain alcohol is purified through distillation. After the generation process, the liquefied refrigerant evaporates as it is re-absorbed by an absorbent material. Absorbent materials are materials, which have a strong chemical attraction for the refrigerant. This process can be clarified using an analogy: it is like squeezing out a sponge (the absorbent material) soaked with the refrigerant. Instead of actually squeezing the sponge, heat is used. Then, when the sponge cools and becomes thirsty again, it reabsorbs the refrigerant in gas form. As it is absorbed, the Refrigerant evaporates and absorbs heat: refrigeration! In an ammonia absorption refrigerator, ammonia is the refrigerant. Continuously cycling ammonia refrigerators, such as commercial propanefueled systems, generally use water as the absorbent, and provide continuous cooling action. The S.T.E.V.E.N. Solar Icemaker We calls our current design an icemaker. Its not a true refrigerator because the refrigeration happens in intermittent cycles, which fit the cycle of available solar energy from day to night. Intermittent absorption systems can use a salt instead of water as the absorbent material. This has distinct advantages in that the salt doesnt evaporate with the Water during heating, a problem encountered with water as the absorber. Our intermittent absorption solar icemaker uses calcium chloride salt as the absorber and pure ammonia as the refrigerant. These materials are comparatively easy to obtain. Ammonia is available on order from gas suppliers and calcium chloride can be bought in the winter as an ice melter. The plumbing of the icemaker can be divided into three parts: a generator for heating the salt-ammonia mixture, a condenser coil, and an evaporator, where distilled ammonia collects during generation. Ammonia flows back and forth between the generator and evaporator. The generator is a three-inch non-galvanized steel pipe positioned at the focus of a parabolic trough collector. The generator is oriented east-west, so that only

Seasonal and not daily tracking of the collector is seasonal and not daily tracking of the collector is required. During construction, calcium chloride is Placed in the generator, which is then capped closed. Pure (anhydrous) ammonia obtained in a pressurized tank is allowed to evaporate through a valve into the generator and is absorbed by the salt molecules, forming a calcium chloride-ammonia solution (CaCl2 -8NH3). The generator is connected to a condenser made from a coiled 21-foot length of non-galvanized, quarter-inch pipe (rated at 2000 psi). The coil is immersed in a water bath for cooling. The condenser pipe descends to the evaporator/collecting tank, situated in an insulated box where ice is produced. Operation The icemaker operates in a day/night cycle, generating distilled ammonia during the daytime and reabsorbing it at night. Ammonia boils out of the generator as a hot gas at about 200-psi pressure. The gas condenses in the condenser coil and drips down into the storage tank where, ideally, 3/4 of the absorbed ammonia collects by the end of the day (at 250 degrees Fahrenheit, six of the eight ammonia molecules bound to each salt molecule are available). As the generator cools, the night cycle begins. The calcium chloride reabsorbs ammonia gas, pulling it back through the condenser coil as it evaporates out of The tank in the insulated box. The evaporation of the ammonia removes large quantities of heat from the collector tank and the water surrounding it. How much heat a given refrigerant will absorb depends on its heat of vaporization, the amount of energy required to evaporate a certain amount of that refrigerant. Few materials come close to the heat of vaporization of water. We lucky humans get to use water as our evaporative refrigerant in sweat. Ammonia comes close with a heat of vaporization 3/5 that of water. During the night cycle, all of the liquefied ammonia evaporates from the tank. Water in bags around the tank turns to ice. In the morning the ice is removed and replaced with new water for the next cycle. The ice harvesting and water replacement are the only tasks of the operator. The ice can either be sold as a Commercial product, or used in a cooler or old-style icebox refrigerator. Under good sun, the collector gathers enough energy to complete a generating cycle in far less than a day, about three hours. This allows the icemaker to work Well on hazy or partly cloudy days. Once generating has finished, the collector can be covered from the sun. The generator will cool enough to induce the night cycle and start the ice making process during the day. Future Design A refrigerator, which is able to absorb heat at any time from its contents, is more convenient than our current intermittent icemaker. To enable constant

operation, a future design will include several generator pipes in staggered operation as well as a reservoir for distilled ammonia. Staggered operation will allow the refrigerator to always have one or more of the generators thirsty and ready to absorb ammonia, even during the day when generation is simultaneously happening. Generation will constantly replenish the supply of ammonia in the storage reservoir. We are currently in the first stages of making these modifications to the icemaker.

Solar Ice Maker: Materials and Costs Quan. 4 1 120 2 1 6 2 1 4 15 10 Material Sheets galvanized metal, 26 ga. 3" Black Iron Pipe, 21' length Sq. Ft. Mirror Plastic @$0.50/sq. ft. 1/4" Stainless Steel Valves Evaporator/Tank (4" pipe) Freezer Box (free if scavenged) Sheet 3/4" plywood 2x4s, 10 ft long Miscellaneous 1/4" plumbing 3" caps 1/4" Black Iron Pipe, 21' length 78" long 1.5" angle iron supports Other hardware Lbs. Ammonia @ $1/lb Lbs. Calcium Chloride @ $1/lb Total Cost $100 $75 $60 $50 $40 $40 $20 $20 $20 $15 $15 $15 $15 $15 $10 $510

Caution: Safety First! Working with pure ammonia can be dangerous if safety precautions are not taken. Pure ammonia is poisonous if inhaled in high enough concentrations, causing burning eyes, nose, and throat, blindness, and worse. Since water

combines readily with ammonia, a supply of water (garden hose or other) should always be on hand in the event of a large leak. Our current unit is a Prototype. We will not place it inside a dwelling until certain of its safety. Unlike some poisonous gases, ammonia has the advantage that the tiniest amount is readily detectable by its strong odor. It doesnt sneak up on you! For the longevity of the system, materials in contact with ammonia in the icemaker must resist corrosion. Our unit is built with non-galvanized steel plumbing and stainless steel valves, since these two metals are not corroded by ammonia. In addition, during operation the pressure in the system can go over 200 psi. All the plumbing must be able to withstand these pressures without leaks or ruptures. Would-be solar icemaker builders are cautioned to seek technical assistance when experimenting with ammonia absorption systems.

Conclusion The S.T.E.V.E.N. icemaker has both advantages and disadvantages. On the down side, its somewhat bulky and non-portable, and requires some special plumbing parts. It requires a poisonous gas, albeit one, which is eco-, and ozone- friendly in low concentrations, so precautions must be taken. In its favor, it has few moving parts to wear out and is simple to operate. It takes advantage of the natural day/night cycle of solar energy, and eliminates the need for batteries, storing solar cold in the form of ice.

Solar Chill - a solar PV refrigerator without battery

Introduction A solar powered refrigerator (Solar Chill) has been developed in an international project involving Green peace International, GTZ, UNICEF, UNEP, WHO, industrial partners and Danish Technological Institute. The refrigerator is able to operate directly on solar PV panels, without battery or additional electronics, and is therefore suitable for locations where little maintenance and reliable operation is mandatory. The main objective of the Solar Chill Project is to help deliver vaccines and refrigeration to the rural poor. To achieve this objective, the Solar Chill Project developed and plans to make freely available a versatile refrigeration technology that is environmentally sound, technologically reliable, and affordable. Solar Chill does not use any fluorocarbons in its cooling system or in the insulation. For domestic and small business applications, another type of solar refrigerator is under development. This is an upright type, suitable for cool storage of food and beverages in areas where grid power is non-existent or unstable. The market potential for this type is thus present in industrialized countries as well as in countries under development. The unique feature of Solar Chill is that energy is stored in ice instead of in batteries. An ice compartment keeps the cabinet at desired temperatures during the night. Solar Chill is made from mass produced standard components, which results in a favorable cost compared with other vaccine solar refrigerators. The Solar Chill has undergone intensive laboratory tests in Denmark, proving that it fulfils the objectives set for the project. In addition, a field test

programmed in three different developing countries is ongoing with the aim to gather practical experience from health clinics. The paper describes the product development, possible Solar Chill applications and experience with the two types of solar refrigerators, as well as results from the laboratory and field test. Background A developing project funded by the Danish Energy Agency and conducted by the Danish Technological Institute started in 1999 in co-operation with Dan Foss Compressors, Vest frost and other Danish companies. The aim was to develop a photovoltaic powered vaccine cooler without battery back up. Instead energy storage of ice should keep the temperature stable during nights and periods without sunshine. In parallel to that discussions were held at various times (starting in 1998-99) between UNEP, WHO, Green peace and GTZ with the objective to promote environmentally sound refrigerators. The idea to bring all these interested parties together arose at a refrigeration summit in Chicago in November 2000, which then led to a common meeting at GTZ headquarters in 2001. This resulted in an international project with the aim to develop, test, and use environmental sound, affordable and reliable photovoltaic powered vaccine cooler. The Solar Chill project is a unique partnership among key international agencies, research and industry bodies. The Project Partners and their main respective roles are: Green peace International provides project coordination and fundraising; GTZ Proklima provides technology advice and assessment and fund raising; United Nations Children's Fund provides need analysis and technology advice and assessment; United Nations Environment Programmed provides overall technology assessment and policy advice; World Health Organization provides equipment specifications and technology advice and assessment Program for Appropriate Technology in Health provides technology advice and conducts field test Industry partners: Vest frosts, Vibocold, Dan Foss, Gaia Solar provide hardware Danish Technological Institute coordinates the technology development;

The basic technology The main task has been to develop a new cooler, which fulfill the current WHO requirements for vaccine coolers with battery back up, as no standard exist for the battery less type. According to these guidelines the design temperature interval is 0 C to + 8 C. The vaccine must also be kept cool for four days without power, and this is the sizing

Fig. 1 Diagram of the first Solar Chill prototype Criteria for the ice storage in the cooler. Computer simulation was done based on the most efficient mass-produced cabinets on the market. Those cabinets has 100 mm polyurethane insulation and are of the chest type. The reason for choosing energy storage in ice was to avoid a lead battery for energy storage. Lead batteries tend to deteriorate, especially in hot climates, or they are misused for other purposes. This makes it necessary to install a new battery after a couple of years, and has in practice been an obstacle for the use of solar powered refrigerators. In addition to that some pollution of lead might be expected from the batteries. Instead kerosene or gas powered absorption refrigerated coolers are widely used in areas with poor or no grid electricity. Absorption coolers are used for

both vaccine storage and for household applications and obviously needs regular supply of fuel. Furthermore, they are difficult to adjust, which does often result in destructive freezing of the medicine. So far, two generations of prototypes have been build and tested in climate chamber at the DTI and an advanced control were build with the purpose to control the temperature in the cooler and the speed of the DC-compressor in order to exploit maximum power from the solar panels. Specific energy of ice storage A simple calculation shows the interesting result, that the cooling capacity in the ice storage is at similar level as in a lead battery based on both volume and weight. One supplier of lead battery informs, that a 50 Ah, 12 Volts battery has the weight of 13,6 kg. The dimensions are 0.24*0.175*0.175 meters. The energy content of 50 Ah can be calculated as a specific energy content of 0.159 MJ/kg or 294 MJ/m3. The cooling system will have a COP-value (coefficient of performance) of about 1.3 (Dan Foss BD35F, CECOMAF-data for 15 C, 2000 RPM). This will result in a specific cooling capacity of 0.206 MJ/kg or 382 MJ/m3. For the ice storage: the specific cooling capacity is identical to the melting heat of ice, which is 0.333 MJ/kg or 333 MJ/m3. The conclusion is, that the specific cooling capacity of ice is 62 % higher compared to lead battery on basis of weight and 13 % smaller compared with lead battery based on volume. In reality, the ice storage outperforms the leadacid battery, because the allowed daily cycling is less than the nominal 50 Ah, which corresponds to 100% depth of discharge. Compressor and control The first prototypes were equipped with a standard Dan Foss BD35F direct current compressor and an external electronic control. A big electrical capacitor (60 mF) was used in order to overcome the start torque. During 2003 a quite new compressor BD35K became available. The new compressor is using R600a (isobutane), which does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. A new integrated electronic control was also available. This control has been developed to ensure that photovoltaric solar panels can be connected directly to the compressor without an external control and/or capacitor. The compressor is able to do a smooth start at low speed and is equipped with an adaptive energy optimizer (AEO-control). By using this control, the compressor will slowly speed up from minimum to maximum speed (from 2000 to 3500 RPM). If the panels cannot give sufficient power, the compressor will stop and after a short while it will try to start again. If the start fails, the compressor will try to start again after another one minute. Once the power from the solar panels is sufficient, the compressor will start at low speed

and slowly speed up again. The controller accepts a voltage between 10 and 45 Volts. The voltage from solar panels can vary, so this new feature is good for solar powered refrigerators and freezers. On a 12 V module, the compressor needs a current of about 4,5 A to start, and it can run continuously at 2 A. System Normal solar refrigerator Solar chill Cabinets Storage Battery Ice packs BOS components Cable, charge regulator, blocking diode Cable(with plugs)

The vaccine cooler cabinet was build by Vest frost, and is based on a highly insulated standard cabinet. The net volume of the vaccine compartment is about 50 liters and is separated from the ice storage of about 18 kg, made by a number of standard plastic containers. The evaporator is integrated into the ice storage end during daytime forced convection is cooling the vaccine. If the temperature in the vaccine compartment gets to cold during daytime, a small electrical heating element is keeping the vaccine above freezing temperature. A thermostat controls the heater. During nighttime the vaccine is kept cool by natural convection from the ice department.

Photo1: Prototype of vaccine cooler. The vaccine will be placed in three baskets, placed vertical in the left side of the cabinet. The ice storage is placed under the blue lid in the right side of the photo. The compressor is placed in a room under the ice.

Laboratory test results The vaccine cooler has been tested in climate chamber at DTI. The holdover time for the vaccine cooler was measured to be about four days at 32 C ambient temperatures. For the upright version, the holdover time is one day less due to the geometry and smaller ice volume. The tests have been used to determine the necessary PV panel size for the selected locations. As the critical parameter is the minimum current for start of the compressor, it was decided to use a panel with a short circuit current of 2.5 times the start current. In this way it is ensured that the compressor will also start at most overcast days, but the economical optimum may be found at a smaller panel size. Field trial In January-February 2004 9 coolers were shipped from Unicef in Copenhagen (3 to Senegal, 3 to Indonesia and 3 to Cuba) and they are expected to reach their destinations in March 2004 where after they will be installed and the field test will begin. One additional cooler has been installed at DTI for field test, which began in February 2004. Each unit is packed with 3x60 W solar PV panels and has data loggers integrated for evaluation of the operating conditions. For the unit installed at DTI there are now sufficient data to conclude that the operation under real solar conditions ensures an inside temperature within the desired range (at an ambient temperature of 20C). There have been sunny and less sunny periods, but from the figures below it can be seen that the temperature becomes rather stable after a period of freeze-in.

Fig.5 After freeze in the temperature inside the vaccine compartment is kept within the design range 0-8 oC. Tamb = 20 oC

Conclusion and perspectives The Solar Chill has been developed in a fruitful co-operation between leading appliance manufacturers and international organizations, setting the desired properties of the product. It has been proven that it is fully possible to run a solar refrigerator without battery or start capacitor, both elements that would decrease the reliability. This opens up for a more general acceptance and dissemination of solar refrigeration, not only in the health sector, but also for commercial or domestic use. Some obvious future applications for this product could be milk chilling, vending booths for food and beverages, recreational purposes or as a grid independent household refrigerator. Even after an expected WHO approval, there is still basis for optimization, such as: - Minimization of the module area for specific climatic regions - Optimization of the control strategy in order to minimize the needed PVpower - Further simplification and cost reduction of the construction The authors sincerely wish to thank the sponsors and project partners for their very constructive assistance and participation in this project.