ESE

LECTURE NOTES ON
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND

ENGINEERINGERING
Prepared By
D.PARTHIBAN
LECTURER IN CHEMISTRY
PRATHYUSHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
ARANVOYALKUPPAM
THIRUVALLUR
PIN-602 025
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E N V I R O N M E N T A L S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G / / D . P A R T H I B
A N
SYLLABUS
CY 1201 ENIVRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
1. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES
10
DeIinition, Scope and Importance . Need Ior Public Awareness . Forest Resources: Use and Over
. Exploitation,
DeIorestation, Case Studies. Timber Extraction, Mining, Dams and their Ground water, Floods,
Droughts, ConIlicts
Over Water, Dams . BeneIits and Problems . Mineral Resources: Use EIIects On Forests and
Tribal People . Water
Resources: Used and Over-Utilization oI SurIace and Exploitation, Environmental EIIects oI
Extracting and Using
Mineral Resources, Case Studies . Food Resources: World Food Problems, Changes Caused by
Agriculture and
Overgrazing, EIIects oI Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer . Pesticide Problems, Water Logging,
Salinity, Case Studies .
Energy Resources: Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources,
Use oI Alternate Energy
Sources. Case Studies . Land Resources: Land as a Resource, Land Degradation, Man Induced
Landslides, Soil
Erosion and DesertiIication . Role oI an Individual in Conservation oI Natural Resources .
Equitable use oI resources
Ior sustainable liIestyles.Field Study oI Local Area to Document Environmental Assets . River /
Forest / Grassland /
Hill / Mountain.
2. ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY 14
Concepts oI an Ecosystem . Structure and Function oI an Ecosystem . Producers, Consumers and
Decomposers .
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem . Ecological Succession . Food Chains, Food Webs and
Ecological Pyramids .
Introduction, Types, Characteristics Features, Structure and Function oI the (A) Forest
Ecosystem (B) Grassland
Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds, Streams, Lakes, Rivers,
Oceans, Estuaries) .
Introduction to Biodiversity . DeIinition: Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Diversity .
Biogeographically ClassiIication oI
India . Value oI Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and
Option Values .
Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels . India as A Mega-Diversity Nation . Hot-
Spots oI Biodiversity .
Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss, Poaching oI WildliIe, Man-WildliIe ConIlicts .
Endangered and Endemic Species oI
India . Conservation oI Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation oI Biodiversity.
. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 8
DeIinition . Causes, EIIects and Control Measure oI: (A) Air Pollution (B) Water Pollution (C)
Soil Pollution (D) Marine
Pollution (E) Noise Pollution (F) Thermal Pollution (G) Nuclear Hazards . Soil Waste
Management: Causes, EIIect and
Control Measures oI Urban and Industrial Wastes . Role oI an Individual in Prevention oI
Pollution . Pollution Case
Studies . Disaster Management: Floods, Earthquake, Cyclone and Landslides.
Field Study oI Local Polluted Site . Urban / Rural / Industrial / Agricultural.
4. SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 7
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development . Urban Problems Related to Energy . Water
Conservation, Rain
Water Harvesting, Watershed Management . Resettlement and Rehabilitation oI People; Its
Problems and Concerns,
Case Studies . Environmental Ethics: Issues and Possible Solutions . Climate Change, Global
Studies . Wasteland
Reclamation . Consumerism and Waste Products . Environment Production Act . Air (Prevention
and Control oI
Pollution) Act . Water (Prevention and Control oI Pollution) Act . WildliIe Protection Act .
Forest Conservation Act .
23ssues Involved in EnIorcement oI Environmental Legislation . Public Awareness.
5. HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6
Population Growth, Variation Among Nations . Population Explosion . Family WelIare
Programme . Environment and
Human Health . Human Rights . Value Education . HIV / Aids . Women and Child WelIare .
Role oI InIormation
Technology in Environment and Human Health . Case Studies.
TOTAL PERIOD 45
TEXT BOOKS
1. Gilbert M.Masters, Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science, Pearson
Education Pvt., Ltd., Second Edition, Isbn
1-297-0277-0, 2004.
2. Miller T.G., Jr., Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co.
3. Townsend C., Harper J and Michael Begon, Essentials oI Ecology, Blackwell Science.
4. Trivedi R.K. and P.K. Geol, Introduction to Air Pollution, Techno-Science Publication.
REFERENCES
1. Bharucha Erach, The Biodiversity oI India, Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Ahmedabad, India.
2. Trivedi R.K., Handbook oI Environmental Laws, Rules, Guidelines, Compliances and
Standards, Vol. I and II, Environ Media.
3. Cunningham, W.P. Cooper, T.H. Gorhani, Environmental Encyclopedia, Jaico Publ., House,
Mumbai, 2001.
4. Wager K.D., Environmental Management, W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, USA, 199.
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CHAPTER-I PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:
DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
FOREST RESOURCES
WATER RESOURCES
MINERAL RESOURCES
FOOD RESOURCES
ENERGY RESOURCES
LAND RESOURCES

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UNIT . 1
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL RESOURCES
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are goods and services supplied by our
environment. These include Iorest, water, mineral, Iood,
energy, land (soil), Atmosphere (air), plants and animals.
Some resources are get exhausted soon, whereas other
resources would be lasting Ior a long period oI time.
Depending on this Iactor, these resources are divided into two
categories.
1) Renewable Resources (Inexhaustible Resources):
Inexhaustible resources have the ability to reappear or
replenish themselves by recycling, reproduction or replacement. These renewable sources
include
Sunlight,
Plants,
Animals,
Soil,
Water
Living organisms
2) Non-renewable Resources (Exhaustible Resources): The non- renewable resources are the
earth.s materials. These renewable sources include
Minerals,
Fossil Iuels,
Non-mineral resources
NATURAL RESOURCES- AN OVERVIEW
Resources are needed Ior the development oI civilization. Natural resources are the materials
provided by the nature that are required to sustain liIe and livelihood. They include air, water,
land, Iood, timber, paper, medical plants, minerals, Iuel, etc. Everything that human beings use
is drawn Irom the nature. Due to increased standards oI living results in excessive utilization oI
natural resources. However, the natural resources are limited. They should be properly and
optimally used Ior a comIortable living. The entire living system will collapse when the utility
exceeds the regeneration capacity.
Forest Wealth
Forests are valuable source oI biodiversity Irom which we derive various beneIits like
medicines, domesticated plants, animals, etc. Forest reduces the impact oI raindrop by covering .
There is enough Ior everyone.s
need, but not enough Ior everyone.s
greed.
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A N
the surIace oI the land with litter and leaves. This results in reduction oI soil erosion, in turn
Iloods in rivers. It moderates climate. Forest provides livelihood Ior large sector oI tribal people.
It also IulIills timber, Iuel-wood, Iruits, Iibre, recreation and other beneIits. These are selI
managed ecosystems by way oI managing and maintaining themselves in the absence oI human
interIerence. It maintains the natural ecological balance by providing habitat Ior various species
oI plants and animals.
They provide shelter to large number oI animals and birds. In Iact tropical rain Iorests
are the best sources oI diversity oI animals. These animals are not only aesthetically valuable
but represent a tremendous store oI genes. These genes have been evolving over millions oI
years, so when one species oI animals or plant become extinct, a very valuable source oI genetic
inIormation is lost. Our wheat, rice, ragi, sugar cane, etc., are also descendants oI once wild
grasses.
DeIorestation is thought to induce regional and global climate changes. Trees releases
substantial amount oI moisture into the air, and about 97 oI water through roots absorb Irom
the soil is evaporated directly into the atmosphere as transpiration. The moisture Iinds its way
back to the earth in the hydrologic cycle. When large Iorm is decimated, rainIall is likely to
decline and drought may become more common in that region. The eIIective Iorest management
includes restricting cutting tress, reIorestation, control oI Iorest Iire, replacing and recycling oI
Iorest products.
In India, 22 oI the land is covered by Iorest i.e., around 60 million hectare. This works
out to be 0.06 hectare/person which are Iar less than the world.s average oI 0.64 hectare/capita.
It is required to know the prime causes oI deIorestation which includes increased population and
industrialization, mineral exploration, construction oI dam, transportation, over grazing,
agricultural operation, illegal human trade, etc.
Mineral Resources
Minerals are Iormed through geochemical process over a long span oI period. India is rich in
mineral reserves. Coal resource is the largest. India is the 5th largest producer oI coal in the
world with total reserve oI coal estimated at 16044 million. India has the 5th largest deposit oI
bauxite in the world. 95 oI India.s lead-zinc resources are located in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Limestone is Iound in all the states oI India. The country is relatively poor in gold, base metals,
platinum, diamond, nickel, and tungsten and rock phosphate. As population increases the
demands on the mineral usage is also increasing rapidly. In the next 50 years most oI our
mineral resources will get exhausted. ThereIore these non-renewable resources are to be
consumed less and preventing wastage, recycling and reuse, choosing renewable alternative.
The mining extraction, puriIying, reIining and processing operations are likely to cause the
Iollowing eIIects,
1. Disturbing landscape, Iorest, wildliIe,
2. Releasing oI toxic pollutants
3. Water and air pollution
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4. Land degradation
Water Resources
Precipitation is the primary source oI water which may be in the Iorm oI surIace water and
groundwater available Ior our use. Much oI this will be known in the subsequent lectures.
Energy Resources
The power we use is mostly Hydel or thermal or nuclear origin. Alternate energy reIers
renewable energy sources (rather than burning the Iossil Iuels like petroleum and coal
production) which will never exhaust viz.; wind energy, geothermal energy, biomass, solar
energy,
etc. The renewable energy is the need oI the hour because Iossil Iuels are getting exhausted very
Iast. In India, Ior every year 300 million tons oI agro residues produced to get biogas. The
biomass programme propagates the protection oI Iast growing species oI trees to meet Iuel
Iodder
and power requirements particularly rural areas. Wind energy produces electricity at a very
lower cost with no emission and no big investment. Tidal and geothermal energy are yet to be
exploited to economical scale.
Food Resources
Global Iood supply has improved enormously since 1960.s. Agricultural production has
increased and world Iood supplies are 1 higher than 30 years ago. Food security is the ability
oI all people at all time to access enough Iood Ior an active and healthy liIe. Food insecurity is
not just a problem related to Iood production; it is closely linked to poverty and economic
stagnation.
Land Resources
Land is a declinable area oI the earth.s terrestrial surIace, encompassing all attributes oI the
biosphere immediately above or below this surIace including those oI the near surIace climate
the
soil and terrain Iorms the surIace hydrology (including shallow lakes, river, marshes and
swamps), the near surIace sedimentary layers and associated groundwater resource, the plant
and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results oI past and present
human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.).
Conservation of Natural Resources
As the human population increases, greater demands are placed upon the available resources.
Large areas oI earth are being converted Ior in exclusive use oI human beings. This result in
several changes does occur in various components oI the biosphere such as pollution oI seas,
rivers and lakes, denudation oI Iorest, degradation oI land. The problem lies is what will happen
to our Iuture generation, iI the natural resources are used injudiciously at a rapid rate. At
present, world environment is suIIering critical stress not only by our utilization oI natural
resources but the greater environmental change. For all these Sustainable Environmental
Management System has to be adopted through individuals, value system and prevention oI
pollution.
.THE. FOREST RESOURCES
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Forests are important renewable resources. A Iorest is a vast biotic community oI trees, shrubs or
any other woody vegetation. Forests contribute a lot to the economic development oI a country.
Some oI the uses oI Iorest are:
Fuel wood,
Timber
WildliIe habitat*
Pasture Ior livestock
Industrial Iorest products
Animal products
Recreation
Soil moisture retention
Climate regulation
Production oI atmospheric oxygen
Source oI new agricultural land
Grazing land
*Habitat: The type oI environment in which an organism or group oI organisms lives or occurs
The total Iorest area oI India is 637,293 square kilometers, which is 19.39 oI the total
geographical
area oI our country.
Tropical dry deciduous Iorest 3.7
Tropical moist deciduous Iorest 30.9
Tropical thorn Iorest 6.9
Nearly 96 oI the Iorests are owned by the Government, 2.6 by corporate bodies and the rest
are in private ownership.
USES OF THE FORESTS:
1. Economical uses:
Forests provide us a large number oI commercial products which include timber, Iirewood,
pulpwood, Iood items, gum, resins, non-edible oils, rubber, Iibers, bamboo canes, animal
Iood, medicine, drugs etc.
2. Ecological uses:
Production of oxygen:
The trees produce oxygen by photo synthesis. Oxygen is very vital Ior human liIe. Hence
Iorests are called as earth`s lungs.
Reducing global warming:
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The main green house gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the Iorests as a raw
material Ior photosynthesis. Thus Iorest acts as a sink Ior CO2 thereby reducing global
warming.
Wild life habitat:
Forests are the homes oI millions oI wild animals and green plants. Nearly seven million
species are Iound in the tropical Iorests alone.
Regulation of hydrological cycle:
Forested watersheds act like big sponges, absorbing the rainIall, slowing down the runoII.
About 50-0 oI the moisture in the air above tropical Iorests comes Irom their
transpiration which helps in bringing rains. It also helps in control oI Iloods.
Soil Conservation:
Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion.
Pollution moderators:
Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure. They also
absorb noise and thus help in preventing air and noise pollution.
OVEREXPLOITATION:
Many Iorest lands are used Ior mining, agriculture, grazing, recreation and Ior development
oI dams. Excessive use oI Iuel wood and charcoal, expansion oI urban, agricultural and industrial
areas and overgrazing have together lead to over-exploitation and degradation oI the Iorests.
DEFORESTATION
The total Iorest area oI the world in 1900 7,000 million hectares
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
ShiIting cultivation:
More than 5 lakh hectares oI Iorests are cleared Ior shiIting cultivation annually. In India, we
have this shiIting cultivation in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Mathya Pradesh.
Fuel requirements:
There are great demands Ior Iuel wood due to growing population. This situation increases the
pressure on Iorests, In India,
Fuel wood requirement in 1950.s 65 million tons
Fuel wood requirement in 2000.s 300-500 million tons
Raw materials Ior industries:
Wood Ior making boxes, Iurniture, railway-sleepers, plywood, match-boxes, pulp Ior paper
industry etc. have exerted a great pressure on Iorests.
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Development projects:
Due to development projects like hydroelectric power plants, dams construction, road
construction, mining, a massive destruction oI Iorests occurs.
Growing Iood needs:
To meet the demands oI rapidly growing population, agricultural lands are expanded and new
homes and avenues are created by clearing Iorests.
Overgrazing:
Overgrazing by the domestic animals like cattle leads to destruction oI Iorests.
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
Soil erosion: the soil in slope area gets washed away with rain water, since soil become
loose due to the absence oI Iorests/trees.
Expansions oI deserts: barren land is getting converted into deserts due to the action oI
strong winds. Since there is no barrier to strong wind because oI absence oI trees.
Decrease in rainIall: Forests bring rains due to high rate oI transpiration and
precipitation. In the absence oI Iorests, rainIall declines considerably.
Loss oI Iertile land: Less rainIall results into the loss oI Iertile land owing to less natural
vegetation.
EIIect on climate: The climate oI a region is mainly controlled by the rainIall,
snowIall, etc. DeIorestation causes decrease in rainIall, which in turn increases
the climatic temperature.
Lowering oI water table: Decrease in rainIall results into a lowered water table due to
lack oI recharging oI underground reservoirs.
Economic losses: DeIorestation will cause loss oI industrial timber and non-timber
products and loss oI long-term productivity on the site.
Loss oI biodiversity: Loss oI Ilora and Iauna leads to disturbances in ecological balance
worldwide. Certain species oI Ilora and Iauna are getting extinct.
Loss oI medicinal plants: There are many species oI plants which have medicinal and
other advantages, like Neem (.Vempoo. in Tamil ) which has been used in India Ior centuries
as insecticide, Iungicide, in medicine and in bio-Iertilizers. Such medicinal plants are
destructed.
Environmental changes: The air is puriIied by Iorests. So, deIorestation will lead to
increase in carbon dioxide and other air pollutants concentration. This will lead to global
warming,
In many places the lack oI Iuel wood due to deIorestation challenges local/tribal
people,(economically poor people cannot aIIord LPG gas Ior domestic cooking)
Agriculture may be negatively impacted iI deIorestation causes soil loss or compaction, or
sedimentation oI irrigation systems.
Indigenous people may be Iorced into a new way oI liIe Ior which they are unprepared.
Human liIe in the downstream oI a river may be endangered by Iloods that may be
intensiIied by clearing Iorests on upstream watersheds.
MINING:
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B Mining operations Ior extracting minerals and Iossil Iuels like coal oIten involves
destruction oI vast Iorest areas.
B Mining Irom shallow deposits is done by surIace mining while that Irom deep deposits is
done by sub-surIace mining.
B More than 0,000 ha oI land oI the country is presently under the stress oI
mining activities.
B Mining and its associated activities require removal oI vegetation along with
underlying soil. This results in change and destruction oI the landscape area.
ILL-EFFECTS OF MINING
The major eIIects oI mining operations on Iorests and tribal people include:
o Degradation oI lands.
o Loss oI top soil due to deIorestation.
o Pollution oI surIace and ground water resources due to the discharge oI highly
mineralized mine waters.
o Lowering oI ground water table.
o Air pollution due to release oI greenhouse gases and other toxic gases during mining, e.g.
release oI CH4 during coal mining.
o DeIorestation including loss oI Ilora and Iauna.
o Ore transport hazards.
o Fire/explosive hazards.
o Subsidence above and near mine areas.
o Drying up oI the perennial sources oI water like springs and streams in hilly areas.
o Tribal people may be Iorced into a new way oI liIe Ior which they are unprepared.
o Migration oI tribal people Irom mining areas to other areas in search oI land and Iood.
DAMS:
No oI big dams in India more than 1550
No oI big dams in Maharashtra more then 600
No oI big dams in Gujarat more then 250
No oI big dams in Madhya Pradesh more than 130
The highest dam is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal
The largest in terms oI capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in H.P.
IMPACTS OF DAMS CONSTRUCTION
Degradation oI catchment areas.
Reservoir induced seismicity.
DeIorestation and loss oI Iauna and Ilora including gene pool reserves due to
submergence.
Increased incidence oI water-borne diseases like malaria, Iilaria, diaria, etc.
Disturbance oI the dam (or reservoir) site Iorest ecosystem may result in important
changes in the neighboring and other ecosystems that may be separated by great
distances.
Scarcity oI Iuel wood and other Iorest products Ior tribal people.
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Rivers were centre for many civili:ation
Egypt was developed on the bank of the Nile,
Babylon on the bank of the Tigris,
North India on the bank of the Ganges,
Europe on the bank of the Rhine,
China on the bank of Yellow River.
Rehabilitation and resettlement oI tribal people aIIected.
loss oI vegetal cover
submergence oI large area oI land(human settlement)
soil erosion,
Resettlement and rehabilitation problem oI displaced
people.
variation in water table and
Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure oI water.
Salts leIt behind by evaporation increase salinity oI the river
and make it unusable.
Dams - Benefits
To concentrate the natural Iall oI a river at a given site;
To generate electricity;
To direct water Irom rivers into canals ,irrigation and watersupply
systems;
To increase river depths Ior navigational purposes;
To control water Ilow during times oI Ilood and drought;
To create artiIicial lakes Ior recreational use.
CASE STUDIES # 1
The Sardar Sarovar dam is situated on river Narmada and is spread
over three states oI Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The
project is aimed at providing irrigation water, drinking water and electricity
to the three states. A total oI 1,44,731 hectares oI land will be
submerged by the dam, out oI which 56,547 hectares are Iorest land. A
total oI 573 villages are to be submerged by the Narmada Dam.
Submergence area is very rich in wildliIe e.g. .tigers, panthers, bears,
wolves, pangolins, hyenas, jackals, Ilying squirrels, antelopes, black
bucks, chinkara, marsh crocodiles, turtles etc.
.THE. WATER RESOURCES
Water is a vital natural
resource which Iorms the
basis oI all liIe. It is an
essential raw material in the
process oI photosynthesis oI
green plants. Aquaculture has
come up as a very potent
industry. Water is source Ior
generation oI Hydroelectric
Power. Water is used as a raw
material, solvent, chemical
reactant, coolant, and cleaning agent.
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Water is very abundant on this earth, yet it is very precious. Out oI the total water reserves oI
the world, about 97 is salty water (marine) and only 3 is Iresh water. Even this small Iraction
oI Iresh water is not available to us as most oI it is locked up in polar ice caps and less than 1 is
readily available to us in the Iorm oI groundwater and surIace water.
United Nations estimates (2002), at least 101 billion people do not even have access to saIe
drinking water and 2.4 billion do not have adequate sanitation Iacilities.
Increasing population and expanding development would Iurther increase the demands Ior
wastes. It is estimated that by 2024, 2/3rd oI the world population would be suIIering
Irom severe water shortage.
Ground Water:
# A layer oI sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an
aquiIer.
# Layers oI sand and gravel are good aquiIers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are
not
since they have low permeability.
# Rain water move downward and get stopped when the water meets rock that has no
porosity.
# Groundwater is the source oI about 90 countries.s drinking water. In rural areas,
groundwater is the only source Ior water
# Groundwater is becoming contaminated with industrial eIIluents discharged on land and
septic systems, as well as illegal and uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Once
contaminated, groundwater is diIIicult to restore.
WATER RESERVOIRS
S.NO RESERVOIR VOLUME TOTAL WATER
1 Oceans 1,33,000 x 1000 km3 96.5
2 Ice and snow 24,364 x 1000 km3 1.76
3 Saline ground water 12,70 x 1000 km3 0.93
4 Fresh ground water 10,530 x 1000 km3 0.76
5 Fresh lakes 91 x 1000 km3 0.007
6 Saline lakes 5 x 1000 km3 0.006
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7 Soil moisture 16.5 x 1000 km3 0.001
Atmosphere 12.9 x 1000 km3 0.001
9 Wetlands 11.5 x 1000 km3 0.001
10 Rivers &streams 2.12 x 1000 km3 0.0002
11 Living organisms 1.12 x 1000 km3 0.0001
1otal 1,38, x1 km3 1
Effects of Groundwater Usage
o Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments
in the aquiIer get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence.
o Lowering of water table: Mining oI groundwater is done extensively in arid and semiarid
regions Ior irrigating crop Iields.
o Water logging: When excessive irrigation is done with brackish(salty)it raises the
water table gradually leading to water-logging and salinity problems.
Surface Water:
SurIace waters are available as a result oI natural precipitation. Precipitation that doesn`t seep
into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration is
called surIace water. It Iorms streams, ponds, ocean, lakes, wetlands and artiIicial reservoirs.
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Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water:
, Population growth has created much demand oI water due to increasing population and
rapid industrialization
, The amount oI water used in one toilet Ilush drinking requirements oI an adult (IL/day)
Ior about three weeks;
, The water used Ior one load in washing machine drinking Ior almost 6 months.
, The water used to reIine a tonne oI petroleum 200 loads in a washing machine.
, Water required to grow a tonne oI grain manuIacture a tonne oI most industrial
materials (e.g., metals or plastics, etc.).
Thermal power stations, Jute, and domestic sewage oI highly organic nature, Power
stations; jute, textile mills; chemical, paint, varnishes, metal, steel, hydrogenated
ion HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE
Water moves Irom the ocean to air to land to
ocean in a set cyclic pattern called hydrologic
cycle. The Iactors which control the process oI
evaporation and transpiration include wind,
temperature and humidity.
SOURCES OF POLLUTION:
Industries: Pulp, paper mills and steel industries,
tanneries, distilleries, rayon mills, caustic soda
mills, Fertilizer, Ily ash Irom steel mills, Automobile
workshops, chemical, metal and surgical
industries; tanneries, textile mills, suspended
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coal,
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vegetable oil, soap, match, shellac and polythene industries; yarn, tin and glycerin,
industries, sulphur and sugar mills; cement industries.
Floods:
Floods occur when water Irom heavy rainIall, melting ice or snow or a combination oI
these, exceeds the carrying capacity oI the receiving river system.
During the Iloods, the river carries Iertile sediment and deposits it on the level land along its
lower course, Such areas are called Ilood plains which are very Iertile.
Causes of Floods
When it rains or snows, some oI the water is retained by the soil, some is absorbed by
vegetation, some evaporates, and the remainder, which reaches river channels, is called run-oII.
Floods occur when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water; water then runs oII the land
in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels or retained in natural ponds and
constructed reservoirs held behind dams.
Effects of Floods
Rapid run-oII cause.s soil erosion. The National Commission on Iloods has calculated that
the land area prone to Iloods has doubled Irom 20 million hectares in 1971 to 40 million
hectares in 190.
Economical loss was Rs. 121 crore per year during the decade 1960-70, increasing to Rs.
739 crore per year during 197l- 7The worst suIIering States are Assam, Bihar, Orissa,
U.P. and West Bengal. So it is to be given serious thought to save Iurther destruction oI
mankind.
Severe Iloods like that in 1970, 19 and 1991 resulting Irom excessive Himalayan runoII
and storms, had very disastrous consequences causing massive deaths and damages.
In 1970, about one million people were aIIected while 1, 40,000 people were died in 1991.
Control of Floods
The basic methods to control Iloods practiced since ancient times are reIorestation and
the construction oI dams, reservoirs, and Iloodways (artiIicial channels that divert
Iloodwater).
The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) sends regular Ilood maps along with data
obtained through Radar satellite/ microwave satellite Ior assessing the intensity oI Ilood
situation in various States.
DROUGHTS
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DeIinition: When annual rainIall is below normal and less than evaporation,
drought conditions are created.
About 0 countries in the world lying in the arid and semi-arid regions that
experience Irequent spells oI droughts.
Causes for drought:
Due to several anthropogenic causes like over grazing, deIorestation, mining etc. there is
spreading oI the deserts tending to convert more areas to drought aIIected areas.
Consequences of Drought
(a) DesertiIication:
The processes by which an area becomes even more barren, less capable oI retaining vegetation,
and progresses towards becoming a desert. This is oIten a cause oI long-term disasters.
Remedies for water problems
(i) Reclamation oI sewage and waste water
(ii) Development oI ground water sources and surIace storages
(iii) Long range Iorecasting oI rain;
(iv) Rain making;
(v) TransIer oI surplus water; and
(vi) Desalination oI sea water.
Conflicts over water
Irrigation water-supply systems in North Vietnam were bombed by the US in the
late 1960`s.
Dam`s, desalination plants and water reservoir systems were targeted during the 1991
GulI War.
Jordan River Basin is a small river, its basin is shared by Israel, Syria, Jordan
and Lebanon. During 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Israel occupied much oI the
headwaters oI the Jordan River, ensuring Ior itselI a more reliable water supply .
97 oI Egypt`s water comes Irom the Nile River. Greater than 95 oI the Nile`s runoII
originates in other nations oI the Basin: Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi,
Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire.
The construction oI the Farakka Barrage across the Ganga by India to divert water into
the Hoogley River to protect the Calcutta port Irom problems oI silting, has been the
subject oI dispute between India and Bangladesh.
RIVER DISPUTES IN INDIA
S.NO RIVER DISPUTES
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1 Yamuna Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and U.P.
2 Narmada Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
3 Krishna Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu , Karnataka
4 Godavari Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh
5 Cauvery Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala
INTERNATIONAL WATER DISPUTES:
RIVER NATIONS TO DISPUTES
Ganga India, Bangladesh and Nepal
Brahmaputra India, Bangladesh
Euphrates Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq and Iran
Parana Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina
Danube Hungary and Czechoslovakia
(now Czech and Slovak Republics)
Colorado US and Mexico
Zambezi Zambia and Zimbabwe
Han South Korea and North Korea
.THE. MINERAL RESOURCES
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Mineral: Any naturally occurring chemical element or compound that have been Iormed
through inorganic processes. Minerals are exhaustible, non-renewable resources Iound in
the earth`s crust.
More than 3,000 mineral species are known, most oI which are characterized by deIinite
chemical composition, crystalline structure, and physical properties.
India has large reserves oI iron, manganese, lime stone, dolomite, silica, and mica but
has little reserves oI copper, gold, silver, lead and phosphate.
Uses of Minerals
Metals are classiIied into various category
Precious metals: gold, silver, and the platinum group metals;
Steel industry metals: iron, nickel, cobalt, titanium, vanadium, chromium;
Base metals: copper, lead, tin, and zinc; magnesium and aluminium;
Nuclear metals: uranium, radium, and thorium;
Specialty metals: lithium, germanium, gallium, and arsenic.
Industrial minerals: quartz, salt, potash, asbestos, talc, Ieldspar, sulphur,
phosphates.
2. Many minerals are essential Ior growth and Iunctioning oI the living organisms.
3. Number oI minerals used in industries, production oI consumer`s goods, agriculture inputs,
hospitals and deIense and research equipments
4. Construction materials include sand, gravel, aggregates, brick clays and limestone, cement.
Also included in this group are slate Ior rooIing, and the polished stones, such as limestone,
granite, travertine, and marble, collectively known as dimension stones.
5. Gemstones include diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds.
METALS AND THEIR EXPECTED YEAR OF DEPLETION
S.NO RESOURCES YEARS TO
DEPLETION
1 Aluminium 31
2 Chromium 95
3 Copper 21
4 Iron 93
5 Lead 21
6 Manganese 46
7 Mercury 13
Molybdenum 34
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9 Nickel 53
10 Silver 13
11 Tin 15
12 Tungsten 2
13 Zinc 1
Some Major Minerals of India
Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P
Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda),
Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer).
Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P, Tamilnadu.
Iron (haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa.
Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, M.P, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttaranchal.
Table . Major reserves and important uses of some of the major metals
Metal Major World
Reserves Major Uses
Aluminium
Australia,
Guinea, Jamaica
Packaging Iood items, transportation,
utensils, electronics
Chromium CIS, South AIrica
For making high strength steel
alloys, In textile/tanning
industries
Copper
U.S.A., Canada,
CIS, Chile,
Zambia
Electric and electronic goods,
building, construction, vessels
Iron
CIS, South
America, Canada,
U.S.A.
Heavy machinery, steel production
transportation means
Lead
North America,
U.S.A., CIS
Leaded gasoline, Car batteries,
paints, ammunition
Manganese
South AIrica,
CIS, Brazil,
Gabon
For making high strength, heatresistant
steel alloys
Platinum
group
South AIrica, CIS
Use in automobiles, catalytic
converters, electronics, medical
uses.
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Gold
South AIrica,
CIS, Canada
Ornaments, medical use, electronic
use, use in aerospace
Silver
Canada, South
AIrica, Mexico
Photography, electronics
jewellery
Nickel
CIS, Canada,
New Caledonia
Chemical industry, steel alloys
Environmental EIIects oI Extraction and Using Mineral Resources
ACID MINE DRAINAGE PROCESS
1. Exploration - Drilling, sampling. - Noise pollution, road damage, loss oI vegetation.
2. Mining and Milling - Ore extraction, crushing /grinding oI ore, chemical concentration oI
ore.-wind borne dust, acid generation Irom waste rock, heavy metal leaching Irom acid mine
drainage
3. Smelting and ReIining - processing oI mineral concentrate by heat or electro-chemical
processes.-use oI toxic chemicals Ior processing, sulphur dioxide emissions contribute to acid
rain, require high energy.
4. Mine Closure - waste dumps, dismantling oI buildings - surIace water contamination,
revegetation
Iailure, and wind pollution.At least six major mines need a mention here which
are known Ior causing severe problems:
Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand.-exposing local people to radioactive hazards.
Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand.underground Iire leading to land subsidence and Iorced
displacement oI people.
Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa.seeping oI hexavalent chromium into river causes
serious health hazard, Cr6 being highly toxic and carcinogenic.
Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka.causing river pollution and threat to biodiversity.
East coast Bauxite mine, Orissa.Land encroachment and issue oI rehabilitation
unsettled.
North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam.Very high sulphur- contamination oI groundwater.
Environmental Effects caused by mining activities are :
De-vegetation /Loss oI biodiversity
Subsidence oI land: This is mainly associated with underground mining. Subsidence
oI mining areas oIten results in tilting oI buildings, cracks in houses, buckling oI roads,
bending oI rail tracks and leaking oI gas Irom cracked pipelines leading to serious
disasters.
Groundwater Pollution: Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known
to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby making the water
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acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the groundwater and contaminate it
posing health hazards.
SurIace water pollution: The acid mine drainage oIten contaminates the nearby streams
and lakes. The acidic water is detrimental to many Iorms oI aquatic liIe. Heavy metal
pollution oI water bodies near the mining areas is a common Ieature creating health
hazards.
Air pollution: In order to separate and puriIy the metal Irom other impurities in the ore,
smelting is done which emits enormous quantities oI air pollutants damaging the
vegetation nearby and has serious environmental health impacts. The suspended
particulate matter (SPM), SOx, soot, arsenic particles, cadmium, lead etc. shoot up in the
atmosphere near the smelters and the public suIIers Irom several health problems.
Occupational Health Hazards: Most oI the miners suIIer Irom various respiratory and
skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic
substances. Miners working in diIIerent types oI mines suIIer Irom asbestosis, silicosis,
black lung disease etc.
.THE. FOOD RESOURCES
16th October is declared as the World Food Day.
Food: It is a Organic matter taken to satisIy
appetite. To meet physiological needs Ior growth,
to supply energy, to do work, to maintain body
temperature. Foods diIIer in the amount oI the
nutrients.
Plants: Four crops-wheat, rice, corn, and potato
make up most oI the world`s total Iood
production than all other crops combined. Grains
(mainly rice, wheat, and corn) provide about halI
the world`s calories. Fruits &Vegetables are rich
in vitamins, Minerals, Dietary Iibre and complex
carbohydrate.
Livestock: Domesticated animals eg.Cattle,
sheep,goat, camel,etc. People consume meat,
eggs, milk, cheese, and other products oI
domesticated livestock.
Aquaculture: Marine and Iresh water Iood contribute to high quality protein In addition,
onethird
oI the world`s Iish catch is converted into Iish meal to Ieed livestock consumed by meat
eaters.
Fish and sea Iood contribute about 70 million metric tons oI high quality protein to the
world.s diet. One-third oI the world`s Iish catch is converted into Iish meal to Ieed livestock.
Fish
and sea Iood contribute to one Iourth oI the total dietary protein in Japan.
WORLD FOOD PROBLEM
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World Iood problems involve complex interactions among Food production,
Population growth, Poverty, Environmental eIIects, Economic, Political systems, and
Ethics.
In 1996, the World Bank estimated that more than one billion oI the world`s people do not
have enough Iood to lead healthy and productive lives.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about 40 million people remain
hungry, though the number has been decreasing 2.5 million per year over the last eight
years.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) oI United Nations estimated that on
an average the minimum caloric intake on a global scale is 2,500 calories/day.
Undernourishment: People receiving less than 90 oI these minimum dietary calories
are called undernourished and iI it is less than 0 they are said to be seriously
undernourished. As a result, the body begins to break down its own stored Iats and
proteins.
Children in this category are suIIer Irom permanently stunted growth , mental
retardation, and other developmental disorders.
Every year 40 million people (IiIty percent oI which are young children between 1
to 5 years) die oI undernourishment and malnutrition.
India is the third largest producer oI staple crops; an estimated 300 million Indians are
still undernourished.
Malnutrition: The dietary condition caused by an insuIIiciency oI one or more nutrients in
the diet. The two most common Iorms oI PEM, Marasmus and kwashiorkor
Overnutrition: In richer countries, the most common dietary problem is too many calories.
The average daily caloriIic intake in North America and Europe is above 3,500 calories.
Overnutrition contributes to overweight ,high blood pressure,heart attack, and other
cardiovascular diseases.
Balanced Diet: A balanced diet includes a variety oI Ioods Irom all 5 Iood
groups.(Grains,Vegetables,Fruits, Meat & dairy products, Sugar & Fats). It should
provide enough calories to ensure desirable weight and should include all the
necessary daily nutrients. About 50 oI your calories should come Irom complex
carbohydrates. About 20 should come Irom proteins. About 30 should come Irom Iats.
KWASHIORKAR MARASMUS
THE EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
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A. Local EIIects: These occur at or near the site oI Iarming. It includes soil erosion and
increase in sedimentation. It destroys aquatic liIe.
B. Regional EIIects: It includes deIorestation, desertiIication, large scales pollution, Iertility oI
the soil is also aIIected.
C. Global EIIects: These include climatic changes as well as potentially extensive changes in
chemical cycles.
Overgrazing:
Livestock wealth plays a crucial role in the rural liIe oI our country. The live stock grazing
on a particular piece oI grassland is called as Overgrazing.
Impact oI Overgrazing:
Land Degradation, Soil Erosion, Loss oI useIul species, overgrazing vast areas in
Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are getting invaded by thorny bushes, weeds etc. oI
low Iodder value.
EFFECT OF MODERN AGRICULTURE:
It makes use oI hybrid seeds oI selected and single crop variety, high-tech
equipments and lots oI energy subsidies , Iertilizers, pesticides and irrigation
water.Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV): The uses oI HYVs encourage
monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast areas.
In case oI an attack by some pathogen, there is total devastation oI the crop by
the disease due to exactly uniIorm conditions, which help in rapid spread oI the disease.
Without the availability oI proper toxicological inIormation on the chemicals
(Iertilizer,pesticides) they are used extensively into the environment.
Advantages
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
Disadvantages
More Iood Destruction oI wild liIe habitats Irom
clearing Iorests and grasslands
Supported a larger population Killing oI wild animals Ieeding on grass
and crops
Longer liIe expectancy Fertile land turn into desert by live stock
overgrazing
Higher standard oI living Soil eroded into lakes and streams
Formation oI villages ,towns and
cities
Towns and cities concentrated wastes and
pollution
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Fertilizer . pesticide Problems: Fertilisers are deIined as materials having deIinite chemical
composition that supply plant nutrients. Fertilzers are added to the soil to restore
and enhance the soil Iertility to improve the quality and quantity oI plant growth.
Most oI the chemical Iertilizers used in modern agriculture have nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (N, P, K) which are essential macronutrients. The excess Iertilizers which are
not taken up by the plants are leached out oI the soil and contaminate the subsoil water
sources. They pass through the diIIerent trophic levels oI the Iood chain.
Nitrogenous Iertilizers applied in the Iields oIten leach deep into the soil and ultimately
contaminate the ground water. High concentrations oI nitrates consumed through
drinking water and leaIy vegetables are reduced to nitrites by bacterial action in the
intestines. when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause oI a
serious health hazard. On reaching blood stream it becomes attached to
haemoglobin Iorming a complex methaemoglobin which reduces the oxygen carrying
capacity oI the blood and produces a condition known as "Blue Baby Syndrome" or
methaemoglobinemia in young babies.
In adult humans, gastric cancer is caused in case these nitrates are Iurther converted into
amines and nitrosoamines. Large proportion oI nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop
Iields is washed oII and alongwith runoII water reach the water bodies causing over
nourishment oI the lakes, a process known as Eutrophication (eumore,
trophicnutrition).
Due to eutrophication the lakes get invaded by algal blooms. These algal species grow
very Iast by rapidly using up the nutrients. They are oIten toxic and badly aIIect the Iood
chain. The algal species quickly complete their liIe cycle and die thereby adding a lot oI
dead organic matter.
The Iishes are also killed and there is a lot oI dead matter that starts getting decomposed.
Oxygen is consumed in the process oI decomposition and very soon the water gets
depleted oI dissolved oxygen. This Iurther aIIects aquatic Iauna and ultimately anaerobic
conditions are created where only pathogenic anaerobic bacteria can survive, thus, due to
excessive use oI Iertilizers in the agricultural Iields the lake ecosystem gets degraded.
Pesticide Problems: The chemical compounds that are used Ior the control oI pests are
called Pesticides Pest: Any organism that causes an economic loss or damage to the
physical well being oI the plant is a pest.
ClassiIication # 1
S.NO TYPE OF PESTICIDE USED TO CONTROL
1 Insecticides insects
2 Weedicides/herbicides weeds
3 Fungicides Iungi
4 Rodenticides Rodents
5 Molluscicides molluscs
6 Nematicides nematodes
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ClassiIication # 2
1) Organochlorines . DDT , heptachlor , dieldrin, aldrin, endrin
2) Organophosphates . Parathion, Malathion and dimethoate.
3) Organocarbomates . Phenyl carbamates , Thiocarbamates
4) Inorganic insecticides . Arsenic and sulphur compounds.
1 pesticide is sprayed to agricultural field thro helicopter, tractor and hand spray
Among the most eIIective herbicides are the compounds oI 2,4-D (2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid).Organochlorines like DDT , dieldrin, aldrin, are
hazardous because oI their persistent* nature. Their concentration increases as it
moves along the Iood chain comprosing aquatic plants, Iish, predatory birds/man.
Dieldrin on bio-amplication in predatory birds aIIects the calcium metabolism and
as a result the eggs laid by these birds have thin shells that are unable to bear the
weight oI the incubating birds resulting in reproductive Iailure.
High concentration oI DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl trichloroethane) in human beings is
suspected to result in cerebral haemorrhage, hypertension, cancer, liver damage etc.
Pesticides contribute to ecological imbalance by upsetting the predatory . prey population.
Prolonged use oI pesticides produces pesticide resistant pests called .Super pests".
DDT and Fragile Eggshells : During 1960s, several predatory bird species including
bald eagles, peregrine Ialcons, osprey and brown pelicans suddenly disappeared
Irom territories in eastern North America. Studies carried out by biologists revealed
that eggs laid down by these predatory birds had thin, Iragile shells that broke beIore
hatching.
PERSISTENT ORGANIC INSECTICIDES
ALDRIN
Insecticide used on corn, potatoes, cotton and Ior
termite control
CLORDANE
Insecticide used on vegetables, small grains, maize,
sugarcane, Iruits, nuts and cotton
DIELDRIN
Insecticide used on cotton, corn, potatoes and Ior
termite control
DDT
Insecticide-primarily used Ior disease vector control
ENDTRIN
Insecticide used on cotton, grains and also used as
Rodenticides
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HEXACHLOROBENZENE
Fungicide used Ior the treatment oI seeds and also
used as industrial chemical
HEPTACHLOR
Insecticide used against soil insects, termites and
grasshoppers
MIREX
Insecticide used to kill ants, termites and also used as
Iire retardant
.THE. ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy: Energy is the physical quantity, which can maniIest itselI as heat, as mechanical
work, as motion and in the binding oI matter by nuclear or chemical Iorces.
The two laws oI thermodynamics describe the behavior oI energy:
First law: states that energy may be transIormed Irom one Iorm to the other, but cannot be
created or destroyed:
Second law states that because some energy is always dispersed into unavailable heat
energy, no spontaneous transIormation oI energy Irom one to other Iorm (light to
protoplasm, Ior example) is 100 per cent eIIicient.
ClassiIication oI energy sources
Renewable Energy Resources
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable energy are such sources as the sun, wind, water, agricultural residue, Iirewood,
and animal dung which do not exhaust.
Measurement oI Energy / Units oI Energy
Abbreviation Name
WORLDWIDE COMMERCIAL ENERGY
PRODUCTION
Coal, 26
Oil, 36
Wood,peat,
charcoal,
manure, 6
Nuclear,solar
wind,hydro,
9
Gas, 23
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1) J Joule Standard SI Unit oI Energy
2) BTU British Thermal Unit
3) Cal Calories
4) erg Erg
5) KWh Kilowatt/hour
6) MWd Megawatt/day
WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION
I.SOLAR ENERGY:
Sun is an inexhaustible and pollution Iree source oI energy. Solar equipments have been
developed to harness sun-rays to heat water, cook meals, and light our houses.
The solar energy originates Irom the thermonuclear Iusion reaction taking place in the Sun.
It is one oI the important non-conventional energy sources.
Solar energy being non- polluting and non-deplets is considered as renewable energy and thus
Iills into the principle oI sustainability.
But only 0.25 to 0.5 oI the solar energy reaching the earth is utilized Ior photosynthesis.
Utilization oI solar energy is to gain popularity among the masses due to expensive nature.
In India, solar photovoltaic systems are being installed by Department oI Non- Conventional
energy resources Ior lighting, running oI TV sets, water pumping etc.
Solar cells are used to convert the impinging solar radiation into electricity
The reliability oI the operation is extraordinarily high.
Even under severe space conditions a maintenance Iree liIe span oI ten or more years has been
achieved. Only disadvantage is that, its cost is very high.
For a solar power station with a capacity oI 1000 Mw, a land oI surIace oI about 12 km2 is
required.
Solar energy is currently being used to generate electricity using three technologies:
3
WIND
13
COAL
19
OIL
22
NATURAL
GAS
7
HYDRO
POWER
7
NUCLEAR
17
BOIMASS
12
SOLAR
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Direct Heating method
Plate collectors, solar panels, reIlectors, concentrators etc a
solar energy. Solar energy increases the temperature. This technology is being used in solar
cookers, solar ovens, solar dryers, solar water heaters, solar distillation etc.
Solar Photo-voltaic Cells (SPVC) method
Solar photovoltaic technology is used Ior direct conversion oI solar radiation into electricity
using
solar cells. SPVC are thin waIers oI silicon,(semi conductors ), gallium, arsenide or cadmium
telluride.
When light Ialls over the semi conductor surIace a part oI this light is absorbed and a
voltage is generated. This is only 0.5 volts. ThereIore, a large number oI photovoltaic cells are
connected both in parallel and in series to Iorm PV model. Solar cells are use
domestic lighting, community lighting, small power plans and operation oI railway signals.
Solar thermal process method
Solar energy is converted into solar thermal energy. There are several methods to convert solar e
into thermal energy, the common one is to use a member oI heliostats or mirrors and to Iocus
them over a absorber some devices based upon solar thermal energy are
water heaters, solar air heaters, solar green ho
Advantages of solar energy
1. Solar energy is Iree and it is available locally in abundance.
2. Solar energy is pollution Iree.
3. Systems are easy to install, generate and maintain.
4. System can be speciIically designed according to
5. Supply oI hot water is instant and un interrupted
6. Recurring Iuel costs are zero
7. Heating 100 liters oI water to 60o c by solar system results in an energy saving oI 1200
units (kilowatts hours) oI electricity per year.
II.HYDRO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Direct Heating process,
Solar photo-voltaic cells,
Solar thermal process.
are used to collect and concentrate
used in street lighting,
Iig-solar cel
- solar cookers, solar
houses, solar huts etc.
individual requirements.
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re d energy
1200-1500
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Electricity produces from waterpower is known as hydroelectric energy. The potential energy of
falling water
captured and converted to mechanical energy by water wheel powered the start of industrial
revolution.
Large Scale Hydro power: in this case a high dam is built across a large river to create a
reservoir, water is allowed to Ilow to through huge pipes laid along the steep hill slopes (Ialling)
at
controlled rates, thus spinning turbines ( prime movers) and in turn generators producing
electricity.
Small hydropower: In this case a low dam with no reservoir (or only a small one) is built across
a
small stream and the water used to spin turbine to produce electricity.
Pumped Storage hydropower: In this case the surplus electricity conventional power plant is
used
to liIt water Irom a lake or tail race to another reservoir at a higher elevator, water in the upper
reservoir is released to spin the turbine Ior generating electricity
Hydropower is an economical, renewable and non-polluting source oI energy. It includes
construction oI dams to produce the waterIalls that Iall on power turbines.
UTILIZATION OF HYDRO POWER`
7 oI the world.s total commercial energy,
20 oI the world.s electricity.
99 oI the electricity in Norway,
75 oI the electricity in New Zealand
43 oI the electricity in india.
50 oI the electricity in developing countries
25 oI the electricity in China.
*data based on survey conducted in the year-2001
India decided to give importance Ior the generation oI hydro electricity in 1st Five Year plan.
India was able to generate 6.9 thousand MW oI hydro electricity, contributing 42 oI the
total power generation capacity at the end oI 4th plan.
But, the amount oI hydropower generation decreased to 25 by the end oI Eighth plan due
to increase in demand.
The hydropower potential oI India is estimated to be 4 X 10 11 k w /hours.
Hydropower in tropical countries is a major emitter oI green house gases. This occurs because
reservoirs that power the dams can trap rotting vegetation, which can emit green house gases
such as Carbon dioxide and Methane. (According to a study by world commission on Dams)
Advantages oI and disadvantages oI hydropower generation
ADVANTAGES
HYDRO
POWER
GENERATION
DISADVANTAGES
Moderate to high net energy High construction cost
High eIIiciency (0) Coverts land habitat to lake
habitat
Low cost electricity Floods natural areas.
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Provides water Ior year
irrigation
Long liIe span
No carbon dioxide emission
Reservoir is useIul Ior Iishing and
recreation.
May provide Ilood control
Hydel power has several advantages such as:
A. It is a clean source oI energy.
B. It provides irrigation Iacilities.
C. It provides drinking
III.GEO-THERMAL ENERGY:
The availability oI geothermal energy depends on geographical regions. The earth
contains large amounts oI geothermal energy with temperature as high as
4400C.This energy comes Irom magma, molten rock material beneath the surIace oI the
earth or Irom radioactive decay oI thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed
throughout the earth`s interior.
In some regions oI the earth this molten material sometimes breaks through the earth`s
crust and produces volcanoes. In other regions, th
the earth`s surIace to heat the underground water trapped by impermeable rock
and Iorm steam. Geysers and hot springs are natural areas where hot water and steam
come to the surIace. In such areas geo
steam. At present, geothermal energy is only practical in areas where the molten mass is
year-round High carbon dioxide emission
Irom biomass decay in shallow
tropical reservoir
High environmental impact
Danger oI collapse
Decreases Iish harvest below
dam
Uproots People.
water to people living in desert area
the hot material is close enough to
geothermal energy is tapped by drilling wells to obtain
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near the surIace.
IV.WIND POWER:
High-speed winds (kinetic energy) have a great capacity to generate power (electrical
energy). Wind energy is inexhaustible, cost eIIective, and eco
and Ireely available source oI energy all over the day and night. The inst
harnessing wind power is called wind mill.
Small windmills are in use in rural areas Ior power generation, pumping water and other
domestic purposes, particularly in the rural areas, such as threshing, winnowing, cutting
wooden logs, grinding
battery charging to run generators.
To generate electricity, the speed oI wind should be Irom 10
available on coast, mountain, certain valleys and plains. T
wheel, which is connected to a generator or turbine Ior generation oI electricity. It is
a Fast growing technology.
Denmark, Spain, Germany USA and India are the leaders in wind energy
development and more cover than 0 per cent oI world capacity.
World Watch Institute (The Washington, USA) ranked India as a Wind Superpower. Wind
power development in India has been rapid at selected sites. Muppandal (Tamil Nadu), has
the highest concentration (400 MW) oI wind Iarms in Asia and the third highest in t
world.
eco-Iriendly, non
grains and pump water etc. Wind energy can also be used Ior
10-20 km/hour, which is
The Iorce oI wind rotates the
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non-polluting
instrument Ior
he the
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Tamil Nadu State is one oI the windiest regions oI the world accounting Ior about 10 oI
the total installed global wind energy capacity and over 70 per cent oI the country`s total
installed capacity. The estimated cost oI setting up wind Iarm
45 million per MW.
Disadvantage oI wind generators are i) Noise Pollution ii) Blades may interIere with
television reception or with microwave communication
project comes to Rs. 35 to
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V.TIDEL ENERGY
The tidal movement oI water has vast potential oI energy. It is estimated by the National
oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (US) the tidal potential at global level is
30,00,000 MW. The tides are daily movement oI large bodies oI water
gravitational attractions between the sun, earth and moon.
In India, the tidal power potential oI Ganga delta oI Sunderbans (1,000 MW), GulI
oI Cambay (7,000 MW) and GulI oI Kutch (1,000 MW) has been identiIied and
has around 9,000 MW tidal power potential.
VI.BIOMASS ENERGY
This is the energy Irom garbage. The garbage oI houses contains waste paper, plastics and
several other waste materials. It can be used to produce electricity. Biomass energy can
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driven by
India
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play important and vital role to meet energy crisis oI the world. Biomass can be used as
renewable source oI energy.
Plants traps solar energy and store through the process oI photosynthesis in which carbon
dioxide and water are transIormed and Iorm energy rich compounds. Biomass conversion is
done by using non biological and biological process. Plants are the major source oI
biomass.
Biomass is the term used to describe the organic matter produced by photo synthesis that
exists on the Earth.s surIace.
The source oI all energy in biomass is the Sun, the biomass acting as a kind oI chemical
energy store.
Traditionally the extraction oI energy Irom biomass is split into three distinct categories:
Solid biomass: The use oI trees, crop residues animal and human waste, house hold or
industrial residues Ior direct combustion to provide heat.
Biogas: it is obtained an aerobically (without air) digesting the organic material to produce
ethane. Animal waste and municipal waste are two common Ieed stocks Ior anaerobic digestion.
Liquid bio-fuels: They are obtained by subjecting organic materials to one oI the various
chemical or physical processes to produce a usable, combustible liquid Iuel. Bio Iuels such as
vegetable oils or ethanol are oIten processed Irom industrial or commercial residues such as
biogas or Irom energy crops crown especially Ior these purposes.
Biomass use in the development world
More than two billion people in the developing world use biomass Ior the majority oI their
household energy needs.
Biomass is also used widely used Ior non-domestic appliances.
Biomass is available in varying quantities through out the developing world.
In recent decades, with the threat oI global deIorestation much Iocus has been given to the
eIIicient use oI biomass.
Biomass resources: They are renewable energy recourses. Natural Biomass resources vary in
type and
content depending upon the geographical location. World.s biomass producing areas are
classiIieds into
three distinctive regions.
Temperate regions: Produce wood, crop residues like straw, vegetable leaves, human and animal
waste.
Arid and Semi arid regions: Produce very little excess vegetation Ior Iuel. People living in these
areas are oIten the most aIIected by desertiIication and have diIIerently in Iinding suIIicient
wood
Iuel.
Humid tropical regions: Produce abundant wood supplies, crop produces, animal and human
wastes, commercial industrial agro and Iood processing residues. Many oI the world.s poorer
countries are Iound in these regions and hence there is a high incidence oI domestic biomass use.
Benefits of Biomass energy:
Renewable or recyclable energy source (Stored solar energy)
Less waste directed to landIills.
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Decrease reliance on imported energy sources.
Potential rural development and job creation.
It can generate renewable electricity when the Sun is not shining and the wind is not blowing.
BIOGAS
Biogas is obtained by an aerobically (without air) digesting organic material to produce a
combustible gas known as methane. Animal waste and municipal waste are two common Ieed
stocks Ior an aerobic digestion.
At present biogas technology provides an alternative source oI energy in rural India Ior cooking.
It
is particularly useIul Ior village households that have their own cattle. Through a simple process
cattle dung is used to provide the gas. The residual dung is used as manure.
India has world.s largest cattle population . 400 million, thus oIIering tremendous potential Ior
biogas plants. Biogas production has the capacity to provide us with about halI oI our energy
needs either burned Ior electricity production or piped into current gas lines Ior use.
It just has to be done and made a priority. Though about 3.71 million biogas plants in India up to
March 2003 are successIully in operation but still it is utilizing only 31 oI the total estimated
potential oI 12 million plants. The pay back period oI the biogas plant is only 2 to 3 years. Rather
in the case oI community and industrial Biogas plants is even less.
ThereIore biogas electriIication at Community Panchayat level is required to be implemented. A
sixty cubic Ieet approx 2 m3 biogas plant can serve the needs oI one average Iamily.
The average composition oI biogas is methane 55. Hydrogen 7.4, Carbon dioxide 39,
Nitrogen 2.6, Waster- traces. The average gross caloriIic value oI the gas is 5300 kilo cals
/cubic
meters.
VII.NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear energy is non- renewable source oI energy, which is released during Iission
(disintegration) or Iusion (union) oI selected radioactive materials.
Nuclear power appears to be the only hope Ior large scale energy requirements when Iossil Iuels
are exhausted.
The major advantage is that even small quantities oI radioactive material can produce enormous
amounts oI energy.
Example:
Energy produced by a ton oI U235 3 million tones oI coal 12 million barrels oI oil.
Nuclear energy has been used in: the generation oI electricity in spaceships, marine vessels,
chemical and Iood-processing industry.
Nuclear Iission: Nuclear Iission reaction are based on the Iission oI U235 nuclei by thermal
neutrons
Environmental impact: Nuclear Iission power reactors generate large quantities oI radio active
Iission waste products, which may remain dangerous Ior thousand oI years. In addition these are
no saIe disposal methods.
It is generated by Iission (splitting the nucleus) and Iusion (combining the small nucleus) oI the
atoms oI certain elements such as Uranium-235. Both the processes result in the release oI
enormous amount oI energy. Fission oI 1 amu* oI Uranium-235 can generate energy equivalent
to
that obtainable Irom burning oI 15 metric tons oI coal or about 14 barrels oI crude oil.
In our country atomic power station have been set up in
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Tarapur (Bombay),
Narora (Uttar Pradesh),
Kota (Rajasthan)
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu).
*amu reIers to atomic mass unit, please reIer Engineering Chemistry by Ravikrishnan
Advantage: Production oI an enormous amount oI energy Irom a small quantity oI
radioactive material. For example - One kg oI Uranium (having 0.7 per cent oI U-
235) liberates energy equivalent to 35000 kg oI coal.
Energy liberation is carried out in nuclear reactors. The Iissionable material decays liberating
huge energy as heat, which is picked up by coolant Ior transIer to electric generator.
Thorium and Uranium are the two naturally occurring elements which have the potential oI being
used as Iuel in a nuclear power plant. India has reasonable deposits oI natural uranium, while
thorium deposits are quite vast.
Natural uranium consists oI two isotopes, oI which U235 constitutes about 0.7 oI natural
uranium, can be easily undergo Iission in a nuclear reactor to produce energy. Thorium, a Iertile
material, cannot be easily Iissionable in a nuclear reactor to produce energy, However,
like uranium-23, thorium also gets partially converted to a Iissile material uranium-233,
when used as a part oI nuclear Iuel mix
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VIII.FUEL CELL
Hydrogen-oxygen Iuel cell.
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES:
These are energy raw materials, which are available in limited quantity and are oI greatest
practical
signiIicance. These are Fossil Fuels they are organic Iuel resources Iound in earth`s crust Iormed
due to coaliIication.
Fossil Iuels are the highest grade Iuels, which contain nothing but hydrogen and carbon Iormed
in
the past through the eIIect oI heat and compression on Iorest and other organic matter buried
underneath due to landslides, earth quakes and lava.
FOSSILS FUELS
ossils fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) are energy rich substances that have formed from the
residues of dead
organisms lived 200 to 500 million years ago. This matter was buried under layers of sediment
and
converted by heat and pressure into coal, oil and natural gas.
Fossil Iuels largely consist oI hydrocarbons, which are compounds oI hydrogen and carbon.
Some
Iossils Iuel also contains smaller quantities oI other compounds.
Most common and important Iossil Iuels are:
Coal,lignite solid Iuel
Petroleum liquid Iuel
Natural gas gas Iuel
Majority oI Iossil Iuels are being used in
Transportation
Industries heating
Generation oI electricity.
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ManuIacture oI gasoline
ManuIacture oI diesel
ManuIacture oI jet Iuel
Once we discovered the Iossil Iuel we began consuming them at an increasing rate. From 160
to
1970, total oil production was 227 billion barrels (1 barrel159 lts). 50 oI this total was
extracted during the Iirst 100 years, while the next 50 was extracted in next 10 years.
____________________________________________COAL____________________________
_____________________
Nearly 27,350 billion metric tones oI known coal deposits occur on our planet.
56 oI world coal reserves are located in Russia,
2 oI world coal is located in USA and Canada.
5 oI world coal are located India.
The major coal producing states in India are.
West Bengal,
Jharkhand,
Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh
Maharastra
Mainly, there are three types oI coal:
Anthracite or hard coal 90 carbon content
Bituminous or soIt coal 5 carbon content
Lignite or brown coal 70 carbon content
The present annual extraction rate oI coal is about 3000 million metric tones, at this rate coal
reserves may lasts Ior about 200 hundred years and iI its use is increased by 2 per year then it
will last Ior another 65 years.
Advantages
Low cost (with huge substitutes)
Mining and combustion technology well developed
High net energy yield
Disadvantages
land, air water pollution
Very high environmental impact
Releases radio active particles and mercury into air.
Severe threat to human health
High CO2 emission
Limited availability supplies (225-900years)
____________________________________________ PETROLEUM
___________________________________________
SigniIicance oI petroleum over coal is that its greater energy content than coal.
Petroleum is cleaner Iuel when compared to wood or coal, since it burns completely and
leaves no
residue.
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There are 13 countries in the world having 67 oI the petroleum reserves which together Iorm
the
OPEC (Organization oI petroleum exporting countries).
About 40 oI the total energy consumed in the entire world is now contributed by oil.
Saudi Arabia oil producing has /th oI the world oil reserves.
Six regions in the world are rich in petroleum:
USA,
Mexico,
Russia
Iran
Iraq
Saudi Arabia
The total oil reserves oI our planet is about 356.2 billion metric tones
Hence the existing reserves would last Ior about 40 . 50 years.
There are little oI petroleum reserves in India. It is estimated to be ~1 million sq.km area.
Ganga-Brahmaputra valley
Gujarat
Thar Desert
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
__________________________________________NATURAL
GAS_____________________________________________
Natural gas mainly consists oI Methane (CH4) along with other inIlammable gases like Ethane
and
propane.
Natural gas is least polluting due to its low Sulphur content and hence is clearest source oI
energy.
It is used both Ior domestic and industrial purposes.
Natural gas is used as :
a source oI hydrogen gas in Iertilizing industry
as a Iuel in thermal plants Ior generating electricity
as a source oI carbon in tyre industry.
The total natural gas reserves oI the world is about 600 000 billion meters,
Annual production oI natural gas is about 1250 billion cubic meters
Hence it is expected to last Ior about 50-100 years.
In India gas reserves are Iound in
Tripura,
Jaisalmer,
OII shore areas oI Bombay and
OII shore areas Krishna-Godavari Delta.
ADVANTAGES
Ample supplies (125 years)
High net energy yield
Low cost ( with huge subsidies)
Less air pollution than other Iossil FUEL
Moderate environmental import
Easily transported by pipelines
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Low land use
DISADVANTAGES
Non renewable resources
Releases carbon dioxide when burnt
Methane ( a green house gas) can leak Irom pipelines
Shipped across ocean as highly explosive
Requires pipelines
Sometimes burnt oII and wasted
____________________ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING FOSSIL
FUELS__________________________
Acid rain
When Iossil Iuels are buried, Sulphur,
Nitrogen and Carbon combine with oxygen to
Iorm toxic compounds. These oxides when
released into the atmosphere, they react with
water Iorm and result in the Iormation oI
SulIuric acid, Nitric acid and Carbonic acid.
This leads to acid rain
Ash particles
Ash particles are the unburnt Iuel
particle. Petro and natural gas
generate less ash particles than
coal, diesel or gasoline. They may
cause lungs problem
Global warming
Carbon dioxide is a major by product oI Iossil combustion and this gas is known as green
hour gas. Green hour gas absorbs solar heat reIlected oII the earth.s surIace and retains
this heat, keeping the Earth warm and habitats Ior living organisms. Rapid
industrialization between 19th and 20th centuries however has resulted in increasing
Iossils Iuel emissions, raining the percentage oI carbon dioxide by about 2. This
drastic increase has led to global warming that could cause environmental problems,
including disrupted weather patterns and polar ice cap melting.
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.THE. LAND RESOURCES
Land is a major constituent oI the lithosphere. It is an important source oI many materials
essential to man and other organisms. It provides essential medium Ior development oI
agriculture, Iorestry etc. The per-capita land availability in diIIerent continents oI the world
varies
widely. Area : Land Iorms about one IiIth oI the earth`s surIace covering about 13,393
million hectares.
About 36.6 oI the land area is occupied by human dwellings, Iactories, roads, railways,
deserts,
mountains, rocks, glaciers and polar ice marshes. About 30 oI the total land mass in under
Iorests. About 22 oI land is occupied by meadows and pastures. Only 11 oI land is suitable
Ior ploughing.
SOIL:
Soil is an organized mixture oI minerals, organic material, living organisms, air and water. It
deals
with the origin, Iormation and geographic distribution oI the soil. Soil is Iormed by two
processes
(i) weathering-breaking down oI rock into small particles and
(ii) pedo*-genesis-maturation oI soil through development oI humus.
pedo means soil
Soil Iertility is determined by the inorganic matter, organic matter, water and air spaces in the
soil.
The mineral portion oI the soil consists oI various mixtures oI sand, silt and clay particles.
SOIL TEXTURE:
The physical structure oI a soil is called soil texture. It depends upon the oI its mineral
particles. Soil texture determines the porosity and nutritional status oI the soil.
There are three important textural soil types-sandy, clayey and loamy.
(i) Sandy soils: contain 10 each oI clay and silt remaining part is sand. Porous and well
aerated,Little water holding capacity, chemically inert. Generally called light soils because oI the
absence oI moisture. So it is unIit Ior plant growth.
(ii) Clayey soils: 40 or more clay.Heavy soils because the soils are compactly packed with
little
aeration.small sized pores, which retain water very Iirmly.Clayey soils are rich in nutrients but
do not support good plant growth due to poor aeration.
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(iii) Loamy soils: They contain sand, silt and clay approximately in the ratio oI 2 : 2 : 1.Ideally
suited Ior plant growth because they possess good aeration, suIIicient nutritive salts and good
water retaining capacity.
Composition oI Soil:
Soil is composed oI Iive constituents:
(i) mineral matter
(ii) organic matter
(iii) soil water
(iv) soil air
(v) living organisms.
1. Mineral matter:
Derived Irom the underlying parent rock by its weathering and occurs in the soil as
particles. The mineral particles are irregular in outline and thereIore enclose spaces called
interstices Ior circulation oI air and water.
Depending upon their size ,soil particles are oI Iollowing types : Gravel | 2.00 -5.00 mm|, Coarse
Sand|0.20 -2.00 mm|,Fine Sand|0.02 -0.20 mm|,Silt |0.002-0.02 mm|,Clay| less than 0.002 mm
2. Organic matter:
It is derived Irom plant reIuse (leaves, twigs, roots), dead bodies oI organisms and their
excreta(wastes). The organic matter is broken down by microbes and is converted into dark
amorphous substance called humus. Humus is a very useIul substance in the soil. It acts as
natural Iertilizer.
3. Soil water:
The spaces between soil particles are occupied by water or air. The water in the soil is present as
capillary water, hygroscopic water, combined water and water vapour. Soil receives water either
by rains or irrigation.
The maximum amount oI water retained per unit dry weight oI soil aIter the stoppage oI
gravitational Ilow is called water holding capacity or Iield capacity oI the soil.It is 25 - 35 in
loam
soil.Soil moisture beyond Iield capacity causes water-logging. It is harmIul to the plants, as it
drives away soil air.
. Soil air:
Soil contains air in the pour spaces. In a good soil such as loam about 20-25 oI the total
volume
is soil air. The composition oI soil is dependent upon air circulation or connection oI the pore
spaces with the soil surIace.
In a poorly ventilated soil concentration oI O2 decreases while that oI CO2 increases
because oI the respiration oI plant roots and soil organisms.High concentration oI CO2 in the soil
is toxic to the soil organisms.
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O2 in soil is essential Ior humus Iormation, nitriIication, respiration oI microorganisms and
activities oI roots (absorption oI water and mineral salts).
5. Soil organisms:
A variety oI living organisms such as bacteria, actinomycetea, Iungi, algae, protozoa, nematodes,
earthworms occur in the soil. The soil organisms perIorm Iollowing activities in the soil :
(1) Decomposition oI dead organic matter- Saprophytic soil microorganisms
(2) Nitrogen Iixation- Cyanobacteria.
(3) Aeration oI the soil - Burrowing (earth digging) insects and worms
(4) Several soil organisms secrete mucus, which help in cementing soil particles to Iorm soil
aggregates.
(5) Some microorganisms chemical substances that have stimulating eIIect on the
growth oI higher plants.
(6) Some soil Iungi Iorm mycorrhizal association with the roots oI higher plants and assist
them in obtaining water and nutrients Irom the soil.
(7) Several soil organisms take part in biogeochemical cycles.
Types of Indian Soils
Soils oI India are classiIied into six major types based on their nature and composition
Red soils:
Red Colour -iron components.
Low water retention capacity.
Poor in N,P,K and organic matter.
Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,Bihar, Orissa, U.P. ,West Bengal.
Black soils:
Good Ior cotton and sugarcane cultivation.
Maharashtra, Mysore and Madhya Pradesh.
Skeletal soils:
Also called as Mountain soil
Altitude between 2000 m and 3000 m.
Undergoes land slides and snowIall.
North-western hills or the Aravallis
Used Ior Iorestry and growing potatoes, and subtropical Iruits.
Desert soils:
Annual rainIall is less than 50 centimetres.
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These soils cover 1.4 lakh square kilometres.
Desert soils can be reclaimed through good irrigation.
Rajasthan, semi-desert areas oI Kutch.
Land Degradation:
Any change in the land that reduces its condition or quality and hence its productivity or
productive potential is called .land degradation.
Factors aIIecting the land resources are:
S.NO FACTOR REASON
1 Soil erosion Wind and high velocity Ilowing water
2 Salination Improper irrigation and Iaulty drainage system
3 AcidiIication Leaching oI soluble chemical substances
4 Deposition oI salt Flood and water logging
5
Developmental
activities such as.
Construction oI dams, roads, railways, urban
encroachment, industrialization and mining
Soil Erosion
S.NO POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED
1
It takes up to 300 years Ior 1 inch oI agricultural topsoil to Iorm, soil that
is lost is Nutrient-rich topsoil erosion
2
The eIIect oI these losses oI topsoil on the Iarm is devastating. Eroded soils can
become useless Ior crop production.
3
As wind and water remove the Iiner particles, the subsoil that is leIt is coarser,
with less organic matter to break up the soil, and more Iertilizers are needed
to make it support plant growth.
4
Erosion is less severe with crops such as wheat (covers the ground uniIormly),
than with crops such as corn and tobacco (grown in rows)
5
The Iactors enhancing soil erosion: Intensity oI rainIall Slope oI the ground
Soil type Vegetal cover area Uncontrolled grazing by cattle etc
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Desertification
DesertiIication is a slow process oI land degradation that leads to desert Iormation.
The destruction oI natural vegetation results in accelerated soil erosion due to the removal
oI the vegetation cover.
Erosion oI the top Iertile soil leads to in loss oI soil productivity and Iormation oI deserts.
The 1har desert in India was Iormed by destroying thousands oI hectares productive land.
Excessive grazing by livestock is another Iactor resulting in desertiIication especially
in Rajasthan.
Many deserts in the world are a result oI human activities.
Equitable use oI Resources Ior sustainable LiIestyles
Rate oI use oI renewable resources do not exceed regeneration rates.
Rate oI use oI non-renewable resources do not exceed rates oI development oI
renewable substitutes.
Rate oI pollution emission do not exceed assimilative capacities oI the environment.
Aiming to achieve complete reuse, recycle and repair
Reducing Iossil Iuel use - maximizing the use oI energy conservation measures, shrinking
energy intensive sectors and introducing energy taxes
Improving the quality oI materials -to get products which are more durable, repairable and
recyclable and avoiding the use hazardous materials
Reducing transportation-providing goods and services as close as possible to the
consumers
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CHAPTER-II PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB,ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
GRASSLAND,FOREST,DESERT,AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
BIODIVERSITY-GENETIC,SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
THREATS TO BIODVERSITY
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

I `

` ` I

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UNIT . 2
ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY
Components oI Environment
Introduction
ClassiIication oI Environment
Components oI Environment
Environment, Ecology and Ecosystem
INTRODUCTION
Every organism is surrounded by other organisms, plants,
water, air, light, land etc. These surroundings oI the organism,
all the living and non-living things constitute its
environment.
DEFINITION 1
Environment can be deIined as the natural surroundings oI that organism which directly or
indirectly inIluences the growth and development oI the organism.
DEFINITION 2
Environment is deIined as the surroundings in which an organization operates including air,
water, land and natural resources, Ilora, Iauna, humans and their inter relations.
DEFINITION 3
Environment is the sum total oI all living and non living Iactors that compose the surroundings
oI
man.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
1) Physical environment
2) Cultural environment
3) Biological environment
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
ClassiIication 1
Biotic Components Abiotic Components
1) Producers
2) Consumers
3) Decomposers
1) Water
2) Air
3) Land
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ClassiIication 2
1. Hydrosphere(Water)
2. Atmosphere(Air)
3. Lithosphere(Land)
4. Biosphere(Flora/Fauna/Microbes)
5. Anthrosphere (man made things)
ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
Environment, Ecology and Ecosystem are three diIIerent terms. But they are inter related.
The natural surroundings oI an organism, both living and physical are its environment. Let.s
say you are an organism.
Light, Water, Air, Land etc are your physical surroundings. Humans, Rats, Lizards, Dogs etc
are your living surroundings. They are your environment.
The ecology that takes place in a deIined area is called ecosystem. Say your relation with
water, light, humans, dogs etc in a city, or in a Iorest, sea etc.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
In a particular area, one community oI species may be replaced by another community; the
progressive replacement oI one community by another till the development oI stable community
in a
particular area is called .ecological succession.
CAUSES OF SUCCESSION
Ecologists have recognized the Iollowing three primary causes oI succession:
1. Initiating causes:
These are climatic as well as biotic in nature. The climatic causes include Iactors such as erosion
and deposits, wind, Iire, etc., which are caused by lightening or volcanic: activity. The biotic
causes include various activities oI organisms. All these causes produce the bare areas or destroy
the existing populations in an area.
2. Continuing causes:
These are processes as migration, aggregation, competition, reaction, etc., which cause
successive
waves oI populations as a result oI changes, chieIly in the soil Ieatures oI the area.
. Stabilizing causes:
These include Iactors such as climate oI the area which result in the stabilization oI the
community.
BASIC TYPES OF SUCCESSION
1. Primary succession.
II an area in any oI the basic environments (such as terrestrial, Iresh-water or marine) is
colonized by organisms Ior the Iirst time, the succession is called primary succession.
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Thus, primary succession begins on a sterile area (an area not occupied previously by a
community), such as newly exposed rock or sand dune where the conditions oI existence may
not be Iavorable initially.
1.Secondary succession.
II the area under colonization has been cleared by whatsoever agency (such as burning,
grazing, clearing, Ielling oI trees, sudden change in climatic Iactors, etc.) oI the previous
plants, it is called secondary succession.
Usually the rate oI secondary` succession is Iaster than that oI primary succession because oI
better nutrient and other conditions in area previously under plant cover.
2. Autogenic succession.
AIter the succession has begun, in most oI the cases, it is the community itselI (as a result oI
its reactions with the environment) modiIies its own environment and, thus, causing its own
replacement by new communities. This course oI succession is known as autogenic
succession.
3. Allogenic succession.
In some cases replacement oI one community by another is largely due to Iorces other
than the eIIects oI communities on the environment. This is called allogenic succession
and it may occur in a highly disturbed or eroded area or in ponds where nutrients and
pollutants enter Irom outside and modiIy the environment and in turn the communities.
Some examples oI succession:
1. Hydrarch succession or hydrosere in which a pond and its community are converted into
a land community.
2. Succession in xeric habitat Xerosere or xerarch succession begins on exposed parent
rocks (lithosere) or dry sand (psammosere).
ENERGY FLOW AND NUTRIENT CYLCING IN ECOSYSTEM
The two major Iunctions within an ecosystem are the transIer oI energy through, and the
recycling oI
nutrients within the ecosystem.
ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOSYSTEMS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis (or phototrophism) is the process, by which light energy Irom the sun is
absorbed by plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. It is then used to produce new plant
cell material, which Iorms the Iood source Ior plant eating animals (herbivores).
Plants are able to convert light energy and inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water and
various mineral nutrients) into carbon based organic molecules through the process oI
photosynthesis, hence they are called phototrophs or autotrophs (.selI-Ieeders.).
In a plant, most photosynthesis is carried out by the leaves, and in order Ior the process to
occur
they must contain .Chlorophyll., which is able to absorb energy Irom sunlight. The plant also
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requires carbon dioxide, Irom the atmosphere, and water Irom the soil. As a result oI the
process, and carbohydrates are produced.
6CO2 12 H2O C6H12O6 6O2 6H2O
Carbon Dioxide Water Glucose Oxygen Water
The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are:
Combined with elements such as nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur to produce proteins
and nucleic acids.
Converted into starch and stored in the plant.
Converted into cellulose (the main plant structural material).
Used by the plant Ior respiration i.e. biochemical processes, cell maintenance and growth.
The Iactors which aIIect the rate oI photosynthesis are temperature, light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and the availability oI water.
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH AN ECOSYSTEM
The energy produced by photosynthesis will pass through the Iood chains and Iood webs oI an
ecosystem, with some oI it being stored as chemical energy in plant and animal tissue.
Some oI it will be lost Irom the system, as respiration (heat energy) and excreta products.
Energy is lost at each level in the Iood chain, with the average eIIiciency oI transIer Irom
plants to
herbivores being about 10 per cent, and about 20 per cent Irom animal.
As a result oI the loss oI energy at each transIer between trophic levels, ecosystems are usually
limited to three or Iour trophic levels.
The actual number will depend upon the size oI the initial autotrophy (producer) biomass, and
the
eIIiciency oI energy transIer between the trophic levels.
NUTRIENT (GASEOUS AND BIOGEOCHEMICAL) CYCLES
MACRONUTRIENTS:
The nutrients, or elements used by all organisms Ior growth and reproduction, are termed
essential elements or macronutrients, and include
Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H),
Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorus (P),
Sodium (Na),
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Sulphur (S),
Chlorine (Cl),
Potassium (K),
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg).
MICRONUTRIENTS:
Other elements are also required
micronutrients, It includes
Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn),
Copper (Cu),
Zinc (Zn)
Cobalt (Co)
The nutrients required by plants are obtained as inputs
From the atmosphere through various gaseous cycles or in precipitation, or
From the soil via the weathering oI parent rock,
Through several biogeochemical or
Sedimentary cycles.
The two types oI cycle are interrelated, as nutrients pass Irom abiotic nutrient stores, such as the
soil and
the atmosphere, into biotic, plant and anim
within the ecosystem, Iollowing death and decomposition.
Bio-Geo
___________________________________________
All living things are composed mainly oI water, but most oI the water on Earth lies in the
Ior growth oI a plant. They are called trace elements or
animal stores (the biomass). The nutrients are then recycled,
Geo-Chemical Cycle- Notes: 1
WATER CYCLE_________________________________________
environment (e.g. in lakes, oceans, streams, and the air). The
movement oI water Irom the physical environment, and through the
biological environment is driven by the sun.
In the physical environment, the sun radiates the
Earth`s surIace with heat, evaporating the water, slowly turning
liquid water to water vapor, gaseous water. As a gas, water rises
Irom the ground, the surIace oI streams, lakes, but water mainly
rises Irom our oceans.
Once in the air, air currents move the gaseous water
around the Earth. But when molecules oI water hits a particle, or
when temperatures and pressures reach the point where water
liqueIied or even solidiIies, water begins to condense
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al _________________________________________
condense. As water
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condenses, it Iorms into rain or snow, thus the water begins to Iall to the ground as it is now too
heavy to remain in the air.
As the water strikes the ground, some oI it seeps into the soil, gathering within water tables
under the earth. But the majority oI the water runs across the ground, slowly collecting until
streams, then rivers Iorm. Where the ground has large divots, lakes Iorm. But eventually, most oI
the water again reaches the oceans.
But the biological environment lives along side
organisms live in, bath in, and drink the water, taking water into their bodies. This is important
Ior many organisms, but it is especially important to those who live on land. Terrestrial
organisms generally lose tremendous amounts oI water, as it evaporates Irom their bodies. All
organisms lose some water as they remove waste Irom their bodies
___________________________________________CARBON
CYCLE_________________________________________
Photosynthesis takes energy Irom t
carbohydrates;
Respiration releases that energy.
Both plants and animals carry on respiration, but only plants (and other producers) can
carry on photosynthesis.
he oI the physical environment. Along this route,
Earth`s atmosphere contains 0.035
carbon dioxide
The key reactions are
photosynthesis.
Respiration takes carbohydrates and
oxygen and reduces them to produce carbon dioxide,
water, and energy.
Photosynthesis takes carbon dioxide
and water and produces carbohydrates and oxygen.
The outputs oI respiration are the
inputs oI photosynthesis, and the outputs oI
photosynthesis are the inputs oI respiration. The
reactions are also complementary to each other
the sun and stores it in the carbon
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respiration and
er These
other.
he carbon-carbon bonds oI
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The chieI reservoirs Ior carbon dioxid
dissolves readily in water.
(limestone). Corals and algae encourage this reaction and build up limestone reeIs in the
process.
On land and in the water, plants take up carbon dioxide and convert it into carbohydrates
through photosynthesis.
Carbon returns to the physical environment in a number oI ways. Both plants and animals
respire, so they release CO
Another route oI CO2
and animals. When organisms die, decomposers consume their bodies. In the process, some
oI the carbon returns to the physical environment by way oI Iossilization.
Some oI it remains in t
But by Iar, most oI the carbon returns to the physical environment through the respiration
oI CO2.
dioxide are in the oceans and in rock. Carbon dioxide
It may precipitate as a solid rock known as calcium carbonate
CO2 during respiration.
back to the physical environment occurs through the death oI plants
the biological environment as other organisms eat the decomposers.
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___________________________________________OXYGEN
CYCLE______________________________________
A. II you look back at the carbon cycle, you will see that we have also described the oxygen
cycle,
since these atoms oIten are combined.
B. Oxygen is present in the carbon dioxide, in the carbohydrates, in water, and as a molecule oI
two oxygen atoms.
C. Oxygen is released to the atmosphere by autotrophs during photosynthesis and taken up by
both autotrophs and heterotrophs during respiration.
D. In Iact, all oI the oxygen in the atmosphere is biogenic; that is, it was released Irom water
through photosynthesis by autotrophs.
E. It took about 2 billion years Ior autotrophs (mostly cyanobacteria) to raise the oxygen content
oI
the atmosphere to the 21 that it is today; this opened the door Ior complex organisms such as
multicellular animals, which need a lot oI oxygen.
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______________________________________NITROGEN
CYCLE______________________________
Fish releases NH3, but NH3 when concentrated, is poisonous to liv
must dilute NH3 with a lot oI water. Living in water, Iish have no problem with these
requirements, but terrestrial animals have problems. They convert NH3 into urine, or another
chemical that is not as poisonous as NH3. The pro
ammonification.
Because NH3 is poisonous, most oI the NH3 which is released is untouchable. But soil
bacteria
have the ability to assimilate NH3 into proteins. These bacteria eIIectively eat the NH3, and
make proteins Irom it. This process is called
Some soil bacteria does not convert NH3 into proteins, but they make nitrate NO3
This process is called nitrification
proteins. Some soil bacteria, ho
gas back into the atmosphere. This last process is called
nitrate apart.
Proteins, nucleic acids, and other
organic chemicals contain nitrogen, so nitrogen is
a very important atom in biological organisms.
Nitrogen makes up 79 oI Earth`s
atmosphere, but most organisms can not use nitrogen gas
(N2). N2 enters the trophic system through a process
called nitrogen fixation.
Bacteria Iound on the roots oI some
plants can Iix N2 to organic molecules, making prot
Again, animals get their nitrogen by eating plants. But
aIter this point, the nitrogen cycle gets Iar more
complicated than the carbon cycle.
Animals releases nitrogen in their urine.
living organisms. So organisms
process oI releases NH3 is called
. assimilation.
nitrification. Some plants can use NO3-, consuming nitrate and making
however, takes NO3-, and converts it into N2, returning nitrogen
denitrification, because it breaks
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CYCLE________________________________________
proteins.
ing cess NO3- instead.
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.
_______________________________________PHOSPHOROUS
CYCLE______________________________________
The phosphorous cycle is the simplest oI the cycles that we will examine. Phosphorous has
only one Iorm, phosphate, which is a phosphorous atom with 4 oxygen atoms.
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This heavy molecule (phosphates) never makes its way into the atmosphere; it is always part
oI an organism, dissolved in water, or in the Iorm oI rock.
When rock with phosphate is exposed to water (especially water with a little acid in it), the
rock is weathered out and goes into solution.
Autotrophs take this phosphorous up and use it in a variety oI ways.
It is an important constituent oI cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and, oI course ATP, which,
aIter all, stands Ior adenosine triphosphate.
Heterotrophs (animals) obtain their phosphorous Irom the plants they eat, although one type
oI heterotroph, the Iungi, excel at taking up phosphorous and may Iorm mutualistic
symbiotic relationships with plant roots.
The plant gets phosphate Irom the Iungus and gives the Iungus sugars in return.
Animals, by the way, may also use phosphorous as a component oI bones, teeth and shells.
When animals or plants die (or when animals deIecate), the phosphate may be returned to
the soil or water by the decomposers. There, it can be taken up by another plant and used
again.
This cycle will occur over and over until at last the phosphorous is lost at the bottom oI the
deepest parts oI the ocean, where it becomes part oI the sedimentary rocks Iorming there.
Ultimately, this phosphorous will be released, iI the rock is brought to the surIace and
weathered.
Two types oI animals play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle. Humans oIten mine rock
rich in phosphorous.
For instance, in Florida, which was once sea Iloor, there are extensive phosphate mines. The
phosphate is then used as Iertilizer.
This mining oI phosphate and use oI the phosphate as Iertilizer greatly accelerates the
phosphorous cycle and may cause local overabundance oI phosphorous, particularly in
coastal regions, at the mouths oI rivers, and anyplace where there is a lot oI sewage released
into the water (the phosphate placed on crops Iinds its way into our stomachs and Irom
there to our toilets).
Local abundance oI phosphate can cause overgrowth oI algae in the water; the algae can use
up all the oxygen in the water and kill other aquatic liIe. This is called eutrophication.
The other animals that play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle are marine birds. These
birds take phosphorous containing Iish out oI the ocean and return to land, where they
deIecate.
Their guano contains high levels oI phosphorous and in this way marine birds return
phosphorous Irom the ocean to the land. The guano is oIten mined and may Iorm the basis
oI the economy in some areas.
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Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycle- Notes: 2
Nutrients, unlike energy are recycled in the ecosystem. There are about 40 chemical elements
considered to be essential Ior living organisms. Materials are in limited quantity in the earth.s
system
and to keep the system going continuously the only possibility is to regenerate the materials. The
unique
method evolved in nature is recycling materials continuously is by linking them in cyclic
changes.
The macro-nutrients are C, H, O, P, K, I, N, S, Mg, Ca, etc., which have cycles with atmosphere
while micro-nutrients like Cu, Fe, Co, etc., are soil based Iorm edophic cycles. The bio-geo-
chemical
cycles are oI two varieties . sedimentary cycles and gaseous cycles. In sedimentary cycles the
main
reservoir is the soil, the sedimentary and other types oI rocks oI earth.s crust. The gaseous cycles
have
their main reservoir oI nutrients in the atmosphere and oceans. Examples are the oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, sulphur, etc. Both are driven by the Ilow oI energy and both are tied up with the water
cycle or
the hydrologic cycle. In nutrient cycle, various chemical compounds oI the main element are
transIerred
while in hydrologic cycle a compound i.e., water is circulated as solid liquid and vapour phase.
CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is an essential constituent oI carbohydrates, proteins, Iats and a large number oI organic
compounds. CO2 oI the atmosphere and that dissolved in the natural waters is the main source oI
carbon. Green plants use CO2 in the process oI photosynthesis to make carbohydrates. In doing
so the
green plants lock the radiant energy oI the sun in the synthesized Iood. This energy is utilized by
all
living beings Ior their own activities. The evolved oxygen by the process oI photosynthesis is
used Ior
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most oI the living things, the plants and animals. Thus all animals depend Ior their Iood on plants
and
animals. Thus all animals depend Ior their Iood on plants directly or indirectly. All organic
compounds
are also oxidized to CO2 and water, both oI which are utilized by plants in the process oI
photosynthesis.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Free Energy
The water goes down into the soil Ior the use oI plants.
Figure 1 Carbon Cycle
The atmosphere and natural waters must be replenished with CO2. Most oI the CO2 is returned
to atmosphere and natural water by plants and animals through the process oI respiration.
Bacteria and
Iungi also return CO2 to the atmosphere and natural water into the soil by acting chemicals upon
the
dead plants and animals and their waste such as urine and Iaeces. It should also be noted that
coal,
petroleum, etc., are also noted that coal, petroleum, etc., are also the part oI carbon cycle and are
Iormed
in nature by living organisms. Decomposition oI micro-organism are very important in breaking
down dead material with the release oI carbon back to the carbon cycle. All the carbon oI plants,
herbivores, carnivores and decomposers is not respired, but some are Iermented and some are
stored.
The carbon compounds such as methane that are lost to the Iood chain aIter Iermentation are
readily
oxidized to CO2 by a number oI reactions occurring in the atmosphere.
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NITROGEN CYCLE
OI all the elements that plants absorb Irom soil, nitrogen is the most important element Ior plants
growth. It is required Ior amino acids, proteins, enzymes, chlorophyll, nucleic acids and many
other
compounds. But the atmospheric nitrogen is not utilized directly. Nitrogen undergoes many
changes in
the nitrogen cycle like, nitrogen Iixation, nitrogen assimilation, ammoniIication, nitriIication,
and
denitriIication
Nitrogen Iixation or conversion oI Iree nitrogen oI atmosphere into biologically acceptable Iorm
or
nitrogenous compounds is reIerred to as nitrogen Iixation. The Iixation oI nitrogen requires an
investment oI energy. BeIore nitrogen can be Iixed, it must be activated so that the molecular
nitrogen
must be split into two atoms oI Iree nitrogen. In physico-chemical process nitrogen combines
with oxygen
(as ozone) during lightening or electrical discharges in the clouds and produces diIIerent oxygen
oxides.
These nitrogen oxides get dissolved in rain water and on earth.s surIace, they react with mineral
compounds to Iorm nitrates and nitrogenous compounds.
N2 2(O) electric changes 2NO
2NO 2(O) 2NO2
2NO2 (O) N2O5
N2O5 H2O 2HNO3
2HNO3 CaCO3 Ca(NO3)2 CO2 H2O
Biological nitrogen Iixation is carried by some blue-green algae in the oceans, lakes and soils.
Symbiotic bacteria (rhizobium) living in root nodules oI leguminous plants and Iew other plants
can Iix
nitrogen. Certain Iree living nitrogen Iixing bacteria also Iix nitrogen. Fixed nitrogen means
nitrogen
incorporated in a chemical compound that can be utilized by plants and animals. The actual
Iixation
steps involves with two atoms oI nitrogen combined with 3 atoms oI hydrogen to Iorm 2
molecules oI
ammonia. The activation and Iixing, the two steps require a net input oI 147 Kilo Calories. Once
ammonia or ammonium ion appeared in the soil, it can be absorbed by the roots oI plants and the
nitrogen can be incorporated into amino acids and then to protein.
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Nitrogen assimilation means that the inorganic nitrates, nitrites or ammonia must be
incorporated into organic compounds. AmmoniIication means that the dead organic remains oI
plants
and animals and excreta are acted upon by bacteria, actinomycetes releasing nitrogen as
ammonia.
EnitriIication means conversion oI ammonia into nitrate by nitrosomonas, nitro coccus, in oceans
and
soils. Conversion oI nitrite into nitrate by nitrobacter is also nitriIi
DenitroIication in conversion oI nitrite and nitrate into nitrogen by Thiobacillus denitriIications,
micro coccus, denitriIicans, pseudomonas aerusinosa
Unlike carbon and oxygen cycles (gaseous cycles), sulphur and phosphorus
sedimentary cycle. Sulphur is present normally as sulphates or sulphides. In sulphur springs and
volcanic eruptions sulphur di-oxide is present to some extent. Sulphur is a component oI 3 amino
acids.
Sulphur cycle is going to be importa
these amino acids. Sulphur is also present in the Iossil Iuels which emit sulphur di
automobile exhaust. Under anaerobic conditions sulphates are used to supply oxygen
organisms. In some oI the sulphur bacteria elements oI sulphur is precipitated. Hydrogen
sulphide
produced under anaerobic conditions can be oxidized to suplhur or sulphates. Sulphur di
atmosphere gets converted to sulphorou
urban and industrial areas. In sewers, because oI anaerobic conditions, H
oxidized with oxygen present in the sewer pipe and become SO
sulphuric acid. Accumulation oI this inside the pipe results in .crown corrosion. in sewers.
Sulphur cycle links soil, water (Figure 3). Sulphur also occurs in soils and rocks as sulphides
(FeS, ZnS, etc.). Except a Iew organisms which need organi
Figure 2 Nitrogen Cycle
creta nitriIication.
aerusinosa, etc.
SULPHUR CYCLE
important Irom protein synthesis point oI view. Almost all proteins contain
sulphorous and sulphuric acid causing the acid rain problem in many
H2S is produced. This get
SO2 which dissolves in water to Iorm
ulphuric organic Iorm oI suplhur as amino acids and cystein,
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cycles are
nt di-oxide, in the
Ior sulphur
di-oxide in the
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most oI the organisms take sulphur as inorganic sulphates. Under aerobic conditions sulphur can
be
reduced to directly sulphides.
Green and purple photosynthetic bacteria use hydrog
carbon-di-oxide. Green bacteria are also to oxidize sulphide to elemental sulphur, whereas purple
sulphur bacteria can carry oxidation oI sulphate stage. In the ecosystem sulphur is transIerred
Irom
autotrophs to animals, their to decomposers and Iinally it returns to environment through death
and
decay oI dead organisms.
Sedimentary nature oI sulphur cycling involves precipitation oI sulphur in presence oI iron,
under
anaerobic conditions. Sulphides oI iron, co
alkalie waters and sulphur is bound to limit the amount oI these elements.
When we consider the Iunction oI an ecosystem, we must describe the Ilow oI energy and the
cycling oI nutrients. That is, we are interested in things like how much sunlight is trapped by
plants in a year, how much plant material is eaten by herbivores, and
are eaten by carnivores.
Thus, the producers, the green plants, Iix radiant energy and with the help oI minerals (such
as C, H, O, N, P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, etc.) taken Irom their cdaphic (soil) or aerial environment
(the nutrient pool) they build up complex organic matter (carbohydrates, Iats, proteins,
nucleic acids, etc.).
Some ecologists preIer to reIer
view, the most popular and prevalent term `producer` Irom energy vie
misleading. T
Figure Sulphur Cycle
hydrogen oI H2S as oxygen acceptor in reducing
copper, zinc, cadmium, cobalt are insoluble in neutral and
Functions oI an ecosystem
how many herbivores
hey to the green plants as converters or transducers, since in their
view point is somewhat
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heir view point is that green plants produce carbohydrates and not energy and since they
convert or transduce radiant energy intochemical Iorm, they must be better called converters
or transducers.
The two ecological processes oI energy Ilow and mineral cycling involving interaction
between
the physico-chemical environment and the biotic communities, may be considered the `heart`
oI ecosystem dynamics.
In an ecosystem, energy Ilows in non-cyclic manner (unidirectional) Irom sun 4o the
decomposers via producers and macroconsumcrs (herbivores and carnivores), whereas the
minerals keep on moving in a cyclic manner.
Productivity of Ecosystem
The productivity oI an ecosystem reIers to the rate oI production, i.e., the amount oI organic
matter
accumulated in any unit time. It is oI Iollowing types
1. Primary productivity. It is deIined as the rate at which radiant energy is stored by
photosynthctic and chemosynthetic activity oI producers. Primary productivity is oI Iollowing
types:
(i) Gross primary productivity. It reIers to the total rate oI photosynthesis including the organic
matter used up in respiration during the measurement period. GPP depends on the chlorophyll
content. The rate oI primary productivity are estimated in terms oI either chlorophyll content as
chl/g dry weight/unit area or photosynthctic number, i.e., amount oI CO, Iixed/g chl/hour.
(ii) Net primary productivity. It is the rale oI storage oI organic matter in plant tissues in excess
oI the respiratory utilization by plants during the measurement period.
Primary production is measured by Iollowing methods.harvest method, oxygen measurement
method (or light or dark method), oxygen diurnal curve method, carbon dioxide measurement
method
(enclosure method), the aerodynamic method, the pH method, radioisotope method, chlorophyll
estimation method (see Dash, 1993).
2. Secondary productivity. It is the rate oIencrgy storage at consumer`s levels
herbivores,carnivores
and decomposers. Consumers tend to utilise already produced Iood materials in their respiration
and
also convert the Iood matter to diIIerent tissues by an overall process. So, secondary productivity
is
not divided into `gross` and `net` amounts. Due to this Iact some ecologists such as Odum
(1971),
preIer to use the term assimilation rather than production at this level - the consumers level.
Secondary productivity, in Iact, remains mobile (i.e., keeps on moving Irom one organism to
another)
and does not live in situ like the primary productivity.
. Net productivity. It is the rate oI storage oI organic matter not used by the heterotrophs or
consumers, i.e., equivalent to net primary production minus consumption by the heterotrophs
during
the unit period as a season or year, etc.
Food Chains in Ecosystems
In an ecosystem one can observe the transIer or Ilow oI energy Irom one trophic level to other
in succession.
A trophic level can be deIined as the number oI links by which it is separated Irom the
producer, or as the which position oI the organism in the Iood chain.
The patterns oI eating and being , eaten Iorms a linear chain called food chain which can
always be traced back to the producers.
Thus, primary producers trap radiant energy oI sun and transIer that to chemical or potential
energy oI organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins and Iats.
When a herbivore animal eats a plant (or when bacteria decompose it) and these organic
compounds are oxidized, the energy liberated is just equal to the amount oI energy used in
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synthesizing the substances (Iirst law oI thermodynamics), but some oI the energy is heat and
not useIul energy (second law oI thermodynamics).
II this animal, in rum, is eaten by another one, along with transIer oI energy Irom a herbivore
to carnivore a Iurther decrease in useIul energy occurs as the second animal (carnivore)
oxidizes the organic substances oI the Iirst (herbivore or omnivore) to liberate energy to
synthesize its own cellular constituents.
Such transIer oI energy Irom organism to organism sustains the ecosystem and when energy
is transIerred Irom individual to individual in a particular community, as in a pond or a lake
or a river, we come across the Iood chains.
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In nature, basically two types oI Iood chains arc recognized.grazing Iood chain and detritus Iood
chain.
1. Grazing food chain.
, This type oI Iood chain starts Irom the living green plants, goes to grazing herbivores and on
to the carnivores.
, Ecosystems with such type oI Iood chain are directly dependent on an inIlux oI solar
radiation. Thus, this type oI Iood chain depends on autotrophic energy capture and the
movement oI this energy to herbivores.
, Most oI the ecosystems in nature Iollow this type oI Iood chain. These chains are very
signiIicant Irom energy standpoint.
, The phytoplankton -~ zooplanktons - Iish sequence or the grasses -~ rabbit -~ Iox sequence
arc the examples oI grazing Iood chain.
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, Further the producer -~ herbivore -~ carnivore chain is a predator chain.
, Parasitic chains also exist wherein smaller organisms consume larger ones without outright
killing as the case oI the predators.
2. Detritus food chain.
, The organic wastes, exudates and dead matter derived Irom the grazing Iood chain are
generally termed detritus.
, The energy contained in this detritus in not lost to the ecosystem as a whole; rather it serves
as the source oI energy Ior a group oI organisms (dctritivorcs that are separate Irom the
grazing Iood chain, and generally termed as the detritus Iood chain.
, Detritus Iood chain represents an exceedingly important component in the energy (low oI an
ecosystem. Indeed in some ecosystems, considerably more energy Ilows through the detritus
Iood chain than through the grazing Iood chain.
, In the detritus Iood chain the energy Ilow remains as a continuous passage rather than as a
stepwise Ilow between discrete entities.
, The organisms oI the detritus Iood chain are many and include algae, bacteria, slime molds,
actinomycetes, Iungi. Protozoa, insects mites. Crustacea, centipedes, molluscs, rotiIers,
annelid worms, nematodes and some vertebrates.
, .
Significance of food chain.
The Iood chain studies/help under stand the Ieeding relationships and the interaction between
organisms in an ecosystem. They also help us to appreciate the energy Ilow mechanism and
matter
circulation in ecosystem, and understand the movement oI toxic substances in the eco-system
and
the problem oI biological magniIication
Food web
In nature simple Iood chains occur rarely The same organism may operate in the ecosystem at
more
than one trophic level i.e it may derive its Iood Irom more than one source. Even the same
organism
may be eaten by several organisms oI a higher trophic level or an organism may Ieed upon
several
diIIerent organisms oI a lower trophic level. usually the kind oI Iood changes with the age oI the
organism and the Iood availability. Thus in a given ecosystem various Iood chains are linked
together
and interested each other to Iorm a complex network called Iood Web.
Ecological Pyramids
In the successive steps oI grazing Iood chain-photosynthetic autotroph, herbivorous heterotroph,
carnivores heterotroph, decay bacteria-the number and mass oI the organisms in each step is
limited
by the amount oI energy available. Since some energy is lost as heat, in each transIormation the
steps
become progressively smaller near the top. This relationship is sometimes called "ecological
pyramid". The ecological pyramids represent the trophic structure and also trophic Iunction oI
the
ecosystem. In many ecological pyramids, the producer Iorm the base and the successive trophic
levels
make up the apex.
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Thus.communiticsoI terrestrial ecosystems and shallow water ecosystems contain gradually
sloping
ecological pyramids because these producers remain large and characterized by an accumulation
oI
organic matter. This trend, however, does not hold Ior all ecosystems. In such aquatic
ecosystems as
lakes and open sea, primary production is concentrated in the microscopic algae. These algae
have a
short-cycle, multiply rapidly, accumulate little organic matter and are heavily exploited by
herbivorous zooplankton. At any one point in time the standing crop is low. As a result, the
pyramid
oI biomass Ior these aquatic ecosystems is inverted: the base is much smaller than the structure it
supports.
Types of Ecological Pyramids
The ecological pyramids may be oI Iollowing three kinds :
1. Pyramid of number. It depicts the number oI individual organisms at diIIerent trophic levels
oI
Iood chain. This pyramid was advanced by Charles Elton (1927), who pointed out the great
diIIerence
in the number oI the organisms involved in each step oI the Iood chain. The animals at the lower
end
(base oI pyramid) oI the chain are the most abundant. Successive links oI carnivores decrease
rapidly
in number until there are very Iew carnivores at the top. The pyramid oI number ignores the
biomass
oI organisms and it also docs not indicate the energy transIerred or the use oI energy by the
groups in
vol ved. The lake ecosystem provides a typical example Ior pyramid oI number.
2. Pyramid of biomass. The biomass oI the members oI the Iood chain present at any one time
Iorms
the pyramid oI the biomass. Pyramid oI biomass indicates decrease oI biomass in each trophical
level
Irom base to apex. For example, the total biomass oI the producers ingested by herbivores is
more
than the total biomass oI the herbivores in an ecosystem. Likewise, the total biomass oI the
primary
carnivores (or secondary consumer) will be less man the herbivores and so on.
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. Pyramid of energy. When production is considered in terms oI energy, the pyramid indicates
not
only the amount oI energy Ilow at each level, but more important, the actual role the various
organisms
play in the transIer oI energy. The base upon which the pyramid oI energy is constructed is the
quantity
oI organisms produced per unit lime, or in other words, the rate at which Iood material passes
through
the Iood chain. Some organisms may have a small biomass, but the total energy they jssimilate
and pass
on, may be considerably greater than that oI organisms with a much larger biomass. Energy
pyramids are
always slopping because less energy is transIerred Irom each level than was paid into it. In cases
such as
in open water communities the producers have less bulk than consumers but the energy they
store and
pass on must be greater than that oI the next level. Otherwise the biomass that producers support
could
not be greater than that oI the producers themselves. This high energy Ilow is maintained by a
rapid turn
over oI individual plankton, rather than an increase oI total mass.
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ClassiIication oI Ecosystems / Ecology
Ecosystems are broadly classiIied as :
Terrestrial Ecosystems . which encompass the activities that take place on land, and Aquatic
ecosystems
- the system that exists in water bodies
These ecosystems can be Iurther subdivided as:
Terrestrial ecosystem - Forest ecosystem,
Mountain ecosystem
Desert ecosystem
Grassland ecosystem
Urban ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem - Marine ecosystem
Fresh water ecosystem
Estuarine ecosystem
Engineered ecosystem:
An ecosystem which is Iully designed and controlled by man is called .Engineered
ecosystem.. A paddy Iield or a Iish pond can be quoted as an example Ior this
ecosystem
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Undisturbed areas with moderate to high average annual rain precipitation tend to be covered
with Iorest,
which contains various species oI trees and smaller Iorms oI vegetation.
There are three important types oI Iorests are
Tropical rain Iorests
Temperate deciduous Iorests
Boreal/coniIerous Iorests
Tropical rain Iorests
They are Iound near the equator.
These Iorests have a warm annual mean temperature.
These Iorests have high humidity and heavy rainIall almost daily.
These Iorests consists oI broadleaI ever green plants.
These trees have larger surIace on their leaves that allows them to collect more sunlight and
do
photosynthesis extensively.
Tropical rain Iorests have wide varieties oI species.
Temperate Deciduous Iorests: reIer book
Boreal/ConiIer Iorests: reIer book
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DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Deserts are dry places with unpredictable and inIrequent precipitation. A desert is an area
where
evaporation exceeds precipitation.
Daily and seasonal temperature oI the desert will vary since desert has very little moisture to
absorb and store sun radiation.
Deserts with less than 2.5 cm oI precipitation supports almost zero vegetation.
Deserts with 2.5 to 5.0 cm precipitation have thin (scanty) vegetation(less than 10 oI the
ground
is covered).
Seasonal leaI production, water-storage tissues and thick epidermal layer help reduce water
loss.
A combination oI low rainIall and diIIerent average temperatures creates tropical, temperate
and
cold deserts.
TROPICAL DESERTS TEMPERATE DESERTS COLD DESERTS
Temperatures are high year
around
Day time temperature are high in
summer & low in winter
Winters are too cold,
summers are too hot
There is very little rainIall
during 1 or 2 months oI a
year.
There is more precipitation than
tropical deserts
Precipitation is too
low
These driest places on the
earth have Iew plants along
with wind blown sands and
rocks
It consists oI drought resistant
shrubs, cacti and other
succulents* and Iew animals
Small shrubs
Ex: $ahara in AIrica Mofave in south CaliIornia Gobi desert in China
They are the plants survive in dry climates by having no leaves / wax coated leaves and storing
water.
Many desert animals avoid the drying sun by Ieeding at night and acquire water Irom the
seeds
and green vegetation.
Warm, dry high pressure atmospheric conditions create broad bands oI deserts around the
world
at 300 north and south latitude.
This band includes deserts in the southwest America, north and south AIrica, China and
Australia.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are regions with enough average annual rain precipitation to allow grass to grow
extensively. But drought and Iire does not allow trees to grow taller.
Grasslands are rich biological communities oI grasses, seasonal Ilowering plants and open
savannas*.
Great Plains oI central North America, Russian steppes, AIrican veldt and South American
pampas are some oI the important grasslands in the world.
There are three types oI grasslands
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A. Tropical grasslands
B. Temperate grasslands
C. Polar grasslands
Tropical grasslands
They has warm temperature year around with two prolonged dry seasons. They are the shelter
Ior animals like zebras, giraIIes, black rhino, and AIrican elephant. Savanna grassland in AIrica
is good example Ior tropical grassland.
Temperate grasslands
Winters are too cold, summers are hot and dry, annual precipitation is less and Ialls unevenly
through the year. Drought, Iire and overgrazing inhibits the growth oI trees and bushes. The soil
in temperate grassland is Iertile since grass die and decomposes to Ior organic manure. !rairies
in Canada, !ampas in South America and Jeldt in AIrica are examples Ior temperate grasslands.
Polar grasslands
It is also known as arctic tundra. They occur in arctic polar ice caps. The land is covered with
ice
and show. Winter is very dark, long and cold.
Seasonal cycles oI temperature and precipitation contributes to abundant vegetative growth
that
enriches and protects the soil oI the grasslands.
There is enough water to support small crops to do photosynthesis
Grasslands have Iew trees because inadequate rainIall, large daily and seasonal temperature
ranges and Irequently grass Iires kill woody seedlings.
Major impacts on grasslands are:
Conversion oI grasslands into cropland
Overgrazing oI grasslands by livestock
Exploitation oI polar grassland by oil, water and air pollution
grassland with scattered trees
Grasslands are an important part oI the earth.s many ecological communities, originally
covering as
much as 25 oI the earth.s surIace. They have provided expansive grazing land Ior both wild
and
domesticated animals, and oIIered Ilat areas that have been ploughed to grow crops. Grasslands
occur in areas with hot summer temperatures and low precipitation. Areas with less rainIall are
deserts and areas with more rainIall tend to be Iorested.
There are two broad types oI grasslands in the world: Tropical Savannah and Temperate
Grassland.
--------------------------------------TROPICAL SAVANNA-----------------------------------
Tropical Savannah occurs in AIrica, Australia, South America and Indonesia. RainIall oI 50 to
130
centimetres a year is concentrated in six to eight months with drought the rest oI the year. Soils
are
usually very thin, supporting only grasses and Iorbs (Ilowering plants), with only scattered trees
and
shrubs. DiIIerences in climate and soils create many variations in the plant communities and
animal
species throughout the Savannah. In many areas, the grasslands have been burned to maintain a
healthy grass crop Ior grazing animals. In some areas the Savannah has been expanded by cutting
the Iorest and burning the area each year to prevent the return oI trees.
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-----------------------------------------TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS-------------------------------------
---
Temperate grasslands have less rainIall (25 to 90 centimetres) than tropical grasslands and a
much
greater range oI temperatures Irom winter to summer than Savannah. There are two broad types
oI
grasslands in temperate latitudes: Prairie and Steppe.
PRAIRIE GRASSLANDS
Prairie grasslands are Iound across the globe. They have a variety oI names in other parts oI the
world: pampas in South America, veldt in South AIrica and pus:ta in Hungary. These areas have
deep, rich soils and are dominated by tall grasses; trees and shrubs are restricted to river valleys,
wetlands and other areas with more moisture. Over the years the native grass species on the
extensive areas oI level ground have been ploughed and Iields seeded. Many oI these grasslands
have
been lost to cereal crops.
STEPPE GRASSLANDS
Steppe grasslands receive only 25 to 50 centimetres oI rainIall each year and the grasses are
much
shorter than those on prairie grasslands. They are also not as widespread, occurring only in
Central
and Eastern Europe, Northern Eurasia and Western North America.
The biotic components oI a grassland ecosystem are the living organisms that exist in the
system.
These organisms can be classiIied as producers, consumers or decomposers.
Producers are able to capture the sun.s energy through photosynthesis and absorb nutrients Irom
the soil, storing them Ior Iuture use by themselves and by other organisms. Grasses, shrubs, trees,
mosses, lichens, and cyanobacteria are some oI the many producers Iound in a grassland
ecosystem.
When these plants die they provide energy Ior a host oI insects, Iungi and bacteria that live in
and on
the soil and Ieed on plant debris. Grasses are an important source oI Iood Ior large grazing
animals
such as CaliIornia Bighorn Sheep, Mule Deer and Elk, and Ior much smaller animals such as
marmots, Pocket Gophers and mice.
Consumers are organisms that do not have the ability to capture the energy produced by the sun,
but consume plant and/or animal material to gain their energy Ior growth and activity.
Consumers
are Iurther divided into three types based on their ability to digest plant and animal material:
Herbivores eat only plants, such as the elk that graze the grasslands oI the Columbia valley,
or an
insect nibbling on the leaI oI a sticky geranium.
Omnivores eat both plants and animals, such as the black bear.
Carnivores eat only animals, such as the red-tailed hawk or western rattlesnake.
Decomposers include the insects, Iungi, algae and bacteria both on the ground and in the soil
that
help to break down the organic layer to provide nutrients Ior growing plants. There are many
millions
oI these organisms in each square metre oI grassland.
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Fresh water ecosystems:
Marine ecosystems:
Freshwater Ecosystems
Wetlands:
once considered useless, disease
provide many beneIits to society:
o Iish and wildliIe habitats
o natural water quality improvement
o Ilood storage
o shoreline erosion protection
o opportunities Ior recreation and aesthetic appreciation
among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain Iorests and coral
reeIs.
They also are a source oI substantial biodiversity in supporting numero
major groups oI organisms .
Lakes
divided into zones based on photosynthetic activity & proximity to bottom:
WATER ECOSYSTEMS
disease-ridden places (e.g., malaria and yellow Iever)
numerous species Irom all oI the
Irom microbes to mammals.
Littoral zone - light penetrates
to the bottom, allowing aquatic
plants to grow
Limnetic zone
water area where light does not
generally penetrate all the way
to the bottom
Euphotic zone -
the surIace down to the depth
where light levels become too
low Ior photosynthesis
Benthic zone -
sediment
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us - the open
the layer Irom
the bottom
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Major threats to our lakes:
o An overabundance oI nutrients. This leads to algal blooms and excessive plant growth
which ultimately deplete oxygen supplies Ior Iish and some other aquatic liIe.
o An overabundance oI sediment. This "runoII" soil can Iill lake
plants and animals, as well as clog Iish gills and smother Iish eggs.
o Metals and other organic chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
contaminating Iish and shellIish.
Sources oI lake pollution:
o Agricultural manage
sediment, & pesticides and entering a lake.
o RunoII Irom pavement and lawns in urban areas picks up oil, metals, bacteria (including
E. coli), nutrients, and transports them through the stor
o Septic systems also contribute to lake pollution when they leak into the shallow
groundwater. This can also increase the load oI nutrients, bacteria (including
other organic wastes.
Oceans
70 oI the earth.s surIace
Zones:
The ocean bottom is the benthic zone
neritic zone is that part oI the pelagic zone that extends Irom the high tide line to an ocean
bottom less
than 600 Ieet deep. Water deeper than 600 Ieet is called the
basis oI water depth into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, and bathypelagic zones. These zones
roughly
correspond to the three other zones divided on the basis oI the amount oI sunlight th
sunlit zone, enough light penetrates to support photosynthesis. Below that lies the
very small amounts oI light penetrate. Ninety percent oI the space in the ocean lies in the
which is entirely devoid oI light.
lakes and destroy habitat Ior
management practices can lead to pollutants like nitrogen, phosphorous,
), storm sewer system.
and the water itselI (or the water column) is the
han oceanic zone, which itselI is divided on the
, twilight zone
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s ment m E. coli) and
pelagic zone. The
, they receive. In the
zone, where
midnight zone,
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Two important communities Iound in the neritic province are:
Tidal marshes & estuaries
o a partially enclosed body oI water Iormed where Ireshwater Irom rivers and streams Ilows
into the ocean, mixing with the salty sea watere
o among the most productive ecosystems on earth, creating more organic matter each year
than comparably-sized areas oI Iorest, grassland, or agricultural land
o provide habitat Ior more than 75 oI America`s commercial Iish catch, and Ior 0-90 oI
the recreational Iish catch
Coral reeIs
o cover less than 1 oI the planet`s surIace
o the world`s most biologically diverse marine ecosystems
o ReeI ecosystems are now being rapidly degraded & destroyed worldwide due to:
increased sediments in the water
trampling by tourists and divers
ship groundings, pollution, overIishing
Iishing with poisons and explosives that destroy coral habitat
Environmental problems Iacing our oceans:
Whaling
Incidental take or bycatch
o the unintended catch oI animals associated with commercial Iishing operations, the vast
majority oI which is discarded back into the ocean already dead or dying.
o Bycatch is pervasive the world`s Iisheries. It includes undersized or juvenile Iish oI
targeted species as well as
non-target species oI Iish, turtles, marine mammals, birds, and other wildliIe.
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ESTUARIES
They are bays or partially enclosed bodies oI brackish water* that Iorm where river enter into
ocean.
Estuaries contain rich sediments carried down river, Iorming mudIlats that act as home Ior
many
aquatic lives.
The combination oI certain physical Iactors makes them very protective and oI high species
diversity.
Deltas, broad, shallow deposits oI river borne sand and mud, can be part oI the larger estuary
zone; a steady Ilow oI nutrients makes deltas biologically rich.
$alty water
WETLANDS
Wetlands are ecosystem in which the land surIace is covered with standing water Ior at least
part
oI the year.
Wetland vegetation is adapted Ior growth under saturated condition.
There are 3 types oI wetlands:
1. Swamps: they are wetlands with trees
2. Marshes: they are wetlands without trees
3. Bogs & Iens: they are waterlogged areas saturated by ground/rainwater
Water in marshes and swamps is shallow enough so that sun light cab easily penetrates
through
the water, hence photosynthesis is high.
Biomass production and species diversity are high compared to surrounding uplands.
Activities like breeding, nesting and migration oI water birds and shore birds are high.
Wetlands are acting as natural water puriIying system by removing slit and absorbing toxins.
Most popular wetlands are in Canadian and Russian arctic tundra.
Biodiversity and its conservation
Introduction:
Biodiversity is the variety oI liIe on earth It includes all liIe Iorms-Irom the unicellular Iungi,
protozoa and bacteria to complex multi-cellular organisms such as plants, birds, Iishes and
animals.
Biodiversity is the variety oI Ilora and Iauna on this planet earth.
According to the World Resources Institute-"Biodiversity is the
variety oI the world`s organisms, including their genetic diversity
and the assemblage they Iorm..
The concept reIlects the inter-relatedness oI genes, species and
ecosystems. Because genes are the components oI species, and
species are the components oI ecosystems.
From the driest deserts to the dense tropical rainIorests and
Irom the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the deepest oI ocean
trenches, liIe occurs in a marvelous spectrum oI Iorms, size,
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colour and shape, each with unique ecological inter-relationships.
Diversity may be deIined as the number oI species present in a community, a measure termed
as
`species richness`.
GENETIC DIVERSITY
It reIers to the total genetic inIormation contained in the genes oI individuals oI plants,
animals and microorganisms.
The genes Iound in organisms can Iorm enormous number oI combinations each oI which
gives rise to some variability. Genes are the basic units oI hereditary inIormation
transmitted Irom one generation to other.
When the genes within the same species show diIIerent versions due to new combinations,
it is called genetic variability.
For example, all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands
oI varieties oI rice which show variations at the genetic level and diIIer in their color, size,
shape, aroma and nutrient content oI the grain. This is the genetic diversity oI rice.
New genetic variation arises due to in individuals, by gene and chromosome mutation.
Value of Genes
Rice grown in Asia is protected Irom the Iour main rice diseases by genes brought in Irom a
wild species Irom India.
The sugarcane industry in the US was saved Irom collapse by disease . resistance genes
brought in Irom wild Asiatic species.
A tomato discovered in Andes has been used to increase the sugar content oI cultivated
varieties, increasing their commercial value.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
A species generally consists oI all the individual organisms oI a natural population which are
able to
interbreed, generally sharing similar appearance, characteristics and genetics. A species is one oI
the
basic units oI biodiversity.
Measurement oI species:
Species richness is the simplest measure oI biodiversity and is simply a count oI the number
oI diIIerent species in a given area.
Species evenness is a diversity index, a measure oI biodiversity which quantiIies how equal
the populations are numerically.
So iI there are 40 Ioxes, and 1000 dogs, the population is not very even.
But iI there are 40 Ioxes and 42 dogs, the population is quite even.
This is the variability Iound within the population oI a species or between diIIerent species oI
a community.
It represents broadly the species richness and their abundance in a community.
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ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
This is the diversity oI ecological variations in
ecological niches(places),
trophic structure,
Iood-webs,
nutrient cycling etc.
The ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like
moisture,
temperature,
altitude,
precipitation etc.
The ecosystem diversity is oI great value that must be kept intact. This diversity has
developed over millions oI years oI evolution. II we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt the
ecological balance.
We cannot even replace the diversity oI one ecosystem by that oI another. ConiIerous trees oI
boreal Iorests cannot take up the Iunction oI the trees` oI tropical deciduous Iorest lands and
vice versa.
Ecological Niche
The description oI a niche may include descriptions oI the organism`s liIe history,
habitat, and place in the Iood chain.
A niche is the sum total oI an organism.s use oI biotic and abiotic resources in its
environment, how it "Iits into" an ecosystem.
A niche may apply to species, populations or even individuals.
The concept oI the ecological niche is an important one; it helps us to understand how
organisms in an ecosystem interact with each other.
The ecological niche oI an organism depends not only on where it lives but also on what it
does.
By analogy, it may be said that the habitat is the organism`s "address", and the
niche is its .proIession", biologically speaking.
What do oak trees do?
Know the oak trees "proIession" or its ecological niche.
absorb sunlight by photosynthesis;
absorb water and mineral salts Irom the soil;
provide shelter Ior many animals and other plants;
act as a support Ior creeping plants;
serve as a source oI Iood Ior animals;
Cover the ground with their dead leaves in the autumn.
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These six things are the "proIession" or ecological niche oI the oak tree;II the oak trees were cut
down
or destroyed by Iire or storms they would no longer be doing their job and this would have a
disastrous eIIect on all the other organisms living in the same habitat.
Measurement of biodiversity
There are three other indices which are used by ecologists:
Alpha diversity
It reIers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is measured by
counting the number oI distinct groups oI animals (taxa) within the ecosystem.Ex. Families,
species
Beta diversity
It is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number oI distinct groups
oI
animals (taxa) that are unique to each oI the ecosystems. It gives a quantitative measure oI
diversity
oI communities that experience changing environments.
Gamma diversity
It is a measure oI the overall diversity Ior diIIerent ecosystems within a region. It reIers to the
total
biodiversity over a large area or region.
Bio-Geographical ClassiIication oI India
Biogeography: It is the science which deals with patterns oI species distribution and the
processes that result in such patterns.
Some Iundamentals in biogeography are
Evolution (change in genetic composition oI a population)
Extinction (disappearance oI a species)
Dispersal (movement oI populations away Irom their point oI origin, related to
migration)
Range and distribution
Endemic areas
Biogeography is oI two types
Phyto-geography
Zoo-geography.
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India has diIIerent types oI climate and topography in diIIerent parts oI the country and
these variations have induced enormous variability in Ilora and Iauna. India has a rich heritage
oI biological diversity
Bio-geographic zones: Major zones representing distinctive units oI similar ecology, biome
representation, community and species. e.g. Himalaya, Gangetic plain.
Biotic provinces: Next level oI detail within the zones. e.g. Northwestern Himalaya, Western
Himalaya.
Biomes: Major ecosystem groupings Iound within each province and region. e.g. Alpine,
subalpine.
In order to gain insight about the distribution and environmental interactions oI Ilora and Iauna
oI
our country, it has been classiIied into ten bio-geographic zones. Each oI these zones has its own
characteristic climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.
Within India the classiIication recognizes 10 Zones, divided into 26 Provinces
The zones are:
Trans-Himalaya with 2 provinces
The Himalaya with 4 provinces
The Indian Desert with 2 provinces
The Semi-Arid Zone with 2 provinces
The Western Ghats with 2 provinces
The Deccan Peninsula with 5 provinces
The Gangetic Plain with 2 provinces
The Coasts with 3 provinces
North East India with 2 provinces
The Islands with 2 provinces
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Bio-geographic Zones
1. Trans-Himalaya:
Biotic Province: Ladakh (J&K) and Lahaul - Spiti (Himachal)|1|
Biome: Tundra valley, lakes and marshes.
WildliIe: Chiru, Black-necked Crane, Himalayan pit viper.
2. Himalaya:
Biotic Province: Northwestern Himalaya (2a), Western Himalaya (2b), Central Himalaya (2c),
Eastern Himalaya (2d).
Biome: All alpine, temperate coniIer, temperate broadleaI, subtropical
WildliIe: Ibex, red panda, Monal Pheasant.
3. Indian Desert:
Biotic Province: Kutchh (3a), Thar (3b).
Biome: SaltIlats,scrublands, desert grasslands.
WildliIe: Wild ass, blackbuck, Ilamingo,desert monitor.
4. Semi-arid:
Biotic Province: Punjab and Gujarat-Rajwara|4|
Biome: Scrublands, Bhabar Iorests, wetlands, dry deciduous, hill and thorn Iorests.
WildliIe: Tiger, Asiatic lion, Great Indian Bustard, gharial.
5. Western Ghats:
Biotic Province: Western Ghats|5|
Biome: Evergreen, moist deciduous, wetlands, Montane Iorests, grasslands.
WildliIe: Lion-tailed macaque, Malabar civet, hornbill, draco.
6. Deccan Peninsula:
Biotic Province: Southern Plateau (6a), Central Plateau (6b), Eastern Plateau (6c), Chhota-
Nagpur (6d), Central Highlands (6e).
Biome: Dry deciduous, thorn Iorests, wetlands, subtropical, moist deciduous.
WildliIe: Swamp deer, Jerdon.s Courser, mugger.
7. Gangetic Plains:
Biotic Province: Lower and upper Gangetic plains (7).
Biome: Alluvial plain, wetlands, rivers.
WildliIe: Rhino, otter, Gangetic dolphin, terrapin.
. Northeast India:
Biotic Province: Assam Plains (a), Shillong Plateau (b).
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Biome: All plain grasslands, woodlands, Bhabar terai, evergreen moist deciduous, wetlands
andrivers, subtropical temperate.
WildliIe: Pygmy hog ,serow, Yellow-backed Sunbird.
9. Islands:
Biotic Province: Andaman and Nicobar (9a), Lakshadweep (9b).
Biome: Evergreen, moist deciduous, subtropical temperate wetlands, coastal habitat.
WildliIe: Dolphin, Narcondam Hornbill, olive ridley turtle.
10. Coasts:
Biotic Province: West Coast (10a), East Coast (10b).
Biome: Mangrove, brackish lakes and lagoons, mudIlats, sandy or rocky littoral.
WildliIe: dugong, Brahminy Kite, sand skink.
Value oI Bio-Diversity
Consumptive value:
These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed
directly e.g. Iuel, Iood, drugs, Iibre etc.
Drugs and medicines:
About 75 oI the world`s population Depends upon plants or plant extracts Ior medicines.
The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived Irom a Iungus called "Penicillium.
we get Tetracyclin Irom a bacterium. Quinine, the cure Ior malaria is obtained Irom the bark
oI Cinchona tree,
Digitalin is obtained Irom Ioxglove (Digitalis) which is an eIIective cure Ior heart disease.
Vinblastin and vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained Irom Periwinkle
(Catharanthus) plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids.
Table 1 . Natural medicinal products
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S.NO PRODUCT SOURCE USE
1. Aspirin Willow bark Anti-inIlammatory
2. Allantoin BlowIly larva Wound healer
3- Bacitracin Bacterium Antibiotic
4. Bee venom Bee Arthritis relieI
5. Cytarabine Sponge Leukemia cure
6. Cortisone Mexican yam Anti-inIlammatory
7. Digitalis Foxglove plant Heart stimulant
. Diosgenin Mexican yam Birth-control drug
9. Erythromyci Bacterium Antibiotic
10. Morphine Poppy plant Analgesic
11. Penicillin Fungus Antibiotic
12. Quinine Chincona bark Malaria treatment
13. Reserpine RauwolIia Hypertension drug
14. Tetracycline Bacterium Antibiotic
15. Vinblastine Rosy periwinkle Anti-cancer drug plant
16. Vincristine Rosy periwinkle Anti-cancer drug plant
Fuel:
Our Iorests have been used since ages Ior Iuel wood.
The Iossil Iuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products oI Iossilized biodiversity.
Productive Values:
These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. These may
include the animal products like tusks oI elephants, musk Irom musk deer, silk Irom silk-worm,
wool Irom sheep, Iir oI many animals etc, all oI which are traded in the market.
Genetic Value:
Biological diversity is a valuable genetic resource.
Most oI the hybrid varieties oI crops under cultivation have been developed by incorporating
useIul genes Irom diIIerent species oI plants to produce better quality oI the product with
longer selI-liIe or having better resistance to pests.
The genes Irom the Kans grass (Saccharum Spontaneum) grown in Indonesia helped
in imparting resistance to red rot disease oI sugarcane.
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A wild variety oI rice Irom UP. Saved millions oI hectares oI paddy crop Irom Grossy-Stunt
virus.
Social Values/Ethical values:
These are the values associated with the social liIe, customs, religion and aspects oI the
people.
Many oI the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi (holy basil),
Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Neem etc.
The leaves, Iruits or Ilowers oI these plants are used in worship or the plant itselI is
worshipped. The tribal people are very closely linked with the wild liIe in the Iorests.
Aesthetic value:
Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. We will not like to visit vast barren lands
with no signs oI visible liIe.
People Irom Iar and wide spend a lot oI time and money to visit wilderness areas where they
can enjoy the aesthetic value oI biodiversity and this type oI tourism is now known as
ecotourism.
Ecological value:
It reIers to the services provided by ecosystems such as
prevention oI soil erosion,
prevention oI Iloods,
maintenance oI soil Iertility,
nutrients cycles,
Iixation oI nitrogen,
hydrological cycle,
acts as carbon sinks,
pollutant absorption
Reduction oI the threat oI global warming etc.
Levels oI Bio-Diversity
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL LEVEL:
Cellular liIe has existed on Earth Ior probably more than 3,500 million years, but Ior more
than halI this time consisted only oI prokaryotes (i.e. unicellular organisms such as bacteria
and blue-green algae).Multi-cellular animals (metazoans) Iirst appeared some 600 million
years ago.
The present geological era is perhaps the richest in biological diversity. About 2.1 million
species have been identiIied till date, while many more species are believed to exist,
The total number oI species that might exist on Earth range between 9.0 . 52 million
Invertebrate animals and plants make-up most oI the species.
About 70 oI all known species are invertebrates (animals without backbones such
as insects, sponges, worms, etc.); while, about 15 are plants.
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Tropical deIorestation alone is reducing the biodiversity by halI a percent every year. Many oI
these species are more vulnerable to extinction when their natural home is destroyed.
About 50 to 0 oI global biodiversity lies in these rainIorests.
More than one-Iourth oI the world`s prescription drugs are extracted Irom plants growing in
tropical Iorests.
Temperate Iorests have much less biodiversity.
Globally, we have roughly
1, 70,000 Ilowering plants
30,000 vertebrates
2, 50,000 other groups oI species
The species richness depends on the Iollowing environmental conditions:
Warmer areas hold more species than the colder areas;
Wetter areas hold more species than the drier ones;
Areas oI varied climate and topography hold more species than the areas oI uniIorm climate
and topography;
Areas at lower altitude (elevation) hold more species than the high altitude areas;
Less seasonal areas hold more species than the highly seasonal areas.
It is estimated that there exists 5-30 million species oI living Iorms on our earth .OI these only
1.5
million are identiIied.
Green Plants and Fungi : 300,000 species
Insects : , 00,000 species
Vertebrates : 40,000 species
Microorganisms : 3, 60,000 species
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL :
Indian Biodiversity:
Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on its climate.
India has a rich biological diversity oI Ilora and Iauna.
Overall six percent oI the global species are Iound in India.
It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries oI the world,
India ranks 11th in terms oI number oI endemic species oI higher vertebrates.
India ranks 6th place among the centers oI diversity and origin oI agricultural crops.
The total number oI living species identiIied in our country is 150,000.
Indian is also one oI the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.
Out oI a total oI 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses 2, one in the northeast
region and second one in the western ghats.
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India as a mega-diversity nation
The country has a rich heritage oI biodiversity, a wide spectrum oI habitats Irom tropical
rainIorests to alpine vegetation, and Irom temperate Iorests to coastal wetlands.
Almost all the bio-geographical regions oI the world are represented here in India.
India occupies 2.4 oI the total land area oI the world, but India contributes .22 oI the
known global biodiversity.
India is one oI the 12 mega-diversity nations oI the world.
India is in the 10th position in the world and Iourth in the Asia in terms oI plant diversity.
India ranks 10th in the world in terms oI number oI mammalian species,;
India ranks 11th in the world in terms oI endemic species oI higher vertebrates
In terms oI number oI species contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry, it ranks 7th
in the world.
India has two major realms called the Palaearctic and the Indo- Malayan;
India has three biomes, namely the tropical humid Iorests, the tropical dry deciduous Iorests
and the warm desert/semi-deserts.
India can be divided into ten biogeographic zones and 26 biotic provinces which represent
the major ecosystems oI the world.
Out oI 25 hotspots in the world, India has two `hotspots`.the Western Ghats and the
Eastern Himalayas.
Endemism: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as endemic.
About 62 oI amphibians and 50 oI lizards are endemic to India. Western ghats are the
site oI maximum endemism. India has 26 recognized endemic centers.
Biosphere reserves : which protect larger areas oI natural habitat ,it includes National
Parks, preserves, along buIIer zones that are open to some economic uses. The World has
42 biosphere reserves in 102 countries. India has
World heritage sites 5
Biosphere reserves 12
Wetlands 6
Botanical gardens 33
National parks 9
Sanctuaries 504
The Ministry oI Forests and Environment (MOEF) reports that India has at present 9,317
species oI Iauna and 45,364 species oI Ilora representing about 7.31 oI the world Iauna
and 10. the world Ilora described so Iar.
Center oI origin: India has been the center oI origin Ior
Flowering plants - 5000 species
Cultivated crop plants - 166 species
Wild crops - 320 species
Marine diversity:. The number oI zooplankton recorded is about 16,000 species. Over 30
species oI marine algae and 14 species oI sea grass have been reported. There are over 45
species oI mangroove plants. Over 342 species oI corals have been reported and about 50
oI the world`s reeI building corals are Iound in India.
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S.NO. SITE LOCATION
1. Kaziranga National Park Assam
2. Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan
3. Manas WildliIe Sanctuary Assam
4. Nanda Devi National Park Uttar Pradesh
5. Sundarban National Park West Bengal
Hot spots oI Bio-Diversity:
Hotspots are the main areas oI Iocus Ior biodiversity conservation. These are the areas that
are extremely rich in biodiversity, have high level oI endemism, and are under constant
threat oI species extinctions and habitat destruction.
Myers et al (2000) recognized 25 hot spots ay global level. Out oI 25, two are present in
India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.
Nearly 70 oI the bird species in this hotspot are endemic. These are the areas oI high
diversity, endemism and are also threatened by human activities.
About 40 oI terrestrial plants and 25 oI vertebrate species are endemic and Iound in
these hotspots.
These identiIied hotspots oI biodiversity are:Caribbean,
CaliIornia Floristic Province and Mesoamereca in North and Central America ;
Tropical Andes, Choco-Darien-Western Ecuador, Atlantic Forest, Brazilian Cerrado and
Central Chilein South America ; Caucasus and Mediterranean Basin in Europe and Central
Asia; Madgascar and Indian Ocean Islands, Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests,
Guinean Forests oI West AIrica,Cape Floristic Region and Succulent Karoo in AIrica;
Mountains oI Southwest China, Indo-Burma and Western Ghats oI India in Mainland
Asia; and Philippines, Sundaland, Wallacea, Southwest Australia, Newzeland, New
Calenonia and Polynesia and Micronesia in Asia PaciIic region.
It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants,which comprise 20 oI global
plant liIe, probably occur in only 1 .hotsopts. in the world.
Countries which have a relatively large proportion oI these biodiversity hotspots are reIerred
to as .mega-diversity nations..
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Hotspots in India:
Eastern Himalayas:
# The area comprises Nepal,Bhutan, and neighbouring states oI northern India, along with
some place oI the Yunnan province in Southwest china.
# All Himalayan Iorests lie north oI the Tropic oI Cancer, and some oI them are at attitudes oI
170 -3500 m, they can be considered tropical Iorests.
# The Eastern Himalayas display an varied topography, a Iactor that Iosters species diversity
and endemism. Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are exceptionally rich in endemic plant
species,
# In Sikkim, in an area oI 729 km2 , oI the 4250 plant species , 2550 (60) are endemic. In
India.s sector oI the area, there are about 500 plant species,oI which roughly 2000(36)
are endemic.
# In Nepal, there are around 7000 plant species, many oI which overlap with those oI
India, Bhutan, and even Yunnan. OF these speices, atleast 500() are believed to be
endemic to Nepal.
# Bhutan possesses an estimated 5000 species, oI which as many as 750 (15) are considered
to be endemic to the Eastern Himalyas.
Western Ghats:
Out oI India.s 49219 plant species , 1600 endemics(40 oI the total number oI endemics) are
Iound
in an 17000km2 along the sea side oI the Western Ghats in Maharasthtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu,
Kerala Forest track up to 500 in elevation, comprising one . IiIth oI the entire Iorest expanse, are
mostly evergreen, while those in 500-1500 m range are semi- evergreen. There are two main
centres oI diversity, the Agasthyamalai Hills and the Silent Valley/New Amambalam Reserve
Basin. The Iorest cover in western ghats has reduced 34 Irom 1972- 199.
Threats to Bio-Diversity
Extinction, the elimination oI a species, is a normal process in nature. Species however, human
impacts on populations and ecosystems have accelerated that rate oI extinction, causing hundreds
oI species, sub-species and varieties to become extinct every year.
The causes oI extinction are:
, Population Risk: uneven change in population rates (i.e. birth rates and death rates)
can cause a species in low abundance to become extinct.. For example.blue whales.
As they swim over the vast areas oI ocean, and iI in one year most whales were
unsuccessIul in Iinding a mate then births could be dangerously low.
, Environmental Risk: Environmental risk means variation in the physical or
biological environment, including variations in predator, prey, symbiotic or
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competitor species. In case oI species that are suIIiciently rare and isolated, such
normal environmental variations can lead to their extinction.
, Natural calamities: A natural catastrophe is a sudden change in the
environment .It includes Iires, storms, Iloods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc.
Such a natural catastrophe may cause the extinction oI most Iorms oI liIe there.
, Genetic Risk: Change in genetic characteristics in a small population oI a species,
due to reduced genetic variation, genetic driIt or mutation, genetic
assimilation|cross-breeding| makes the species more vulnerable to extinction
, Human Actions: human activities like hunting ; development oI agriculture,rise oI
civilization, rapid deIorestation and introduction oI industrial chemicals and
emissions, pesticides and pollution are also leads to extinction oI species.
, Habitat Loss and Degradation: Habitat loss and degradation are the major proximate
causes oI species extinction, aIIecting 9 oI all threatened birds, 3 oI mammals
and 91 oI all threatened plants assessed globally .The main causes oI habitat
loss are agricultural activities, harvesting or extraction (including mining, Iishing,
logging, etc.) and development oI human settlements, industry and associated
inIrastructure.
, Habitat Fragmentation: Habitat Iragmention may take place due to the
development oI roads, towers, canals, Iields, industries, etc. in an original large
habitat. Habitat Iragmentation divides populations into isolated groups.These isolated,
small, scattered populations are increasingly vulnurable to inbreeding depression, high
inIant mortality and susceptible to environmental hardships, and consequently, in the
end, possible extinction.
, Diseases: Pathogens, or disease organisms, may cause extinction. Animals |in
sanctuaries and reserves| are more prone to inIection when they are under stress.
, Poaching: Poaching is another threat to living species. WildliIe is sold Ior live
specimens, Iolk medicines, Iurs, hides, skin (or leather) and other products such as
ivory, antlers and horns.
MAN - WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect our wildliIe. However, sometimes we
come
across conIlicting situations when wildliIe starts causing immense damage and danger to man
and
under such conditions it becomes very diIIicult Ior the Iorest department to paciIy the aIIected
villagers and gain local support Ior wild-liIe conservation.
Instances oI man animal conIlicts keep on coming to lime light Irom several states in our
country.
In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In
retaliation the villagers killed 9 elephants and badly injured 30 elephants. Several instances oI
killing oI elephants in the border regions oI Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been
reported
recently. The man- elephant conIlict in this region has arisen because oI the massive damage
done
by the elephants to the Iarmer`s cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers electrocute
the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the sugarcane Iields, which explode as the
elephants intrude into their Iields. In Iact, more killings are done by locals than by poachers.
Recently, in early 2004, a man-eating tiger was reported to kill 16 Nepalese people and one 4-
year
old child inside the Royal Chitwan National Park, 240 Km South-west oI Kathmandu. The Park
renowned Ior its wildliIe conservation eIIort has became a zone oI terror Ior the locals. At times,
such conIlicting situations have been reported Irom the border regions oI Corbett, Dudhwa,
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Palamau and Ranthambore National Parks in our country as well.
men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai. A total oI 14 persons were killed during 19
attacks
since January by the leopards Irom the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai which has created
a
panic among the local residents.
Causes oI Man- Wild liIe conIlicts:
Dwindling habitats oI tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking Iorest cover
compels them to move outside the Iorest and attack the Iield or sometimes even
humans. Human encroachment into t
wildliIe, perhaps because it is an issue oI survival oI both.
Usually the ill, weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Also, the Iemale
tigress attacks the human iI she Ieels that her ne
problem is that iI human
At the same time, it is very diIIicult to trace and cull the man
many innocent tigers are also killed.
Earlier, Iorest departments used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane etc. within the sanctuaries
when the Iavourite staple Iood oI elephants i.e. bamboo leaves were not available. Now due
to lack oI such practices the animals move out oI the Iorest in search oI Iood. It may
be noted that, One adultelephant needs 2 quintals oI green Iodde
water daily and iI it is not available,the animal strays out.
Very oIten the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop Iields. The elephants get
injured, suIIer in pain and turn violent.
Earlier there used to be wild
migrate seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to development oI human settlements in
these corridors, the path oI wildliIe has been disrupted and the animals attack the
settlements.
The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu oI the damage caused to the
Iarmers crop is not enough. In Mysore, a Iarmer gets a compensation oI Rs. 4007
quintal oI expected yield while the market price is Rs. 2400/
Iarmer thereIore gets revengeIul and kills the wild animals.
Very recently in June, 2004 two
nts.
the Iorest areas raises a conIlict between man and the
newborn cubs are in danger. But the biggest
human-Ilesh is tasted once then the tiger does not eat any other animal.
man-eating tiger and in the process
Iodder and 150 kg oI clean
wild-liIe corridors through which the wild animals used to
2400/- per quintal. The agoni
Endangered Species
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he wborn r 4007- per
agonized
oI India
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The International Union oI Conservation oI Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) maintains
what
may be called a `Red Database` at the World
inIormation on endangered and vulnerable species oI plants and animals is kept. From time to
time,
this database is translated into popular Iorm and published as `Red Data Books`. The red data
symbolizes the warning signal Ior those species which are endangered and iI not protected are
likely
to become extinct in near Iuture.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identiIied in the categories oI endangered,
threatened or rare. Existence oI about
threatened while an unknown number oI species oI insects
relevance here to give a complete list oI endangered Ilora and Iauna oI our country. However, a
Iew
species oI endangered reptiles, birds, mammals and plants are given below:
Reptiles:
Gharial,
green sea turtle,
tortoise,
python
Birds:
Great Indian bustard,
Peacock, Pelican,
Great Indian Hornbill,
Siberian White Crane
Carnivorous:
Indian wolI,
red Iox,
Sloth bear,
red panda,
Mammals tiger,
leopard,
striped hyena,
Indian lion,
golden cat,
desert cat
Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) in which
arning 150 mammals and 150 species oI birds is estimated to be
are endangered. It may not be oI direct
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Primates:
Hoolock gibbon,
lion-tailed macaque,
Nilgiri langur,
Capped monkey,
golden monkey
Plants:
A large number oI species oI orchids,
Rhododendrons,
medicinal plants like RauvolIia serpentina,
the sandal wood tree Santalum,
Cycas beddonei
Endangered Species:
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitats, have been drastically reduced and iI such a species is not protected and conserved, it is
in
immediate danger oI extinction.
Vulnerable Species:
The species that are under threat such that they may have to be classiIied as endangered in the
near
Iuture iI causal Iactors continue to operate. These include species whose populations have been
seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not assured, as well as those species whose
populations are still abundant but are under threat throughout their range.
Rare Species:
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These are species with small total population size in the world. In their distribution, they are
usually
localized within restricted habitats or geographical area or are thinly scattered over an extensive
range. It is necessary to mention here that a speci
becoming extinct; some species, like the whooping crane, are naturally rare. However, rarity
does
raise concerns about the possibility oI extinction. Rare species, thus, are not at present
endangered
and , vulnerable but are at risks.
Threatened Species:
The term `threatened` is used in the context oI conservation oI the species which are in any one
oI
the above three categories. These are species that have declined signiIicantly in total numbers
and
may be on the verge oI extinction in certain localities.
According to the Red data book
ANIMALS
Critically endangered
Endangered animals
Vulnerable animals
Near threatened
PLANTS
Critically endangered plants
Endangered plants
Vulnerable plants
Near threatened
Some oI the animal species that have been identiIied as endangered or threatened mammals are
listed below:
Golden monkey
Indian wolI
Jackal
Red Iox
species that is rare is not necessarily in danger oI
10
54
143
99
44,
113
7
3
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Indian Iox
Wild dog
Himalayan brown beer
Red panda
Tiger
Indian Lion
Leopard
Desert Cat
Jungle Cat
Leopard Cat
Golden Cat
Indian wild ass
Endemic Species oI India:
Endemics are species that are Iound in a single locality/area and nowhere else in the world. They,
thus, have a value in their uniqueness. Areas oI endemism containing several endemic species,
genera or even Iamilies have generally been isolated Ior a long time, thus enabling the original
species to evolve into new genetic entities better adopted to local area. Isolated mountain tops,
valleys and large oceanic Islands are usually areas oI endemism.
The endemism oI Indian biodiversity is quite high. About 33 oI the country`s Ilora are endemic
to
the country and are concentrated mainly in the North-East, Western Ghats, North-West Himalaya
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
India has two biodiversity hot spots and thus possesses a large number oI endemic species.
Out oI about 47,000 species oI plants in our country 7000 are endemic. Thus, Indian
subcontinent
has about 62 endemic Ilora, restricted mainly to Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats.
Some
oI the important endemic Ilora include orchids and species like Sapria himalayana, Uvaria
lurida, Nepenthes khasiana, Pedicularis perroter etc. A large number out oI a total oI 1,000
species oI animals in our country is endemic. The Western Ghats are particularly rich in
amphibians (Irogs, toads etc.) and reptiles (lizards, crocodiles etc.). About 62 amphibians and
50
lizards are endemic to Western Ghats. DiIIerent species oI monitor lizards (Varanus), reticulated
python and Indian Salamander and Viviparous toad Nectophhryne are some important endemic
species oI our country.
OI the 49,219 plant species, 5,150 are endemic (not Iound elsewhere) and distributed into 141
genera under 47 Iamilies corresponding to about 30 oI the world`s recorded Ilora, which means
30 oI the world`s recorded Ilora are endemic to India . About 15,000 species oI Ilowering
plants
(angiosperms) are known to occur in India, out oI which 4,950 species oI Ilowering plants had a
birth in India. OI-all these enedemic plant species, 3,500 are Iound in the Himalayas and
adjoining
regions and 1,600 in the Western Ghats alone. Many deep and semi-isolated valleys are
exceptionally rich in endemic plant species. Such as, in Sikkim, in an area oI 7,29 square
kilometer, oI the 4,250 plant species, 2,550 (60) are endemic.
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Conservation oI resources oI these areas is very diIIicult as each area will pose its other peculiar
problems.
1. Toothbrush orchid endemic to Sikkim
2. Nepenthes khasiana (Pitcher plant) Endangered and endemic
3. An endangered endemic orchid oI Eastern Himalayas
4. Piatycerium, rare and endemic to Manipur
Conservation oI Bio-Diversity
The enormous value oI biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic,
ecological
and optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity. Many Iactors are
threatening
the world.s biological heritage. The challenge is Ior nations, government agencies, organizations
and individuals to protect and enhance biodiversity while continuing to meet people`s needs Ior
natural resources. This challange exists Irom local to global scales. II not met, Iuture generations
will
live in a biologically impoverished world and perhaps one that is less capable oI producing
desired
resources as well.
DeIinition : The act or process oI conserving. The protection, preservation, management,
or restoration oI wildliIe and oI natural resources such as Iorests, soil, and water. Conservation is
deIined as `the management oI human use oI the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest
sustainable beneIit to present generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations oI Iuture generations`.
Conservation oI our natural resources has the Iollowing three speciIic objectives:
(i) to maintain essential ecological processes and liIe-supporting systems ;
(ii) to preserve the diversity oI species or the range oI genetic material Iound in the
organisms on the planet; and
(iii) to ensure sustainable utilization oI species and ecosystems which support millions oI
rural communities as well as the major industries all over the world.
The wildliIe conservation eIIorts are mostly centred on protecting plant and animal liIe in
protected
habitats, such as.botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, etc.
There are two approaches oI biodiversity conservation:
(a) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection oI wild Ilora and Iauna in
nature itselI, e.g. Biosphere Reserves,National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc.
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(b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats) This is done by establishment oI gene banks, seed
banks,
zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
Ex-situ Conservation:
Ex-situ conservation means conservation oI species (sample oI genetic diversity), particularly oI
endangered species, away Irom their natural habitat under human supervision.The strategy oI
conservation oI biodiversity is termed as `ex-situ or oII-site preservation`. In ex-situ
conservation, the
endangered species oI animals are collected and bred under controlled conditions in zoos,
game Iarms, aquaria, etc., while plant species are maintained in botanical gardens, .arboreta
and seed banks.
In situ Conservation:
This type oI conservation is mainly done Ior conservation oI crop varieties, the wild relatives oI
crops
and all the local varieties with the main objective oI conserving the total genetic variability oI the
crop species Ior Iuture crop improvement or aIIorestation programmes.
NATIONAL PARK
A national park is an area which is stricktly reserved by the betterment oI the wild liIe and where
activities such as Iorestry, grazing or cultivation are not permitted, and no private ownership
is allowed. A national park is hitched to the habitat Ior particular wild animal species like,
lion, tiger, rhinosorous, etc. and its boundaries are circumscribed by legislation. Except Ior
the buIIer zone (where limited human activity is allowed), no biotic interIerence is allowed.
Some important National parks in India
Name of National park State Important Wildlife
Kaziranga Assam One horned Rhino
Gir National Park Gujarat Indian Lion
Dachigam J & K Hangul
Bandipur Karnataka Elephant
Periyar Kerala Elephant, Tiger
Kanha M.P. Tiger
Corbett UP. Tiger
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
Multiple land use is permitted. A biosphere is not hitched to any one, two or morespecies, but to
the
whole ecosystem i.e. totality oI all Iorms oI liIe. In it, wild populations as well as traditional liIe
styles oI tribals and varied domesticated plant and animal genetic resources are protected.
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In India, we have the Iollowing important gene bank/seed bank Iacilities:
(i) National Bureau oI Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-preservatioti oI
seeds, pollen etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -196 C. Varieties oI rice,
pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco, poppy etc. have been
preserved successIully in liquid nitrogen Ior several years without losing seed viability.
(ii) National Bureau oI Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal, Haryana. It
preserves the semen oI domesticated bovine animals.
(iii) National Facility Ior Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) Ior the development oI a
Iacility oI conservation oI varieties oI crop plants/trees by tissue culture. This Iacility has
been created within the NBPGR The G-15 countries have also resolved to set up a network oI
gene banks to Iacilitate the conservation oI various varieties oI aromatic and medicinal
plants Ior which India is the networking co-ordinator country.
Endangered plants may also be preserved in part through seedbanks or germplasm banks. The
term seedbank sometimes reIers to a cryogenic laboratory Iacility in which the seeds oI
certain species can be preserved Ior up to a century or more without losing their Iertility. It can
also be used to reIer to a special type oI arboretum where seeds are harvested and the crop is
rotated. For plants that cannot be preserved in seedbanks, the only other option Ior preserving
germplasm is in-vitro storage, where cuttings oI plants are kept under strict conditions in
glass tubes and vessels.
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CHAPTER-III PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:
AIR POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
LAND POLLUTION
MARINE POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
THERMAL POLLUTION
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

I

+

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UNIT . 3
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Environmental Pollution
o Industrialization while bringing material beneIits and comIorts to the mankind has at the same
time brought about deterioration in the environment.
o Besides increasing the concentration oI certain material already present in the atmosphere, it
has
introduced in it new undesirable constituents.
o For instance, industrial units and various transport media constantly release into the
atmosphere
gases such as carbon monoxide, oxides oI nitrogen and sulphur, which have a disastrous eIIect.
o In addition, natural causes such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and storms have also
contributed to environmental pollution. The indiscriminate use oI biotic and energy components
at a rapid rate has caused Iurther damage to the environment.
AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION-NOTES 1
Air pollution is the presence oI contaminants in atmosphere in quantities such that it is injurious
to
human, plant animal liIe and property
The main pollutants in the atmosphere are SO2 (sulphur dioxide), CO (carbon monoxide), oxides
oI
nitrogen, particulate matter and lead.
Sulphur dioxide:
Sources:
Combustion oI Iossil Iuels . coal and crude oil contain up to 3 sulphur.
Roasting oI ores . sulphide ores on roasting, are converted to sulphur trioxide. This, when let
into the atmosphere, combines with the moisture in the atmosphere to Iorm sulphuric acid.
Ior example, roasting oI galena , the sulphide ore oI lead
2PbS 3O2 2PbO 2SO2
2SO2 O2 2SO3
H2O SO3 H2SO4
Oxidation oI l H2S . Hydrogen sulphide is Iormed during the decay oI plants.
This, on oxidation releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.
2H2S 3O2 2H2O 2 SO2
Volcanic eruptions also emit sulphur dioxide.
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effects of SO2:
Sulphur dioxide pollution in the atmosphere aIIects causes the Iollowing damages :
In humans : it causes eye irritation, cough, lung diseases including lung cancer and asthma
In plants: it causes damage oI leaves, bleaching oI chlorophyll which turns leaves brown,
damage to crops and to growth oI plants.
Others: Yellowing oI paper and wearing away oI leather are other ill eIIects.
Control:
The gases evolved during combustion oI Iossil Iuels are passed through calcium carbonate
when
SO2 is converted to calcium sulphite.
CaCO3 SO2 CaSO3 CO2
lime is added to coal and roasted at high temperature so that CaO Iormed combines with SO2
to
Iorm calcium sulphate.
CaO SO2 O2 CaSO4
Carbon monoxide
Sources:
Oxidation oI methane: Methane is Iormed during decay oI vegetable matter. Oxidation oI
methane releases carbon monoxide into the atmosphere.
Automobile exhaust- carbon monoxide is Iormed during the combustion oI Iuel such as petrol
and is released into the atmosphere through the exhaust
Incomplete combustion oI Iossil Iuels: coal when undergoes incomplete oxidation, Iorms
carbon
monoxide and pollutes the atmosphere.
2C O2 2CO
Industries: carbon monoxide is released by industries such as iron and steel and petroleum .
CO2 C 2CO
2CO2 2CO O2
effects:
Haemoglobin in blood can Iorm a complex with oxygen and hence Iunctions as carrier oI
oxygen.
When the atmosphere is polluted with carbon monoxide, on inhalation, CO combines with the
hemoglobin to Iorm carboxy haemoglobin and hence oxygen carrying capacity oI the blood
decreases.
This causes, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness.
When inhaled Ior a long duration it may cause even death.
Control:
Using catalytic converter in automobiles.
Oxides of nitrogen
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Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are the three main oxides oI nitrogen Iound in
the
atmosphere
Sources:
The sources Ior the oxides oI nitrogen are:
Bacterial decomposition oI nitrogenous compounds . bacteria in the soil act on the
ammonium compounds present in the soil, convert them to ammonia and Iinally release
oxides oI nitrogen into the atmosphere.
4NH3 5O2 4NO 6H2O
Combustion during lightning . during lightning, oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere
combine to give oxides oI nitrogen.
N2 O2 2NO
2NO O2 2NO2
Industries and automobile exhaust - Air is sucked into the IC engines. At high temperatures,
nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to Iorm nitric
oxide.
N2 O2 2NO
Nitric oxide escapes through the exhaust. It gets cooled rapidly and combines
with oxygen in the air to give nitrogen dioxide.
2NO O2 2NO2
effects:
Pollution due to oxides oI nitrogen aIIects human and plant liIe:
The oxides oI nitrogen combine with moisture in the atmosphere to Iorm nitrous and nitric acid.
This
leads to increase in the acidity oI rain water
F ormation oI photochemical smog: oxides oI nitrogen combine with hydrocarbons present in the
atmosphere Iorming peroxyacyl nitrate.
Peoxyacyl nitrate causes injury to plants and in human beings it causes Iatigue and inIection oI
the
lungs
Peroxyacyl nitrate Iormation leads to smog ( Iog smoke). Smog reduces visibility.
Fading oI dyes is caused in textiles .
Control:
Using catalytic converter in automobiles, Catalytic converters use Pt/ Rh catalyst.
in the presence oI the catalysts, the oxides oI nitrogen are converted to nitrogen and oxygen .
2NOx N2 x O2
Particulate matter
Particulate matters are solid or liquid suspensions in air. They are also called aerosols.
These comprise oI dust particles, ash, smoke, Iumes and mist..
Sources:
Volcanic eruptions.
Soil erosion: wind blows away soil and the dust particles are introduced into the atmosphere.
Industrial operations such as crushing oI solid materials- solid materials are crushed, ground
and powdered in industries. During these operations dust is released into the atmosphere.
Burning oI coal: The noncombustible matter in coal is leIt behind as ash during the
combustion oI coal.
Incomplete combustion oI compounds containing carbon, processing oI coal, cement
asbestos: These operations also release dust into the atmosphere.
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Mist . condensation oI vapours, sprays etc lead to dispersion oI liquids in the atmosphere
thus Iorming mist.
effects
Presence oI particulate matter in the atmosphere has the Iollowing eIIects:
Decrease in visibility: Particulate matter interIere inn the transmission oI light and hence
aIIect visibility.
Particulate matters enter the lungs causing wheezing, bronchitis, and asthma in human
beings.
In plants the particulate matter settle on the leaves blocking the stomata
thereby aIIecting the plant growth.
Control:
Particulate matter in the atmosphere can be controlled using
a. Gravitational settling chambers
b. CentriIugal separators
c. Fabric Iilters
d. Wet scrubbers
e. Electrostatic or Cottrell separators
Gas out
Charged wire
Flue
Dust
Charged plate
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a. Gravitational settling chambers: Iigure (a)
Here the Ilue gas is allowed into a rectangular settling tank at a slow rate so that the suspended
particles in the gas get deposited. The particles are later removed.
b. CentriIugal separators Iigure (b)
With the help oI a cyclone, the gas is led into a chamber tangential to the cross section oI the
chamber. The gas moves in a spiral manner. Due to the centriIugal Iorces, the particles in the gas
move towards the wall oI the chamber and get deposited.
c. Fabric Iilters: Iigure (c)
These consist oI bags made oI cotton, wool or artiIicial Iibers ceramics. Theses can Iilter Iine
particulate matter. Flue gas is passed through a chamber containing a series oI such bags. The
particles are Iiltered and clean gas escapes. The particulates collect at the bottom and are
removed
periodically.
d. Wet scrubbers: Iigure (d)
Flue gas is let into a chamber which has two sections . converging section and diverging section.
The Ilue gas enters the converging section and water is sprayed Irom the top at right angles. The
droplets oI water take away the particulate matter in the gas.
e. Electrostatic or Cottrell separators: Iigure (e)
The Ilue gas is passed into a chamber containing a series oI charged plates. Between the plates
wires
charged to about 40000 volts are placed. As the Ilue gas passes through, the particles in it collide
with the ionized gas molecules and the particles get charged. The positively charged particles
now
move towards the wire and get deposited. The negatively charged particles move towards the
plates
and settle. The gas which is now devoid oI particulate matter goes out.
Lead pollutant
Sources:
The exhaust Irom automobiles which use lead tetraethyl as antiknocking agent-
when TEL is used as antiknocking agent, lead is converted to halide and released into the
atmosphere. This leads to increase in the concentration oI lead in the atmosphere.
Paint pigments : Litharge and red lead ( oxides oI lead ) and lead chromate are used as
pigments. These cause lead pollution
Plumbing systems- lead pipes are used Ior plumbing and these may cause lead
pollution
effects:
Lead competes with calcium and enters the blood and bone marrow.
The lead interIeres in the manuIacture oI red blood corpuscles and abnormal
multiplication oI blood cells and thus leads to anaemia and blood cancer in
human beings.
Lead enters the blood and various organs oI the body including the brain and the
Kidneys leading to dysIunction oI the kidney and damage to the brain.
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AIR POLLUTANTS
S.NO POLLUTNT IMPOTANT FORM SOURCES
1
Oxides oI sulphur SO2&H2SO4
Coal industries, mining, ore
processing
2 Oxides oI carbon
CO,CO2,particulate
carbon
Transportation, Fossil Iuel,
3 Oxides oI nitrogen NO,NO2,N2O,NO3
transportation, power plants,
petroleum reIineries, burning oI
oil, coal, Iertilizers
4
Volatile
compounds
CH4,alcohol, isoprene,
Benzene, cresol,
terpenes
Transportation, power plants,
petroleum reIineries, burning oI
oil, coal
5
Secondary
pollutants
Photochemical
oxidants like
O3,N2O,PAN*
Reaction between primary
pollutants by sun light
6 Metals Pb, Hg, As, Cd
Leaded petrol, ore processing
unit, coal power plants, garbage
incinerators, ore smelting
7 Halogen gases
Cl2,Br2,CH3Cl,
CH3Br,PCB,CFC,
Industrial chemicals, plastics
burning, coal burning, biomass
burning, Iumigants.
AIR POLLUTION-NOTES 2
Air and its major pollutants
One oI the Iormal deIinitions oI air pollution is as Iollows . .The presence in the
atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality and for such duration as is
infurious, or tends to be infurious, to human health
or welfare, animal or plant life..
It is the contamination oI air by the
discharge oI harmIul substances. Air pollution
can cause health problems and it can also
damage the environment and property.
It has caused thinning oI the protective
ozone layer oI the atmosphere, which is leading to
climate change.
Modernization and progress have led to air getting more and more polluted over the
years. Industries, vehicles, increase in the population, and urbanization are the major
Iactors responsible Ior air pollution.
The Iollowing industries are among those that emit a great deal oI pollutants into the
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air: thermal power plants, cement, steel, reIineries, petro chemicals, and mines.
Air pollution results Irom a variety oI causes, Dust storms in desert areas and smoke
Irom Iorest Iires and grass Iires contribute to
chemical and particulate pollution oI the air.
The source oI pollution may be in one
country but the impact oI pollution may be Ielt
elsewhere.
The discovery oI pesticides in
Antarctica, where they have never been used,
suggests the extent to which aerial transport
can carry pollutants Irom one place to another.
Probably the most important natural
source oI air pollution is volcanic activity, which
at times pours great amounts oI ash and toxic
Iumes into the atmosphere. The eruptions oI
such volcanoes as Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mt. St. Helens in Washington, USA and
Katmai in Alaska, USA, have been related to measurable climatic changes.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
POLLUTANTS AVERAGE TIME CONCENTRATION
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Annual average
60 g/m
24 hour 80 g/m
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
A.A 60 g /m
24H 80 g /m
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
A.A 140 g/m
24H 200 g/m
Lead
A.A 0.75 g/m
24H 1.0 g/m
Carbon Monoxide
A.A 2.0 g/m
24H 4.0 g/m
Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM)
A.A 60 g/m
24H 100 g/m
Listed below are the major air pollutants and their sources.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the
incomplete burning oI carbon-based Iuels including petrol, diesel, and wood. It is also
produced Irom the combustion oI natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes. It
lowers the amount oI oxygen that enters our blood. It can slow our reIlexes and make
us conIused and sleepy. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, colorless, poisonous
gas that comes mainly Irom motor vehicles and other combustion exhaust. It cannot
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be seen |colorless| or smelled |odorless|.
Carbon monoxide is released when engines burn Iossil Iuels. Emissions are higher
when engines are not tuned properly, and when Iuel is not completely burned. Cars
emit a lot oI the carbon monoxide Iound outdoors.
Furnaces and heaters in the home can emit high concentrations oI carbon monoxide,
too, iI they are not properly maintained
Health effects:
Carbon monoxide interIeres with the blood`s ability |by Iorming carboxy hemoglobin| to
carry oxygen to the brain, heart and other tissues,
and it is particularly dangerous Ior people with existing heart disease, and unborn or
newborn children.
Carbon monoxide makes it hard Ior body parts to get the oxygen they need to run
correctly.
Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people Ieel dizzy and tired and gives them
headaches.
THE GASEOUS COMPOSITION OF UNPOLLUTED AIR
The Gases Parts per million (vol)
Nitrogen 756,500
Oxygen 202,900
Water 31,200
Argon 9,000
Carbon Dioxide 305
Neon 17.4
Helium 5.0
Methane 0.97-1.16
Krypton 0.97
Nitrous oxide 0.49
Hydrogen 0.49
Xenon 0.0
Organic vapors ca.0.02
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly Irom air-conditioning systems
and reIrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come
in contact with Iew other gases, which lead to a reduction oI the ozone layer that protects the
earth Irom the harmIul ultraviolet rays oI the sun.
Ozone
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Ozone occurs naturally in the upper layers oI the atmosphere. This important gas
shields the earth Irom the harmIul ultraviolet rays oI the sun.
However, at the ground level, it is a pollutant with highly toxic eIIects. Vehicles and
industries are the major source oI ground-level ozone emissions.
Ozone gas that can be Iound in two places. Near the ground (the troposphere), it is a
major part oI smog. Higher in the air (the stratosphere), it helps block radiation Irom
the sun.
Ozone is not created directly, but is Iormed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds mix in sunlight. That is why ozone is mostly Iound in the summer.
Nitrogen oxides come Irom burning gasoline, coal, or other Iossil Iuels.
There are many types oI volatile organic compounds, and they come Irom sources
ranging Irom Iactories to trees.
Ozone near the ground can cause a number oI health problems. Ozone can lead to
more Irequent asthma attacks in people who have asthma and can cause sore throats,
coughs, and breathing diIIiculty.
It may even lead to premature death.
Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our resistance to colds and
pneumonia
Ozone can also hurt plants and crops.
Ozone (O3) is the major harmIul ingredient in smog.
Major sources include reIineries, gas stations, motor vehicles, chemical plants, paints
and solvents.
Note. Harmful o:one in the lower atmosphere should not be confused with o:one in the upper
atmosphere, which protects us from ultraviolet radiation. $ince UJ radiation is very dangerous
to
human beings
Health effects:
Ozone reacts with lung tissue. It can inIlame and cause harmIul changes in
breathing passages, decrease the lungs` working ability and cause both coughing
and chest pains.
People who exercise are also more vulnerable to the eIIects oI ozone, suIIering
symptoms and a reduced ability to breathe at relatively low ozone levels.
Ozone pollution, even at low levels, has also been linked to increased hospital
admissions and emergency room visits Ior respiratory problems
Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
Nitrogen oxide causes smog and acid rain.
It is produced Irom burning Iuels including petrol, diesel, and coal.
Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in winters. A
reddish-brown gas that comes Irom the burning oI Iossil Iuels. It has a strong smell at
high levels.
Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes Irom power plants and cars.
Nitrogen dioxide is Iormed in two ways..when nitrogen in the Iuel is burned, or when
nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at very high temperatures.
Nitrogen dioxide can also react in the atmosphere to Iorm ozone, acid rain, and
particles.
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Nitrogen oxides are Iormed during high temperature combustion processes Irom the
oxidation oI nitrogen in the air or Iuel.
The principal source oI nitrogen oxides - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
collectively known as NOx - is road traIIic, which is responsible Ior approximately halI
the emissions in Europe. NO and NO2 concentrations are thereIore greatest in urban
areas where traIIic is heaviest.
Other important sources are power stations, heating plants and industrial processes.
Nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere mainly in the Iorm oI NO, which is
then readily oxidised to NO2 by reaction with ozone.
Elevated levels oI NOx occur in urban environments under stable meteorological
conditions, when the air mass is unable to disperse. Whereas nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
participates in the Iormation oI ozone, nitrogen oxide (NO) destroys ozone to Iorm
oxygen (O2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
As the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are transported out oI urban areas, the
ozone-destroying NO is oxidised to NO2, which participates in ozone-Iormation.
Health effects:
Nitrogen dioxide has a variety oI environmental and health impacts. It is a respiratory
irritant, may exacerbate asthma and possibly increase susceptibility to inIections.
In the presence oI sunlight, it reacts with hydrocarbons to produce photochemical
pollutants such as ozone (see below). In addition, nitrogen oxides have a liIetime oI
approximately 1 day with respect to conversion to nitric acid.
This nitric acid is in turn removed Irom the atmosphere by direct deposition to the
ground, or transIer to aqueous droplets (e.g. cloud or rainwater), thereby contributing
to acid deposition.
Suspended particulate matter (SPM)
It consists oI solids in the air in the Iorm oI smoke, dust, and vapour that can remain
suspended Ior extended periods and is also the main source oI haze which reduces
visibility.
The Iiner oI these particles, when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and cause lung
damage and respiratory problems.
They are Solid or liquid matter that is suspended in the air. To remain in the air,
particles are usually less than 0.1 mm wide and can be as small as 0.00005 mm.
Particulate matter can be divided into two types-coarse particles and Iine particles.
Coarse particles are bigger than 0.002 mm and are Iormed Irom sources like road
dust, sea spray, and construction.
Fine particles are smaller than 0.002 mm and are Iormed when Iuel is burned in
automobiles and power plants. Particulate matter (PM) includes microscopic particles
and tiny droplets oI liquid.
These particles come Irom the burning oI Iuels by industry and diesel vehicles and
Irom earth-moving activities such as construction and mining.
Health effects:
Larger particles can be stopped in the nose and upper lungs by the body`s natural
deIenses.
The smallest particles escape the body`s deIenses and go deep into the lungs, where
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they may become trapped.
Exposure to particulate pollution can cause wheezing and other symptoms in people
with asthma or sensitive airways.
Particulate pollution has been linked to increased hospital admissions and emergency
room visits Ior respiratory problems and to a substantial increase in premature
deaths
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Sulphur dioxide is a gas produced Irom burning coal, mainly in thermal power plants.
Some industrial processes, such as production oI paper and smelting oI metals,
produce sulphur dioxide.
It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain.
SulIur dioxide can lead to lung diseases.
It.s a corrosive gas that cannot be seen or smelled at low levels but can have a
.rotten egg. smell at high levels.
SulIur dioxide mostly comes Irom the burning oI coal or oil in power plants.
It also comes Irom Iactories that make chemicals, paper, or Iuel.
Like nitrogen dioxide, sulIur dioxide also reacts in the atmosphere to Iorm acid rain
and particles.
The principal source oI this gas is power stations burning Iossil Iuels which contain
sulphur.
Major SO2 problems now only tend to occur in cities in which coal is still widely used
Ior domestic heating, in industry and in power stations.
As some power stations are now located away Irom urban areas, SO2 emissions may
eIIect air quality in both rural and urban areas
Health effects:
Sulphur dioxide is a corrosive acid gas which combines with water vapour in the
atmosphere to produce acid rain.
Both wet and dry deposition has been implicated in the damage and destruction oI
vegetation and in the degradation oI soils, building materials and watercourses.
SO2 in ambient air is also associated with asthma and chronic bronchitis.
SulIur dioxide exposure can aIIect people who have asthma or emphysema by making
it more diIIicult Ior them to breathe.
It can also irritate people`s eyes, noses, and throats. SulIur dioxide can harm trees
and crops, damage buildings, and make it harder Ior people to see long distances.
LEAD
Lead is the most widely used non-Ierrous metal and has a large number oI industrial
applications.
Lead comes Irom cars in areas where unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also
come Irom power plants and other industrial sources.
Lead paint is an important source oI lead, especially in houses where paint is peeling.
Lead in old pipes can also be a source oI lead in drinking water.
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WATER POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION .NOTES # 1
Introduction
Water exists in three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. The important sources oI water are (i) rain
water,
(ii) ground water and (iii) sea water. Rain water carries the washed out minerals, salts and
organic matter
Irom the earth.s surIace and stores them in ponds, lakes and rivers. It seeps into underground and
is
stored as ground water. Sea water is highly alkaline due to the presence oI dissolved salts. The
natural
water contains numerous organisms and dissolved gases (ex: oxygen), which is essential Ior
aquatic
organisms. The pure water is one which is Iree Irom organisms. Water is required mainly Ior
drinking and
cooking, also Ior industry, agriculture and many other activities.
!ollution of water implies that it contains a lot of inorganic and organic substances introduced
by
human activities, which change its quality, not suitable for any purposes and also harmful for
living
organisms.
(or)
Any alteration in physical, chemical or biological properties of water, as well as the addition of
any
foreign substance makes it unfit for health and which decreases the utility of water, is known as
water
pollution.
Its single largest industrial use world-wide is in the manuIacture oI batteries (60-70
oI total consumption oI some 4 million tones) and it is also used in paints, glazes,
alloys, radiation shielding, tank lining and piping.
As tetraethyl lead, it has been used Ior many years as an additive in petrol; most
airborne emissions oI lead in Europe thereIore originate Irom petrol-engine motor
vehicles.
With the increasing use oI unleaded petrol, however, emissions and concentrations in
air have declined steadily in recent years.
Health effects:
Lead is a cumulative poison to the Central Nervous System, particularly detrimental to
the mental development oI children.
High amounts oI lead can be dangerous Ior small children and can lead to lower IQs
and kidney problems.
For adults, exposure to lead can increase the chance oI having heart attacks or
strokes
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The substances which cause pollution are called pollutants and the common pollutants which
are
present in water are (i) Suspended solids (ii) Organic matter, (iii) Inorganic pollutants, (iv) Oil,
etc.
Turbidity in water is mainly due to; (i) Iinely divided undissolved solids, clay, slit; (ii)
colloidal
particles and (iii) organic matters. Turbidity gives unsightly appearance. When it is used in
industries, it causes problems in Iunctioning oI equipments, boilers, etc. This can be removed
Irom
water by applying proper treatments like settling, coagulation (by using alum) and Iiltration.
Organic pollutants include domestic and animal sewage, biodegradable organic compounds,
industrial wastes, synthetic pesticides, Iungicides, herbicides, detergents, oil, grease, pathogenic
microorganisms, etc. It results in rapid depletion oI dissolved oxygen oI water and thus such
water
becomes harmIul Ior aquatic lives. Organic matter present in water can be removed by using
chlorination, coagulation and ultra Iiltration processes.
Inorganic pollutants consist oI mineral acids, inorganic salts, Iinely divided metals, cyanides,
sulphates, nitrates, organometallic compounds, etc.
Oil and grease constitutes important water pollutants. These substances coat ion exchange
resin,
causes premature exhaustion oI beds. It can be removed by coagulation with alum.
Main sources oI water pollution are (i) domestic and municipal sewage; (ii) industrial waste; (iii)
agricultural waste; (iv) radioactive materials, etc.
Domestic sewage consists oI human excreta, street wastes, organic substances that provide
nutrition Ior bacteria and Iungi. It is grey green or grey yellow in color and darkens with time
due
to decomposition, when becomes stale it develops oIIensive odor due to evolution oI gases like
NH3, H2S, etc. It is normally turbid due to the presence oI suspended solids. Its temperature is
slightly higher than ordinary water. These pollutants cause many hazardous eIIects on health.
Discharge oI sewage in river and lakes spreads water borne diseases.
A pollutant present in industrial waste water damages biological activities and kills many
useIul
organisms. Most oI the industrial wastes dissolved in water are particulate in nature and are
present at the bottom oI the water system. These acts as poison Ior the aquatic organisms.
Further, toxic metals present in industrial eIIluents are extremely hazardous Ior living beings.
Agricultural discharge consists oI pesticides, Iertilizers, insecticides, etc. In agriculture in
order to
increase the production and to escape the crops Irom various diseases, the Iertilizers and
insecticides are used. Any substance or a mixture oI substances which prevents, repels, destroys
any pest is called a pesticide. These pollutants contaminate the water and when this is used by
human being, aIIect the oxygen carrying capacity oI hemoglobin and consequently causes
suIIocation and irritation to respiratory and vascular system.
Radioactive wastes are mainly Irom atomic explosion and processing oI radioactive materials
near
the source oI water. The other sources are waste Irom hospitals, research laboratories, etc. The
radioactive pollutants in water cause serious skin cancer, carcinoma, leukemia, DNA breakage,
etc.
Water pollution by heavy metals: About 70 metallic elements are called heavy metals, as they
have atomic numbers oI 22 to 92 and atomic weight higher than that oI sodium and with a
speciIic gravity oI more than 5.0. Only a Iew oI these heavy metals are considered potentially
damaging to living systems.
Sources and ill effects of heavy metals and inorganic species
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Heavy
Metal
Sources Their eIIects
Cd
Hg
Pb
CNNH3
H2S
Discharges Irom electroplating
industries, Battery manuIacturing
units, metallurgical industries, etc.
EIIluents Irom chloro-alkali industries,
pesticide industries, Chemical
industries, etc.
Electric storage battery industries,
petroleum industries, ceramic
industries, electric cable insulation,
paint industries, plastic industries,
pesticides, pipe-manuIacturing units,
etc.
Metal Iinishing and cleaning,
electroplating, coke ovens and many
other industrial processes generate
cyanide and discharge as eIIluent to
water bodies.
Ammonia is generated by the biological
decay, reduction oI nitrates under
anaerobic conditions.
By bacterial reduction oI sulphate and
decomposition oI organic matter.
Gets adsorbed on suspended matter in the
water, when it is consumed causes liver and
kidney necrosis, increased salivation
nausea, acute gastritis, etc.
Mercury poisoning causes kidney damage,
and exhibits the symptoms like numbness
in the limbs, muscles, blurred vision leading
to blindness, emotional disturbances etc. It
also damages brain and nervous system,
and paralysis Iollowed by death.
A cumulative poison causing loss oI apatite,
constipation, abdominal pain, mental
retardation, nervous disorder and brain
damage.
Cyanide is extremely toxic. Exposure even
to small quantities over longer periods
causes loss oI apatite, dizziness, etc.
In high concentration, it is toxic to Iish and
other aquatic organisms. It imparts
characteristic odor to water.
Causes corrosion, imparts bad odor.
Sewage treatment
The polluted water is characterized by its oxygen demand and solid content. The biological
oxygen
demand (BOD) measures the level oI organic pollution in the sewage water. The sewage must be
treated
beIore being discharged into the water bodies. The treatment is carried out in three stages-
primary,
secondary and tertiary.
(i) In primary treatment, the suspended solids and Iloating objects are removed using coarse
screens
and sieves.
(ii) In secondary treatment, the maximum proportions oI the suspended inorganic/ organic solids
are
removed Irom the liquid sewage. The liquid material passes into the sedimentation tank and
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Iinely suspended particles are allowed to settle by adding coagulants like Alum. The suspended
materials settle down in the tanks and Iorms sludge. The sewage water aIter sedimentation
process is allowed Ior aerobic oxidation. The organic matter is converted into CO2, the nitrogen
into NH3 and nitrites to nitrates. The treatment is carried out by activated sludge process.
The above process is based on the principle that iI an adequate amount oI oxygen / air is
passed through the sewage containing aerobes, complete aerobic oxidation occurs. This
oxidation
process becomes speedy by the addition oI a part oI sludge Irom the previous process, called
activated sludge. Settled sludge is sent back Ior Ieeding Iresh bulk oI sewage, while the
remainder
is disposed oII by land spreading, sea burial etc.
(iii) Tertiary treatment is applied to remove detergents, metal ions, nitrates and pesticides, as
these
are not removed in the earlier treatments. The phosphates are removed as calcium phosphates by
adding calcium hydroxide at pH 10-11. At this pH, ammonium salts are also converted into
ammonia. Fine particles are Iurther removed by sedimentation in the presence oI coagulants. The
eIIluent is chlorinated to remove pathogenic bacteria.s and Iinally passed through activated
charcoal to absorb gases.
The treated water is oI high clarity, Iree Irom odor and low BOD, thereIore it is nearly equivalent
to
drinking water.
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
It is deIined as the amount oI oxygen required Ior the biological oxidation oI the organic matter
under
aerobic conditions at 20oC and Ior a period oI 5 days.
Characteristics oI BOD
It is expressed in parts per million (ppm) or mg/dm3.
Larger the concentration oI decomposable organic matter, greater is the BOD and
consequently
more is the nuisance value.
Strictly aerobic conditions are required.
Determination is slow and time consuming.
Determination BOD
The method is based on the determination oI dissolved oxygen beIore and aIter 5 days period,
at
20oC.
A known volume oI sample oI sewage is diluted with known volume oI water containing
nutrients
Ior bacterial growth, whose dissolved oxygen content is predetermined.
The whole solution is incubated in a closed bottle at 20oC Ior 5 days.
AIter incubation the unused oxygen is determined.
The diIIerence between the original value oI oxygen content in the diluted water and unused
oxygen oI solution aIter 5 days gives BOD.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
COD is a measure oI oxidisable sewage. It includes both the biologically oxidisable and
biologically inert
matter such as cellulose, as a result oI which the value oI COD is more than BOD. COD is
defined as the
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amount of oxygen (in ppm) consumed under specified conditions, while oxidi:ing total organic
load of the
sample with a strong oxidi:ing agent (Ex. potassium dichromate) in the acid medium.
Determination COD
A deIinite volume oI waste water sample (.x. ml) is reIluxed with a known volume oI
K2Cr2O7 in H2
SO4 medium in the presence oI AgSO4 (which acts as a catalyst) and HgSO4 (which eliminates
interIerence due to chlorine).
K2Cr2O7 oxidises all organic matter into water, CO2 and ammonia.
The unreacted dichromate is titrated with a standard solution oI Ierrous ammonium sulphate
(FAS) (Let the volume consumed is v2 ml).
COD
x
v v NA$ ( ) 1000 1 2
; v1 corresponds to the volume oI FAS consumed in the blank
titration (i.e., in the absence oI waste water sample).
Fluoride Problem in Drinking Water
Fluorosis
Fluoride in water is mostly oI geological origin. Waters with high levels oI
Iluoride content are mostly Iound at the Ioot oI high mountains and in areas
where seas has made geological deposits.
Ingestion oI excess Iluoride, most commonly in drinking water can cause
Iluorosis which aIIects the teeth (dental) (see photo) and bones (skeletal).
Moderate amounts lead to dental eIIects, but long term ingestion oI large amounts
can lead to potentially severe skeletal problems.
Fluorosis is caused by excessive intake oI Iluoride. The dental eIIects oI
Iluorosis develop made earlier than the skeletal eIIects in people exposed to large
amounts oI Iluoride. Clinical dental Iluorosis is characterized by staining and
pitting oI teeth. In more severe cases all the enamel may be damaged.
High level exposure to Iluoride can lead to skeletal Iluorosis (photos).
Here, Iluoride accumulates in the bone progressively over many years. The early
symptoms oI skeletal Iluorosis include stiIIness and pain in the joints. In severe
cases the bone structure may change and ligaments may calciIy resulting
impairment oI muscles and pain. Acute high level results in abdominal pain
excessive saliva, nausea and vomiting.
Dental Fluorosis Skeletal Fluorosis
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Cause
Acute high level is very rare and usually due to accidental contamination
oI drinking water. Moderate level chronic exposure (~1.5 mg/l) is more common.
People aIIected by Iluorosis are oIten exposed to multiple sources oI Iluorosis,
such as in Iood, water, air and excessive toothpaste. However, drinking water is
typically the most signiIicant source.
WATER POLLUTION .NOTES # 1
INTRODUCTION
Comprising over 70 oI the Earth.s surIace, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural
resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound comprised oI
hydrogen and oxygen, liIe on Earth would be non-existent: it is essential Ior everything on our
planet to grow and prosper. Although we as humans recognize this Iact, we disregard it by
polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our
planet to the point where organisms are dying at a very alarming rate. In addition to innocent
organisms dying oII, our drinking water has become greatly aIIected as is our ability to use water
Ior recreational purposes. In order to combat water pollution, we must understand the problems
and become part oI the solution.
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POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES
According to the American College Dictionary, pollution is deIined as: .to make Ioul or
unclean; dirty.. Water pollution occurs when a body oI water is adversely aIIected due to the
addition oI large amounts oI materials to the water. When it is unIit Ior its intended use, water is
considered polluted. Two types oI water pollutants exist; point source and nonpoint source.
Point sources oI pollution occur when harmIul substances are emitted directly into a body oI
water. The Exxon Valdez oil spill best illustrates point source water pollution. A non-point
source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental changes. An example oI this type oI
water pollution is when Iertilizer Irom a Iield is carried into a stream by rain, in the Iorm oI
runoII
which in turn aIIects aquatic liIe. The technology exists Ior point sources oI pollution to be
monitored and regulated, although political Iactors may complicate matters. Nonpoint sources
are
much more diIIicult to control. Pollution arising Irom nonpoint sources accounts Ior a majority
oI
the contaminants in streams and lakes.
CAUSES OF POLLUTION
Many causes oI pollution including sewage and Iertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates. In excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth oI aquatic plants and
algae. Excessive growth oI these types oI organisms consequently clogs our waterways, use up
dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters.
This, in turn, proves very harmIul to aquatic organisms as it aIIects the respiration ability or Iish
and other invertebrates that reside in water. Pollution is also caused when silt and other
suspended solids, such as soil, wash oII plowed Iields, construction and logging sites, urban
areas, and eroded river banks when it rains. Under natural conditions, lakes, rivers, and other
water bodies undergo Eutrophication, an aging process that slowly Iills in the water body with
sediment and organic matter. When these sediments enter various bodies oI water, Iish
respiration becomes impaired, plant productivity and water depth become reduced, and aquatic
organisms and their environments become suIIocated. Pollution in the Iorm oI organic material
enters waterways in many diIIerent Iorms as sewage, as leaves and grass clippings, or as runoII
Irom livestock Ieedlots and pastures. When natural bacteria and protozoan in the water break
down this organic material, they begin to use up the oxygen dissolved in the water. Many types
oI Iish and bottom-dwelling animals cannot survive when levels oI dissolved oxygen drop below
two to Iive parts per million. When this occurs, it kills aquatic organisms in large numbers which
leads to disruptions in the Iood chain.
Polluted River in the United Kingdom
The pollution oI rivers and streams with chemical contaminants has become one oI the
most crucial environmental problems within the 20th century. Waterborne chemical pollution
entering rivers and streams cause tremendous amounts oI destruction.
Pathogens are another type oI pollution that proves very harmIul. They can cause many
illnesses that range Irom typhoid and dysentery to minor respiratory and skin diseases.
Pathogens include such organisms as bacteria, viruses, and protozoan. These pollutants enter
waterways through untreated sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, runoII Irom Iarms, and
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particularly boats that dump sewage. Though microscopic, these pollutants have a tremendous
eIIect evidenced by their ability to cause sickness .
.
Demonstrators Protest Drilling
Oil pollution is a growing problem, particularly devastating to coastal wildliIe. Small
quantities oI oil spread rapidly across long distances to Iorm deadly oil slicks. In this picture,
demonstrators with "oil-covered" plastic animals protest a potential drilling project in Key
Largo,
Florida. Whether or not accidental spills occur during the project, its impact on the delicate
marine ecosystem oI the coral reeIs could be devastating.
Oil Spill Clean-up
Workers use special nets to clean up a CaliIornia beach aIter an oil tanker spill. Tanker
spills are an increasing environmental problem because once oil has spilled, it is virtually
impossible to completely remove or contain it. Even small amounts spread rapidly across large
areas oI water. Because oil and water do not mix, the oil Iloats on the water and then washes up
on broad expanses oI shoreline. Attempts to chemically treat or sink the oil may Iurther disrupt
marine and beach ecosystems.
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CLASSIFYING WATER POLLUTION
The major sources oI water pollution can be classiIied as municipal, industrial, and
agricultural.Municipal water pollution consists oI waste water Irom homes and
commercial establishments.
For many years, the main goal oI treating municipal
wastewater was simply to reduce its content oI suspended solids, oxygen-demanding
materials, dissolved inorganic compounds, and harmIul bacteria.
In recent years, however, more stress has been placed on improving means oI disposal oI
the solid residues Irom the municipal treatment processes.
The basic methods oI treating municipal wastewater Iall into three stages: primary
treatment, including grit removal, screening, grinding, and sedimentation; secondary
treatment, which entails oxidation oI dissolved organic matter by means oI using
biologically active sludge, which is then Iiltered oII; and tertiary treatment, in which
advanced biological methods oI nitrogen removal and chemical and physical methods
such as granular Iiltration and activated carbon absorption are employed.
The handling and disposal oI solid residues can account Ior 25 to 50 percent oI the
capital and operational costs oI a treatment plant.
The characteristics oI industrial waste waters can diIIer considerably both within and
among industries. The impact oI industrial discharges depends not only on their
collective characteristics, such as biochemical oxygen demand and the amount oI
suspended solids, but also on their content oI speciIic inorganic and organic substances.
Three options are available in controlling industrial wastewater. Control can take place
at the point oI generation in the plant; wastewater can be pretreated Ior discharge to
municipal treatment sources; or wastewater can be treated completely at the plant and
either reused or discharged directly into receiving waters.
TIPS: SAVING THE WATER AND PREVENTING POLLUTION
a. Take shorter shower.
b. Don.t Ilush every time you use the toilet.
c. Don.t open the tap while you are brushing the teeth or washing dishes
d. Uses water conserving home appliances-low Ilow shower, low Ilush toilet.
e. Repair water leaking in the water pipes.
I. Immerse a solid material in the Ilush tank to reduce the volume oI water in each Ilush
g. Plant low maintenance crops that utilizes less amount oI water Ior growing.
h. Dispose the used motor oil, household hazardous wastes and batteries.
WATER POLLUTANTS
S.No TYPE EXAMPLES SOURCES
1 Pathogens
Bacteria, viruses,
parasites
Human and animal
excreta
2
Radioactive
materials
Uranium, thorium,
cesium, polonium
Atomic power plant,
mining operation
3 Organic chemicals Insecticides, detergents, Industrial wastes,
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plastics, petrol agricultural runoII
4 Inorganic chemicals
Acids, solvents, bases,
ionic salts, metallic
compounds
Industrial eIIluents
5
O2 demanding
wastes
Animal manure and
plant wastes
Domestic sewage, paper
and pulp industries, Iood
industries, agricultural
runoII
6 Thermal Heat energy
Power plants, Iurnaces,
cooling towers
7 sediments Soil, silt
Land erosion and land
degradation
Plant nutrients N,P,K Iertilizers
Agricultural runoII,
Iertilizer industries
Wastewater Treatment
o Raw sewage includes waste Irom sinks, toilets, and industrial processes. Treatment oI the
sewage is required beIore it can be saIely buried, used, or released back into local water
systems.
o In a treatment plant, the waste is passed through a series oI screens, chambers, and
chemical processes to reduce its bulk and toxicity. The three general phases oI treatment
are primary, secondary, and tertiary.
o During primary treatment, a large percentage oI the suspended solids and inorganic
material is removed Irom the sewage.
o The Iocus oI secondary treatment is reducing organic material by accelerating natural
biological processes.
o Tertiary treatment is necessary when the water will be reused; 99 percent oI solids are
removed and various chemical processes are used to ensure the water is as Iree Irom
impurity as possible.
o Agriculture, including commercial livestock and poultry Iarming, is the source oI many
organic and inorganic pollutants in surIace waters and groundwater.
o These contaminants include both sediment Irom erosion cropland and compounds oI
phosphorus and nitrogen that partly originate in animal wastes and commercial Iertilizers.
o Animal wastes are high in oxygen demanding material, nitrogen and phosphorus, and they
oIten harbor pathogenic organisms.
o Wastes Irom commercial Ieeders are contained and disposed oI on land; their main threat
to natural waters, thereIore, is Irom runoII and leaching.
o Control may involve settling basins Ior liquids, limited biological treatment in aerobic or
anaerobic lagoons. A variety oI other methods can be employed in order to treat run oII
Irom industries.
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Waste-water treatment:
1. Screening:
Wastewater entering the treatment plant includes items like wood, rocks, and even dead animals.
Unless they are removed, they could cause problems later in the treatment process. Most oI these
materials are sent to a landIill.
2. Pumping:
The wastewater system relies on the Ior
treatment plant. So wastewater
into which treated water can be released. II the plant is built above the ground level, the
wastewater has to be pumped up to the aeration tanks (item 3). From here on, gravity takes over
to move the wastewater through the treatment process.
3. Aerating:
One oI the Iirst steps that a water treatment Iacility can do is to just shake up the sewage and
expose it to air. This causes some oI the dissolved gases (such as hydrogen sulIide, which smells
like rotten eggs) that taste and smell bad to be released Irom the water. Wastewater enters a
series oI long, parallel concrete tanks. Each tank is divided into two sections.
air is pumped through the water. As organic matter decays, it uses up oxygen. Aeration
replenishes the oxygen. Bubbling oxygen through the water also keeps the organic material
suspended while it Iorces `grit` (coIIeegrounds, sand and
Grit is pumped out oI the tanks and taken to landIills.
4. Removing sludge:
Wastewater then enters the second section or sedimentation tanks. Here, the sludge (the organic
portion oI the sewage) settles out oI the wastewater and is pumped out oI the tanks. Some oI the
water is removed in a step called thickening and then the slud
called digesters.
5. Removing scum:
As sludge is settling to the bottom oI the sedimentation tanks, lighter materials are Iloating to the
surIace. This `scum` includes grease, oils, plastics, and soap. Slow
oII the surIace oI the wastewater. Scum is thickened and pumped to the digesters along with the
sludge. Many cities also use Iiltration in sewage treatment. AIter the solids are removed, the
Iorce oI gravity to move sewage Irom your home to the
wastewater-treatment plants are located on low ground, oIten near a river
e In the Iirst section,
other small, dense particles) to settle out.
sludge is processed in large tanks
Slow-moving rakes skim th
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ce ge the scum
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liquid sewage is Iiltered through a substance, usually san
gets rid oI almost all bacteria, reduces turbidity and color,
iron, and removes most other solid particles that remained in the water. Water is sometimes
Iiltered through carbon particles, which removes organic particles. This method is used in some
homes, too.
6. Killing bacteria.
Finally, the wastewater Ilows into a `chlorine contact` tank, where the chemical chlorine is added
to kill bacteria, which could pose a health risk, ju
mostly eliminated as the bacteria are destroyed, but sometimes it must be neutralized by adding
other chemicals. This protects Iish and other marine organisms, which can be harmed by the
smallest amounts oI chlorine. The treated water (called eIIluent) is then discharged to a local
river
or the ocean.
R. Wastewater Residuals.
an other part oI treating wastewater is dealing with the solid
Ior 20 to 30 days in large, heated and enclosed tanks called `digesters.` Here, bacteria break
down
(digest) the material, reducing its volume, odors, and get
disease. The Iinished product is mainly sent to landIills, but sometimes can be used as Iertilizer.
sand, by the action oI gravity. This method
removes odors, reduces the amount oI
just as is done in swimming pools. The chlorine is
solid-waste material. These solids are kept
getting rid oI organisms that can cause
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GROUND WATER
Ninety-Iive percent oI all Iresh water on earth is ground water. Ground water is Iound in
natural rock Iormations. These Iormations, called aquiIers, are a vital natural resource with
many uses. Nationally, 53 oI the population relies on ground water as a source oI drinking
water. In rural areas this Iigure is even higher. Eighty one percent oI community water is
dependent on ground water. Although the 1992 Section 305(b) State Water Quality Reports
indicate that, overall, the Nation.s ground water quality is good to excellent; many local areas
have experienced signiIicant ground water contamination. Some examples are leaking
underground storage tanks and municipal landIills.
LEGISLATION
Several Iorms oI legislation have been passed in recent decades to try to control water
pollution. In 1970, the Clean Water Act provided 50 billion dollars to cities and states to build
wastewater Iacilities. This has helped control surIace water pollution Irom industrial and
municipal sources throughout the United States. When congress passed the Clean Water Act in
1972, states were given primary authority to set their own standards Ior their water. In addition
to these standards, the act required that all state beneIicial uses and their criteria must comply
with the .Iishable and swimmable. goals oI the act. This essentially means that state beneIicial
uses must be able to support aquatic liIe and recreational use. Because it is impossible to test
water Ior every type oI disease-causing organism, states usually look to identiIy indicator
bacteria. One Ior a example is a bacteria known as Iecal coliIorms. (Figure 1 shows the quality oI
water Ior each every state in the United States, click on the US link). These indicator bacteria
suggest that a certain selection oI water may be contaminated with untreated sewage and that
other, more dangerous, organisms are present. These legislations are an important part in the
Iight against water pollution. They are useIul in preventing Envioronmental catastrophes. The
graph shows reported pollution incidents since 199-1994. II stronger legislations existed,
perhaps these events would never have occurred.
GLOBAL WATER POLLUTION
Estimates suggest that nearly 1.5 billion people lack saIe drinking water and that at least 5
million deaths per year can be attributed to waterborne diseases. With over 70 percent oI the
planet covered by oceans, people have long acted as iI these very bodies oI water could serve as
a
limitless dumping ground Ior wastes. Raw sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to
overwhelm the diluting capabilities oI the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted.
Beaches around the world are closed regularly, oIten because oI high amounts oI bacteria Irom
sewage disposal, and marine wildliIe is beginning to suIIer.
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Perhaps the biggest reason Ior developing a worldwide eIIort to monitor and restrict global
pollution is the Iact that most Iorms oI pollution do not respect national boundaries. The Iirst
major international conIerence on environmental issues was held
in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972 and was sponsored by the United Nations (UN). This meeting, at
which the United States took a leading role, was controversial because many developing
countries
were IearIul that a Iocus on environmental protection was a means Ior the developed world to
keep the undeveloped world in an economically subservient position. The most important
outcome oI the conIerence was the creation oI the United Nations Environmental Program
(UNEP).
UNEP was designed to be .the environmental conscience oI the United Nations,. and, in
an attempt to allay Iears oI the developing world, it became the Iirst UN agency to be
headquartered in a developing country, with oIIices in Nairobi, Kenya. In addition to attempting
to
achieve scientiIic consensus about major environmental issues, a major Iocus Ior UNEP has been
the study oI ways to encourage sustainable development increasing standards oI living without
destroying the environment. At the time oI UNEP`s creation in 1972, only 11 countries had
environmental agencies. Ten years later that number had grown to 106, oI which 70 were in
developing countries.
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SOLID WASTES
What is solid waste?
The sight oI a dust bin overIlowing and the stench
rising Irom it, the all too Iamiliar sights and smells oI a
crowded city. You look away Irom it and hold your nose as you
cross it. Have you ever thought that you also have a role to
play in the creation oI this stench? That you can also play a
role in the lessening oI this smell and making this waste bin
look a little more attractive iI you Iollow proper methods oI
disposal oI the waste generated in the house?
Since the beginning, humankind has been generating waste, be it the bones and other
parts oI animals they slaughter Ior their Iood or the wood they cut to make their carts. With the
progress oI civilization, the waste generated became oI a more complex nature. At the end oI the
19th century the industrial revolution saw the rise oI the world oI consumers. Not only did the air
get more and more polluted but the earth itselI became more polluted with the generation oI
nonbiodegradable
solid waste. The increase in population and urbanization was also largely
responsible Ior the increase in solid waste.
Each household generates garbage or waste day in and day out. Items that we no longer
need or do not have any Iurther use Ior Iall in the category oI waste, and we tend to throw them
away. There are diIIerent types oI solid waste depending on their source. In today.s polluted
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world, learning the correct methods oI handling the waste generated has become essential.
Segregation is an important method oI handling municipal solid waste. One oI the important
methods oI managing and treating wastes is composting.
As the cities are growing in size and in problems such as the generation oI plastic waste,
various municipal waste treatment and disposal methods are now being used to try and resolve
these problems. One common sight in all cities is the rag picker who plays an important role in
the segregation oI this waste.
Garbage generated in households can be
recycled and reused to prevent creation oI waste at source and reducing amount oI waste thrown
into the community dustbins.
Four Rs (Refuse, Reuse, Recycle, and Reduce) to be followed for waste management
1. Refuse. Instead oI buying new containers Irom the market, use the ones that are in the house.
ReIuse to buy new items though you may think they are prettier than the ones you already have.
2. Reuse. Do not throw away the soIt drink cans or the bottles; cover them with homemade paper
or paint on them and use them as pencil stands or small vases.
3. Recycle. Use shopping bags made oI cloth or jute, which can be used over and over again
|will
this come under recycle or reduce?|.Segregate your waste to make sure that it is collected and
taken Ior recycling.
4. Reduce. Reduce the generation oI unnecessary waste, e.g. carry your own shopping bag when
you go to the market and put all your purchases directly into it.
Types of solid waste
Solid waste can be classiIied into diIIerent types
depending on their source:
Household waste is generally classiIied as
municipal waste,
Industrial waste as hazardous waste, and
Biomedical waste or hospital waste as
inIectious waste.
Municipal solid waste
Municipal solid waste consists oI household waste, construction and demolition debris,
sanitation
residue, and waste Irom streets. This garbage is generated mainly Irom residential and
commercial
complexes. With rising urbanization and change in liIestyle and Iood habits, the amount oI
municipal solid waste has been increasing rapidly and its composition changing. In 1947 cities
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and towns in India generated an estimated 6 million tones oI solid waste; in 1997 it was about 4
million tones. More than 25 oI the municipal solid waste is not collected at all; 70 oI the
Indian
cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary landIills to dispose oI the
waste. The existing landIills are neither well equipped nor well managed and are not lined
properly
to protect against contamination oI soil and groundwater.
arbage: the four broad categories
Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.
1oxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertili:er and
pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids.
Over the last Iew years, the consumer market has grown rapidly leading to products being
packed
in cans, aluminium Ioils, plastics, and other such no biodegradable items that cause incalculable
harm to the environment. In India, some municipal areas have banned the use oI plastics and they
seem to have achieved success. For example, today one will not see a single piece oI plastic in
the
entire district oI Ladakh where the local authorities imposed a ban on plastics in 199. Other
states should Iollow the example oI this region and ban the use oI items that cause harm to the
environment. One positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in
reusable or biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable items can also be composted and reused.
In
Iact proper handling oI the biodegradable waste will considerably lessen the burden oI solid
waste
that each city has to tackle.
There are diIIerent categories oI waste generated, each take their own time to degenerate (as
illustrated in the table below).
The type of litter we generate and the approximate time it takes to degenerate
Type oI litter
Approximate time it takes to degenerate the
litter
Organic waste such as vegetable and
Iruit peels, leItover IoodstuII, etc.
a week or two.
Paper 10.30 days
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Cotton cloth 2.5 months
Wood 10.15 years
Woolen items 1 year
Tin, aluminium, and other metal items
such as cans
100.500 years
Plastic bags One million years?
Glass bottles undetermined
Hazardous waste
Industrial and hospital waste is considered hazardous as they may contain toxic substances.
Certain types oI household waste are also hazardous. Hazardous wastes could be highly toxic to
humans, animals, and plants; are corrosive, highly inIlammable, or explosive; and react when
exposed to certain things e.g. gases. India generates around 7 million tones oI hazardous wastes
every year, most oI which is concentrated in Iour states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
and Tamil Nadu.
Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous waste include old batteries, shoe polish,
paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles.
Hospital waste contaminated by chemicals used in hospitals is considered hazardous. These
chemicals include Iormaldehyde and phenols, which are used as disinIectants, and mercury,
which is used in thermometers or equipment that measure blood pressure. Most hospitals in India
do not have proper disposal Iacilities Ior these hazardous wastes.
In the industrial sector, the major generators oI hazardous waste are the metal, chemical, paper,
pesticide, dye, reIining, and rubber goods industries.
Direct exposure to chemicals in hazardous waste such as mercury and cyanide can be Iatal.
HOSPITAL
WASTES
Hospital waste
Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or
immunization oI human beings or animals or in research
activities in these Iields or in the production or testing oI
biological samples. It may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical
waste,
cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc. These are in the Iorm oI disposable syringes,
swabs, bandages, body Iluids, human excreta, etc. This waste is highly inIectious and can be a
serious threat to human health iI not managed in a scientiIic and discriminate manner. It has been
roughly estimated that oI the 4 kg oI waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kg would be
inIected.
Surveys carried out by various agencies show that the health care establishments in India are not
giving due attention to their waste management. AIter the notiIication oI the Bio-medical Waste
(Handling and Management) Rules, 199, these establishments are slowly streamlining the
process
oI waste segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal. Many oI the larger hospitals have either
installed the treatment Iacilities or are in the process oI doing so.
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Plastics
Plastic with its exclusive qualities oI being light yet strong and economical, has invaded every
aspect
oI our day-to-day liIe. It has many advantages: it is durable, light, easy to mould, and can be
adapted
to diIIerent user requirements. Once hailed as a `wonder material`, plastic is now a serious
worldwide
environmental and health concern, essentially due to its non biodegradable nature.
In India, the plastic industry is growing phenomenally. Plastics have use in all sectors oI the
economy
. inIrastructure, construction, agriculture, consumer goods, telecommunications, and packaging.
But the good news is that along with a growth in the use, a country-wide network Ior collection
oI
plastic waste through rag pickers, waste collectors and waste dealers and recycling enterprises
has
sprung all over the country over the last decade or so. More than 50 oI the plastic waste
generated
in the country is recycled and used in the manuIacture oI various plastic products.
Conventional plastics have been associated with reproductive problems in both wildliIe and
humans.
Studies have shown a decline in human sperm count and quality, genital abnormalities and a rise
in
the incidence oI breast cancer. Dioxin a highly carcinogenic and toxic by-product oI the
manuIacturing process oI plastics, is one oI the chemicals believed to be passed on through
breast
milk to the nursing inIant. Burning oI plastics, especially PVC releases this dioxin and also Iuran
into
the atmosphere. Thus, conventional plastics, right Irom their manuIacture to their disposal are a
major problem to the environment.
Source oI generation oI waste plastics
HOUSEHOLD Carry bags
Bottles
Containers
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Trash bags
HEALTH AND MEDICARE Disposable syringes
Glucose bottles
Blood and urine bags
Intravenous tubes
Catheters
Surgical gloves
HOTEL AND CATERING Packaging items
Mineral water bottles
Plastic plates, glasses, spoons
AIR/RAIL TRAVEL Mineral water bottles
Plastic plates, glasses, spoons
Plastic bags
Plastics are so versatile in use that their impacts on the environment are extremely wide ranging.
Careless disposal oI plastic bags chokes drains, blocks the porosity oI the soil and causes
problems
Ior groundwater recharge. Plastic disturbs the soil microbe activity, and once ingested, can kill
animals. Plastic bags can also contaminate IoodstuIIs due to leaching oI toxic dyes and transIer
oI
pathogens. In Iact, a major portion oI the plastic bags i.e. approximately 60-0 oI the plastic
waste
generated in India is collected and segregated to be recycled. The rest remains strewn on the
ground,
littered around in open drains, or in unmanaged garbage dumps. Though only a small percentage
lies
strewn it is this portion that is oI concern as it causes extensive damage to the environment.
The plastic industry in the developed world has realized the need oI environmentally acceptable
modes Ior recycling plastics wastes and has set out targets and missions. Prominent among such
missions are the Plastic Waste Management Institute in Japan, the European Centre Ior Plastics
in
Environment, the Plastic Waste Management Task Force in Malaysia. ManuIacturers, civic
authorities, environmentalists and the public have begun to acknowledge the need Ior plastics to
conIorm to certain guidelines/standards and code oI conduct Ior its use.
Designing eco-Iriendly, bio-degradable plastics are the need oI the hour. Though partially
biodegradable plastics have been developed and used, completely biodegradable plastics based
on
renewable starch rather than petrochemicals have only recently been developed and are in the
early
stages oI commercialization.
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RECYCLING AND REUSE
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Recycling and reuse
Recycling involves the collection oI used and discarded materials processing these materials and
making them into new products. It reduces the amount oI waste that is thrown into the
community
dustbins thereby making the environment cleaner and the air more Iresh to breathe.
Surveys carried out by Government and non-government agencies in the country have all
recognized
the importance oI recycling wastes. However, the methodology Ior saIe recycling oI waste has
not been
standardized. Studies have revealed that 7 -15 oI the waste is recycled.
II recycling is done in a proper manner, it will solve the problems oI waste or garbage. At the
community level, a large number oI NGOs (Non Governmental Organizations) and private sector
enterprises have taken an initiative in segregation and recycling oI waste (EXNORA
International in
Chennai recycles a large part oI the waste that is collected). It is being used Ior composting,
making
pellets to be used in gasiIiers, etc. Plastics are sold to the Iactories that reuse them.
The steps involved in the process prior to recycling include
a) Collection oI waste Irom doorsteps, commercial places, etc.
b)Collection oI waste Irom community dumps.
c) Collection/picking up oI waste Irom Iinal disposal sites and some oI the
items can be recycled and reused
Paper Old copies
Old books
Paper bags
Newspapers
Old greeting cards
Cardboard box
Plastic Containers
Bottles
Bags
Sheets
Glass and ceramics Bottles
Plates
Cup
Bowls
Miscellaneous Old cans
Utensils
Clothes
Furniture
Most oI the garbage generated in the household can be recycled and reused. Organic kitchen
waste
such as leItover IoodstuII, vegetable peels, and spoilt or dried Iruits and vegetables can be
recycled by
putting them in the compost pits that have been dug in the garden. Old newspapers, magazines
and
bottles can be resold.
In your own homes you can contribute to waste reduction and the recycling and reuse oI certain
items.
To cover you books you can use old calendars; old greeting cards can also be reused. Paper can
also be
made at home through a very simple process and you can paint on them.
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Fig :Ilow chart recycling plastic waste
The schematic diagram below depicts recycling oI wastes
Management oI Municipal Solid Waste
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TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTES
Treatment and disposal of municipal waste
As cities are growing in size with a rise in the population, the amount oI waste generated is
increasing becoming unmanageable. The local corporations have adapted diIIerent methods Ior
the disposal oI waste . open dumps, landIills, sanitary landIills, and incineration plants. One oI
the important methods oI waste treatment is composting.
Open dumps
Open dumps reIer to uncovered areas that are used to dump
solid waste oI all kinds. The waste is untreated, uncovered,
and not segregated. It is the breeding ground Ior Ilies, rats,
and other insects that spread disease. The rainwater run-oII
Irom these dumps contaminates nearby land and water
thereby spreading disease. In some countries, open dumps
are being phased out.
Landfills
LandIills are generally located in urban areas where a large amount oI waste is generated and
has to be dumped in a common place. Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that is dug in the
ground. The garbage is dumped and the pit is covered thus preventing the breeding oI Ilies and
rats. At the end oI each day, a layer oI soil is scattered on top oI it and some mechanism,
usually an earth-moving equipment is used to compress the garbage, which now Iorms a cell.
Thus, every day, garbage is dumped and becomes a cell. AIter the landIill is Iull, the area is
covered with a thick layer oI mud and the site can thereaIter be developed as a parking lot or a
park.
LandIills have many problems. All types oI waste is dumped in landIills and when water seeps
through them it gets contaminated and in turn pollutes the surrounding area. This
contamination oI groundwater and soil through landIills is known as leaching.
Waste recycling has some signiIicant advantages.
It leads to less utilization oI raw materials.
Reduces environmental impacts arising Irom waste treatment and disposal.
Makes the surroundings cleaner and healthier.
Saves on landIill space.
Saves money.
Reduces the amount oI energy required to manuIacture new products.
In Iact recycling can prevent the creation oI waste at the source.
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Sanitary landfills
An alternative to landIills which will solve the problem oI leaching to some extent, is a sanitary
landIill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical manner. These are lined with
materials that are impermeable such as plastics and clay, and are also built over impermeable
soil. Constructing sanitary landIills is very costly and they are have their own problems. Some
authorities claim that oIten the plastic liner develops cracks as it reacts with various chemical
solvents present in the waste.
The rate oI decomposition in sanitary landIills is also extremely variable. This can be due to the
Iact that less oxygen is available as the garbage is compressed very tightly. It has also been
observed that some biodegradable materials do not decompose in a landIill. Another major
problem is the development oI methane gas, which occurs when little oxygen is present, i.e.
during anaerobic decomposition. In some countries, the methane being produced Irom sanitary
landIills is tapped and sold as Iuel.
Incineration plants
This process oI burning waste in large Iurnaces is known as
incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is
segregated and the rest oI the material is burnt. At the end
oI the process all that is leIt behind is ash. During the
process some oI the ash Iloats out with the hot air. This is
called Ily ash. Both the Ily ash and the ash that is leIt in the
Iurnace aIter burning have high concentrations oI
dangerous toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals. Disposing oI this ash is a problem. The
ash that is buried at the landIills leaches the area and cause severe contamination.
Burning garbage is not a clean process as it produces tones oI toxic ash and pollutes the air
and water. A large amount oI the waste that is burnt here can be recovered and recycled. In
Iact, at present, incineration is kept as the last resort and is used mainly Ior treating the
inIectious waste.
Health impacts of solid waste
Modernization and progress has had its share oI disadvantages and one oI the main
aspects oI concern is the pollution it is causing to the earth . be it land, air, and water.
With increase in the global population and the rising demand Ior Iood and other
essentials, there has been a rise in the amount oI waste being generated daily by each
household. This waste is ultimately thrown into municipal waste collection centres Irom
where it is collected by the area municipalities to be Iurther thrown into the landIills and
dumps. However, either due to resource crunch or ineIIicient inIrastructure, not all oI this
waste gets collected and transported to the Iinal dumpsites. II at this stage the
management and disposal is improperly done, it can cause serious impacts on health and
problems to the surrounding environment.
Waste that is not properly managed, especially excreta and other liquid and solid waste
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Irom households and the community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread
oI inIectious diseases. Unattended waste lying around attracts Ilies, rats, and other
creatures that in turn spread disease. Normally it is the wet waste that decomposes and
releases a bad odour. This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in the
health problems. The plague outbreak in Surat is a good example oI a city suIIering due to
the callous attitude oI the local body in maintaining cleanliness in the city. Plastic waste is
another cause Ior ill health. Thus excessive solid waste that is generated should be
controlled by taking certain preventive measures.
Impacts of solid waste on health
The group at risk Irom the unscientiIic disposal oI solid waste include . the population in
areas where there is no proper waste disposal method, especially the pre-school children;
waste workers; and workers in Iacilities producing toxic and inIectious material. Other
high-risk groups include population living close to a waste dump and those, whose water
supply has become contaminated either due to waste dumping or leakage Irom landIill
sites. Uncollected solid waste also increases risk oI injury, and inIection.
In particular, ORGANIC DOMESTIC WASTE poses a serious threat, since they Ierment,
creating conditions Iavorable to the survival and growth oI microbial pathogens. Direct
handling oI solid waste can result in various types oI inIectious and chronic diseases with
the waste workers and the rag pickers being the most vulnerable.
EXPOSURE TO HAZARDOUS WASTE can aIIect human health, children being more
vulnerable to these pollutants. In Iact, direct exposure can lead to diseases through
chemical exposure as the release oI chemical waste into the environment leads to chemical
poisoning. Many studies have been carried out in various parts oI the world to establish a
connection between health and hazardous waste. WASTE FROM AGRICULTURE AND
INDUSTRIES can also cause serious health risks. Other than this, co-disposal oI
industrial hazardous waste with municipal waste can expose people to chemical and
radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct storm water runoII,
resulting in the Iorming oI stagnant water bodies that become the breeding ground oI
disease. Waste dumped near a water source also causes contamination oI the water body
or the ground water source. Direct dumping oI untreated waste in rivers, seas, and lakes
results in the accumulation oI toxic substances in the Iood chain through the plants and
animals that Ieed on it.
DISPOSAL OF HOSPITAL AND OTHER MEDICAL WASTE requires special attention
since this can create major health hazards. This waste generated Irom the hospitals,
health care centres, medical laboratories, and research centres such as discarded syringe
needles, bandages, swabs, plasters, and other types oI inIectious waste are oIten disposed
with the regular non-inIectious waste.
WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SITES can also create health hazards Ior the
neighbourhood. Improperly operated incineration plants cause air pollution and
improperly managed and designed landIills attract all types oI insects and rodents that
spread disease. Ideally these sites should be located at a saIe distance Irom all human
settlement. LandIill sites should be well lined and walled to ensure that there is no leakage
into the nearby ground water sources.
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Occupational hazards associated with waste handling
Infections
Skin and blood inIections resulting Irom direct contact with waste, and Irom inIected
wounds.
Eye and respiratory inIections
during landIill operations.
DiIIerent diseases that results Irom the bites oI animals Ieeding on the waste.
Intestinal inIections that are transmitted by Ilies Ieeding on the waste.
Chronic diseases
Incineration operators are at risk oI chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers
resulting Irom exposure to dust and hazardous compounds.
Accidents
Bone and muscle disorders resulting Irom the handling oI heavy containers.
InIecting wounds resulting
Poisoning and chemical burns resulting Irom contact with small amounts oI
hazardous chemical waste mixed with general waste.
Burns and other injuries resulting Irom occupational accidents at waste disposal sites
or Irom methane gas explosion at landIill sites.
Source - Adapted Irom UNEP report, 1996
RECYCLING too carries health risks iI proper precautions are not taken. Workers working
with waste containing chemical and metals may experience toxic exposure. Disposal oI
health-care wastes require special attention since it can create major health hazards, such
as Hepatitis B and C, through wounds caused by discarded syringes. Rag pickers and
others who are involved in scavenging in the waste dumps Ior items that can be recy
may sustain injuries and come into direct contact with these inIectious items.
Diseases
Certain chemicals iI released untreated, e.g. cyanides, mercury, and polychlorinated
biphenyls are highly toxic and exposure can lead to disease or death. Some
detected excesses oI cancer in residents exposed to hazardous waste. Many studies have
been carried out in various parts oI the world to establish a connection between health
and hazardous waste.
The role of plastics
The unhygienic use and disposal oI plastics and its eIIects on human health has become a
matter oI concern. Coloured plastics are harmIul as their pigment contains heavy metals
that are highly toxic. Some oI the harmIul metals Iound in plastics are copper, lead,
chromium, cobalt, selenium, and cadmium. In most industrialized countries, colour
plastics have been legally banned. In India, the Government oI Himachal Pradesh has
banned the use oI plastics and so has Ladakh district. Other states should emulate their
example.
resulting Irom exposure to inIected dust, especially
ncineration Irom contact with sharp objects.
ethane studies have
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recycled,
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Preventive measures
Proper methods oI waste disposal have to be undertaken to ensure that it does not aIIect
the environment around the area or cause health hazards to the people living there.
At the household-level proper segregation oI waste has to be done and it should be
ensured that all organic matter is kept aside Ior composting, which is undoubtedly the
best method Ior the correct disposal oI this segment oI the waste. In Iact, the organic part
oI the waste that is generated decomposes more easily, attracts insects and causes
disease. Organic waste can be composted and then used as a Iertilizer.
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Smog
The term smog was Iirst used in 1905 by Dr H A Des Voeux to describe the conditions oI
Iog that had soot or smoke in it.
Smog is a combination oI various gases with
water vapour and dust. A large part oI the
gases that Iorm smog is produced when
Iuels are burnt.
Smog Iorms when heat and sunlight react
with these gases and Iine particles in the air.
Smog can aIIect outlying suburbs and rural
areas as well as big cities. Its occurrences
are oIten linked to heavy traIIic, high
temperatures, and calm winds.
During the winter, wind speeds are low and cause the smoke and Iog to stagnate; hence
pollution levels can increase near ground level. This keeps the pollution close to the
ground, right where people are breathing. It hampers visibility and harms the
environment.
Heavy smog is greatly decreases ultraviolet radiation. In Iact, in the early part oI the
20th century, heavy smog in some parts oI Europe resulted in a decrease in the
production oI natural vitamin D leading to a rise in the cases oI rickets.
Smog causes a misty haze similar to Iog, but very diIIerent in composition. In Iact the
word smog has been coined Irom a combination oI the words Iog and smoke. Smog
reIers to hazy air that causes diIIicult breathing conditions.
The most harmIul components oI smog are ground-level ozone and Iine airborne
particles. Ground-level ozone Iorms when pollutants released Irom gasoline and dieselpowered
vehicles and oil-based solvents react with heat and sunlight. It is harmIul to
humans, animals, and plants.
The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the beginning oI air pollution in
Europe on a large scale and the presence oI smog mainly in Britain. The industries and
the households relied heavily on coal Ior heating and cooking.
Due to the burning oI coal Ior heat during the winter months, emissions oI smoke and
sulphur dioxide were much greater in urban areas than they were during the summer
months. Smoke particles trapped in the Iog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog
oIten settled over cities Ior many days.
The eIIects oI smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted Ior
several days. Many people suIIered respiratory problems and increased deaths were
recorded, notably those relating to bronchial causes.
LONDON SMOG:
A haze oI dense harmIul smog would oIten cover the city oI London. The Iirst smogrelated
deaths were recorded in London in 173, when it killed 500 people. In 10, the
toll was 2000. London had one oI its worst experiences with smog in December 192. It
lasted Ior three days and resulted in about 1000 deaths. London became quite
notorious Ior its smog. Despite gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th
century,
Another major smog occurred in London in December 1952. The Great London Smog
lasted Ior Iive days and resulted in about 4000 more deaths than usual.Relatively little
was done to control any type oI pollution or to promote environmental protection until
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What is Noise Pollution?
Noise Pollution can be deIied as unwanted or oIIensive sounds that unreasonably intrude in to
our daily activities.
Sound, which pleases listener.s music and that, which causes pain and annoyance is noise.
At times, what is music Ior it can be noise Ior others.
Noise prevention and control is important as noise aIIects our nearing, ability to communicate
and behavior undoubtedly lesser noise can make the environment Iriendlier and liIe became
pleasant.
The various sources oI noises are associated with urban development; road-air and rail
transport; Industrial noise.
In addition to the indoor sources like air conditioners, air resources, Ian, radio, TV and other
home and oIIicer appliances can be included.
In our country, indiscriminate use oI loud speakers, generator sets and Iirecrackers has given
new dimensions to the noise pollution problem.
The physical properties and perception oI sound or noise are expressed and measured in
diIIerent concepts and units.
The commonly used parameter Ior noise is the sound level in decibels (dBA). Human ears are
sensitive in the Irequency range oI 20Hz to 20 kHz.
Effects of Noise Pollution:
Noise can disturb out work, rest, sleep and communication.
It can damage our hearing and evoke other psychological, physiological and possibly
pathological reactions.
However, because oI the complexity, variability and the interaction oI noise with other
environmental Iactors, the adverse health eIIects oI noise do not lend themselves to a
straightIorward analysis.
The strength oI sound level and its subjective Ieeling / eIIects on human beings are
summarized below.
VARIOUS SOUND LEVELS AND ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEINGS
the middle oI the 20th century. Today, smoke and sulphur dioxide pollution in cities is
much lower than in the past, as a result oI legislation to control pollution emissions and
cleaner emission technology.
NOISE POLLUTION
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Sound Source Sound Level
dBA
Subjective Feeling
of Human Beings Effects on Human Beings
Rockets and missiles,
heavy explosives
150-160 Unbearable
Above 150 dBA may cause severe
damage to the whole body such as
loss oI hearing oI both ears, dizziness,
nausea, disturbance oI speech,
conIusion or psychosis.
Jet Planes and cannons,
explosives
140 Unbearable
AircraIt Propeller and
Machine Guns
130 Unbearable
Diesel, steam engine and
ball mills, crackers
120 Unbearable Above 90dBA may cause headache,
dizziness, tinnitus, insomnia,
deaIness, heart disease, blood hypertension,
gastric ulcers, neurosis,
temporary hearing threshold shiIt.
Electric saws and looms,
heavy trucks
110 Unbearable
Sound Source Sound
Level dBA
Subjective
Feeling of
Human Beings
Effects on Human Beings
Lorries, highway
vehicles and very busy
streets
90-100 Very noisy
50-90 dBA may cause various
degrees oI eIIects in sleeping,
studying, working and talking
Commercial place, air
conditioners, loud voice
and busy streets
70-0 Noisy
OIIice complex, average
loudness oI voices
60 Noisy Sense oI noisy Ieeling
Ordinary room 50 Quiet
Pleasant Ieeling
Silent night, library 30-40 Very quiet
Hospital, bedroom at
night, church
20-30 Very quiet Serene Ieeling
Sound prooI room,
broadcasting studio
10-20 Very quiet
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Lower limit oI hearing 0 Very quiet Threshold oI hearing
Standards For Noise Pollution:
Category oI Area / Zone
Max. Noise Level in dBAq*
Day Time
(6 AM to 10PM)
Night Time
(10PM to 6AM)
Industrial Area 75 70
Commercial Area 65 55
Residential Area 55 45
Silence Zone$ 50 40
EIIects oI the bad noise pollution on liIe loads to a standard Environmental protection Act .
199, Ior
ambient our quality standards with respective noise. These reveals with noise standard Ior
automobiles
generate sets, as Iireworks etc. Noise standards Ior Motor Vehicle Rules, 199. Noise exposure
limits Ior
work zone area have been prescribed in the Model Rules Iramed under the Factories Act, 194.
Ambient air quality standards with respect to noise:
` Leq is time weighted coverage oI the sound level over 24 hours.
$ Silence zone is an area comprising not less than 100 meters around hospitals, educational
institutions, courts, religious places or any other area which is declared as such by the
competent authority.
Noise standards Ior generator sets, Iire crackers, house-hold appliances and construction
equipment:
Category Max. Noise
Level, dBA
EIIective From
Gensets, run with petrol
or kerosene
90 1 Sep. 2002
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6 1 Sep. 2003
Gensets run with diesel
(upto 1000 KVA)
75 1 July 2003
Firecrackers 125 1999
Noise Limits in Factories:
No worker in his work-place should be exposed to a noise level oI 90 dBA Ior more than h.
Though the changes appear to be small by Iigure, they will have a great impact when
calculated in terms oI noise production.
A number oI Iactors contribute to problems oI high noise levels, including.
1. Increasing population, particularly where it leads to increasing urbanization and urban
consolidation, activities associated with urban living generally lead to increased noise level.
2. Increasing volumes oI road, rail and air traIIic.
Major Noise Sources:
1. Road Traffic:
Road traIIic noise is one oI the most widespread and growing environmental problems in urban
area. The impact oI road traIIic noise on the community depends an various Iactors such as road
location and design, land use planning measures, building design, Vehicle standards and deriver
behavior. Motor vehicle ownership in India has increased substantially over the last 30 years and
general levels oI road traIIic noise throughout India have increased through out the period.
2. Air Traffic:
The extend oI aircraIt noise impact depends on the type oI aircraIt Ilown, the number oI Ilights
and Ilight paths. The increase in number oI Ilights, an important Iactor is overall noise levels, the
led to an increase in general noise levels associated with air traIIic.
. Rail Traffic:
The two main sources oI noise and vibration relating to the operation oI the rail network is
1. The operation oI trains and the maintenance
2. Construction oI rail inIrastructure.
The level oI noise associated with rail traIIic is related to the type oI engine, the speed oI the
train
tack type and condition. Electric train generates less noise pollution and diesel.Rail noise can be
considerable bar generally aIIects a Iar smaller group oI the population than road as it is
generally conIined to residents living along rail lines is urban areas.
Neighborhood & Domestic Noise:
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Other signiIicant source oI noise annoyance is barking dogs, car alarms building construction
and household noise.
THERMAL POLLUTION
ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION DUE TO THERMAL POWER PLANTS -CAUSES,
EFFECTS &
REMEDIES
This handout brieIly presents the environmental pollution caused due to thermal power plants.
The main pollutants, their eIIects on the air, water & land and the remedial steps to be taken to
alleviate the health hazard are also presented. More emphasize is given on Ily ash collection and
its eIIective utilization, as the quantity oI Ily ash produced in coal Iired thermal power plant is
very high.
Introduction:
Energy is the basic necessity Ior the economic development oI a country. In Iact the standard oI
living is related to the energy consumed. Energy exists in diIIerent Iorms. Also, it can be
converted Irom one Iorm to another Iorm. Electrical energy is superior to all other Iorms oI
energy
due to its advantages such as: easy conversion Irom one Iorm to another, easy control,
cleanliness, high transmission eIIiciency etc. The electrical energy is produced in power plants or
generating stations. The conventional power plants are: 1. Steam or Thermal Power station, 2.
Hydro-electric Power station, 3. Nuclear Power station and 4.Diesel Power station.
Steam or Thermal Power station:
In the thermal power station, the steam is produced in the boiler, using the heat released by the
combustion oI coal, oil or natural gas. The steam is used to rotate the steam turbine (impulse/
reaction). The steam turbine drives the alternator, which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The schematic arrangements oI thermal power station are shown in Iig.1(given
in page 2).
Main pollutants from thermal plant:
The burning oI Iuels (coal, oil & gas) cause the emission oI Iollowing pollutants (which are
carried
by Ilue gas to the atmosphere): 1.Flyash 2. (a) Carbon monoxide (CO), (b) Carbon dioxide
(CO2),
(c) SulIur dioxide (SO2), (d) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), (e) Nitric oxide (NO) and 3.Smoke and
dust.
The chemical composition oI Indian coal is given in Table 1.
TABLE : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF INDIAN COALS
Material Singareni Kampte Korba
Moisture 10.00 10.00 5.50
Hydrogen 2.50 3.40 5.50
Carbon 3.00 45.70 37.30
Sulphur 0.50 0.40 0.30
Nitrogen 1.50 0.70 0.0
Oxygen 7.50 11.0 7.20
Ash 40.00 2.00 46.50
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Effects of pollutants:
The typical values oI Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPC) oI some oI the harmIul
substances in air are presented in the table 2. II the levels oI these pollutants exceed the MPC,
they pollute the air, water and to some extent the land.
Table 2. Maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants
Pollutant Average (daily) Highest (single day)
Soot (Fly ash) 0.05 0.15
Non toxic dust 0.15 0.5
CO 1.00 3.00
Nitrogen dioxide 0.05 0.05
Hydrogen sulphide 0.00 0.00
Fly ash
Fly ash is a Iinely divided residue resulting Irom the combustion oI pulverized bituminous coal
or
lignite in a thermal power plant. It is generally gray in color, abrasive, acidic, reIractory in nature
and has a Iineness oI 4000 to 000 sq.cm per gram The ash particles ranging in size Irom 120 to
less than 5 microns in equivalent diameters which are carried away with Ilue gases is called Ily
ash.
India has a coal reserve oI 200 billion tons and the current annual production oI 300 million
tons. The ash content oI coal used at the thermal power plants range Irom 35 to 55. Existing
thermal power plants in the country, which currently produce about 50 million tons oI Ily ash per
annum needing 40,000 acres oI precious land Ior disposal oI Ily ash during their liIe span oI 30
years. The annual expenditure on transportation alone to dump the Ily ash is around Rs.30
crores. While only very small percentage (3 to 5) oI Ily ash generated is being used Ior gainIul
applications, in India, the corresponding Iigures Ior other countries vary Irom 10-75. As a
thumb rule, Ior every MW oI installed capacity, approximately one acre oI land is required Ior
disposal oI the ash generated, the material accumulating to a height oI to 10 m. The chemical
compositions oI coal ash Irom Indian coals are presented in Table 3.
Table . Chemical composition of coal ash from Indian coals
Material Singareni Pench west Kamite
Seam
Fe2 O3 3.20 7.90 12.50
SiO2 61.01 62.70 59.00
Al2 O3 31.06 24.0 23.00
Ca O 0.6 0. 1.10
Mg O 0.13 0.62 0.50
Ti O2 2.24 1.4 1.40
P2 O5 0.10 0.11 0.17
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Na2 O 0.16 0.16 0.14
K2 O 0.79 0.90 0.
SO3 0.45 0.45 1.31
Eletrostatic precipitator
The ESP consists oI casing, hoppers, bus distributor screen, two electrodes (one in the Iorm oI
thin wire called discharge or emitting electrode and the other is in the Iorm oI plates called
collecting electrodes), rapping mechanism, insulator housing HVDC and control system. The
emitting electrodes are placed in the midway between two plates and are connected to negative
polarity oI the source and are grounded. The high electric Iield in the vicinity oI emitting
electrodes creates corona discharge ionizing the gas molecules. The dust particles entrained in
the gas acquire negative charge and experience a Iorce, which drives them towards the collecting
electrodes where they get deposited. A process called rapping dislodges the collected material.
Electrical operation
The general block diagram is shownFig.2. The input 415 V is applied to the thyristor controller.
The output Irom controller is Ied into the primary side oI the high voltage transIormer through a
current limiting reactor. The a c output Irom the secondary oI the h v transIormer is converted
into d.c by using a rectiIier. The high voltage d.c. voltage applied to the respective electrodes oI
ESP. The heating element provided on the ESP ensure Iree Ilow oI ash Irom the hoppers by
keeping the temperature oI ash above dew point.
Rapping system
During ESP operation, dust will be collected on the electrodes and corona will gradually be
suppressed as the dust layer grows. It is necessary to rap the electrode periodically by employing
tumbling hammers, which are mounted on the horizontal shaIt oI the motor. While shaIt is
rotating the shock energy generated by the hammers are transmitted to the electrodes, thereby
the dust is made to Iall into the ESP hoppers.
Hazard due to Fly ash
Fly ash is a harmIul environment pollutant being light, it gets airborne very Iast and pollutes
atmosphere. Long inhalation causes, silicoses, Iibrosis oI lungs, bronchitis and pneumonitis etc.
Fly ash corrodes structural surIaces and its deposition aIIects horticulture. Slurry disposal
lagoons/ settling tanks become source oI mosquitoes and bacteria. In addition it holds the
potential to contaminate the underground water resources with traces oI toxic metals present in
it. Fly ash disposal in sea/river disrupts aquatic liIe cycles. Thus, time has come to promote and
support Ily ash utilization eIIectively.
Hazard due to Toxic substances:
A 500 MW coal Iired plant, having no pollution control equipment, would emit nearly 100 tons
oI
SO2, 20 tons oI NO2 and 1000 tons oI ash daily.
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The CO is injurious to human health as it combines with hemoglobin in the red blood corpuscles
and interIeres with their normal Iunction oI supplying oxygen to the blood tissues. Carbon
dioxide
(CO2) can change the Iertile land into a non- Iertile land.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) (which is due to the combustion oI bituminous coal and residue oil)
deteriorates the surIace oI leaves in the vegetables. It also causes yellowing oI leaI, transient
reduction in live plant biomass and long term reduction in crop growth and yield. It also
increases the corrosion rate oI steel.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) & nitric oxide (NO) produce sharp irritating eIIect. They also cause
respiratory diseases. When NO2 reacts with water, aquatic organisms are damaged. Vegetation
damage due to high concentration oI NO2 in atmosphere includes leaI damage and decreased
plant yield
Acid rain is another menace caused by thermal power plants. The three main constituents oI Ilue
gases which mainly aIIect acidity oI rains are SO2, NO and NO2. In the atmosphere, sulphur
dioxide gets converted into sulphuric acid (H2 SO4) and the nitrogen oxides get converted into
nitric acid (HNO3). During the rainy seasons, the acid Iormed in the atmosphere Ialls on the
ground in the Iorm oI rain called acid rain. The acid rain increases the acidity oI well water, lake
water and the water Ilowing to the rivers. In general, SO2 contributes 60 oI acidity, where as
nitrogen oxides contribute 35 acidity. The Iurther detrimental eIIect oI acid rains is the
reduction oI ground Iertility and crop yield.
Hazards due to cooling tower
Cooling towers are huge hyperbolic structures measuring more than 100m in height, which use
natural air draIt (created by tower.s height and shape) Ior cooling the water. When the
surrounding air cannot absorb moisture, some droplets oI circulating water escape Irom the
tower. The droplets called driIt carry with them salts and chemicals which can damage
vegetation, cause weathering and corrosion oI metals and may even change soil properties. The
cooling tower water when added to atmosphere may condense and Iorm Iog at ground level. The
wind conditions may cause concentration oI dense Iog over a small area decreasing the visibility
in that area. Cooling tower can even produce visible plumes/clouds.
Hazards due to water discharge
When a river is available near by, the water withdrawal and discharge back by the power plants
can aIIect the aquatic liIe due to chemical contamination, thermal eIIect, entrainment,
entrapment, oxygen sag etc.
TABLE: STATISTICS SHOWING THE FLY ASH UTILIZATION IN DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES
Country
Total fly ash
production in
Million Tons
Utilization
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Australia 5.75 10
Canada 3.15 40
China 35 20
Denmark 1.1 75
France 4.6 65
Hungary 4 25
Japan 3.7 13
Poland 17 40
U.K. 10 60
U.S.A. 70 17
India 60 5
Hence, there is a need to enhance the eIIective utilization oI the large quantity oI Ily ash being
generated Irom the thermal power plants. Some oI the applications oI Ily ash are listed below.
Utilization of fly ash in building industry:
In building industry, Ily ash is being utilized in the manuIacture oI lime Ily ash bricks, building
blocks, clay bricks, cement, Fal-G-concrete blocks.
E-WASTES
E-WASTE AND THEIR PROBLEM
Electronic scrap items which poses problem to the environment
includes monitors, televisions, printers, keyboards, mice, scanners, Iax
machines, telephone handsets, VCRs, CPUs, cellular phones without
batteries and other small consumer electronics
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Source of e-wastes Constituent Health effects
Solder in printed circuit
boards, glass panels and
gaskets in computer
monitors
Lead (PB)
Damage to central and
peripheral nervous
systems, blood systems
and kidney damage.
AIIects brain
development oI
children.
Chip resistors and
semiconductors
Cadmium (CD)
Toxic irreversible eIIects
on human health.
Accumulates in kidney
and liver.
Causes neural damage.
Teratogenic.
Relays and switches,
printed circuit boards
Mercury (Hg)
Chronic damage to the
brain.
Respiratory and skin
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disorders due to
bioaccumulation in
Iishes.
Corrosion protection oI
untreated and galvanized
steel plates, decorator or
hardner Ior steel housings
Hexavalent
chromium (Cr) VI
Asthmatic bronchitis.
DNA damage.
Front panel oI CRTs
Cabling and
computer housing
Short term exposure causes:
Muscle weakness;
Damage to heart, liver
and spleen.
Motherboard
Plastic housing oI
electronic
equipments and
circuit boards.
Carcinogenic (lung
cancer)
Inhalation oI Iumes and
dust. Causes chronic
beryllium disease or
beryllicosis.
Skin diseases such as
warts
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CHAPTER-IV PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:
RAIN WATER HARVESTING
CLIMATE CHANGE
GLOBAL WARMING
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL ACT
AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL ACT
WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT

`

I

+

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SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE
Sustainable D
CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Development Vs Environment
Sustainable development is said to .meet the needs oI the present without compromising the
ability oI Iuture generations to
Environment and Development, Brundtland Report, 197).
Goodland and Ledec deIine sustainable development as, .a pattern oI social and structural
economic transIormation (i.e. development) which op
beneIits available in the present without jeopardising the likely potential Ior similar beneIits in
the
Iuture..
Barbier and Markandya (1990) emphasise the processes rather than the aims: .in general, the
wider objective oI sustainable development is to Iind the optimal level oI interaction among three
systems . the biological and resource system, the economic system and the social system,
through a dynamic and adaptive process oI trade
The concept oI sustainable development is a process oI consensus
which the impact oI economic activities (the economy) the environment (ecosystems), and the
health (well
being) oI society are integrated and balanced, without compromising the ability oI p
generations to meet their needs, so that all three
society - can be sustained into the Iuture
Pictorial Descriptions
UNIT . 4
ENVIRONMENT
Development . Economy, Environment & Society
meet their own needs..(United Nations World Commission on
optimises the economic and other societal
ctive trade-oIIs..
ble consensus-based decision making in
- the economy, the environment, and the health oI
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timises wellbeing)
present and Iuture
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Concepts of sustainable development
Use renewable resources at a rate that can be maintained over time.
Gradually reduce reliance on and limit the release oI toxic substances that do not readily break
down in nature
Use all resources as eIIiciently and Iairly as possible so that present and Iuture generations can
meet their needs.
ReIlect the inter dependence oI social, economic and environmental conditions.
Preserve the integrity oI ecological process and biological diversity.
Use land, air and water in ways that meet people.s diverse needs and preserve land.s ability to
meet Iuture needs.
Reduce the amount oI materials and energy used to produce goods and services.
Promote the use oI recyclable / reusable products and services.
Role of Government
Provide a broad range oI opportunities Ior learning about sustainable development concepts
and
practices.
ReIorm regulations and develop incentives to encourage practices that have net
environmental,
economic and community beneIits over the long run.
Provide incentives Ior business interested in developing and adopting sustainable practices and
technologies.
Examine the role oI taxes and subsidies in encouraging sustainable development.
Establish new institutions / organizations outside oI Government to aid in Iacilitating
sustainable
development.
Government should set an example oI sustainability in own operations and Iunctions.
Role of citizens
Promote environmentally sound business
Look Ior opportunities to turn waste streams into proIit streams.
Support the development oI renewable energy resources.
Educate others about the necessity and essentials oI sustainable development.
Join in NGOs / Institutions involved in the activity and contribute your skills towards the
development oI nation.
Role of International Organizations
Cooperation and coordination oI international and regional organizations.
Governments and non-governmental organizations should develop programmes Ior children
collaborating with UNICEF.
Agenda 21
The concept oI sustainable development was introduced in the 1992 Earth Summit held at Rio. In
the
conIerence, a legal document/blue print Ior sustainable development called Agenda 21 was put
Iorth. The
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table oI contents oI Agenda 21 describes the nature oI issues and topics related to sustainable
development.
Chapter 1 Preamble
Section I. Social and Economic Dimensions
Chapter 2 International Cooperation Ior Sustainable Development
Chapter 3 Combating Poverty
Chapter 4 Changing Consumption Patterns
Chapter 5 Demographic Dynamics & Sustainability
Chapter 6 Human Health
Chapter 7 Human Settlements
Chapter Decision Making
Section II. Conservation and Management oI Resources Ior Development
Chapter 9 Protection oI the Atmosphere
Chapter 10 Land Resources
Chapter 11 DeIorestation
Chapter 12 DesertiIication & Drought
Chapter 13 Sustainable Mountain Development
Chapter 14 Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Development
Chapter 15 Conservation oI Biodiversity
Chapter 16 Biotechnology
Chapter 17 Protection oI the Oceans
Chapter 1 Freshwater Resources
Chapter 19 Toxic Chemicals - Management
Chapter 20 Hazardous Wastes - Management
Chapter 21 Solid Wastes - Management
Chapter 22 Radioactive Wastes - Management
Section III. Strengthening the Role oI Major Groups
Chapter 23 Preamble Major Groups
Chapter 24 Women
Chapter 25 Children & Youth
Chapter 26 Indigenous People
Chapter 27 Non-Governmental Organizations
Chapter 2 Local Authorities
Chapter 29 Trade Unions
Chapter 30 Business & Industry
Chapter 31 ScientiIic & Technological Community
Chapter 32 Role oI Farmers
Section IV. Means oI Implementation
Chapter 33 Financial Resources
Chapter 34 Technology TransIer
Chapter 35 Science Ior Sustainable Development
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Chapter 36 Education, Public Awareness & Training
Chapter 37 Capacity Building in Developing Countries
Chapter 3 International Institutions
Chapter 39 International Legal Instruments
Chapter 40 InIormation Ior Decision-making
Sustainable Development . Indian Response
India presented its perspective on sustainable development beIore the World Summit Ior
Sustainable
Development (WSSD) in 2002 as detailed study .Empowering People Ior Sustainable
Development.
(EPSD). It was brought out by the Ministry oI Environment and Forests.
The Indian Government did not Ieel the need Ior a separate speciIic strategy Ior sustainable
development.
The Five Year Plans provide medium-term strategies Ior overall development. However, aIter
the WSSD,
the Indian government initiated a process oI preparing and implementing a national strategy Ior
sustainable development by 2005.
EPSD introduces the essential Iramework Ior sustainable development in India: democratic
continuity,
devolution oI power, independent judiciary, and civilian control oI the armed Iorces, independent
media,
transparency and people`s participation. It Iollows multidimensional, sectoral and cross-sectoral
approaches. The EPSD has Iour main objectives
Combating poverty
Empowering people
Using core competence in science and technology
Setting environmental standards
The Indian Government has set the Iollowing targets Ior sustainable development in the 10th
Five year
plan.
Reduction oI poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by 2007 and by 15 percentage points by
2012
All children in school by 2003; all children to complete 5 Years in school by 2007
Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50 by 2007
Reduction in population growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2
Increase in literacy rate to 75 by 2007
Reduction oI InIant Mortality Rate (IMR) to 45 per 1000 live births by 2007 and to 2 by
2012
Reduction oI Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) to 2 per 1000 live births by 2007 and to 1 by
2012
Increase in Iorest cover to 25 by 2007 and 33 by 2012
All villages to have sustained access to potable drinking water by 2007
Cleaning oI major polluted rivers by 2007 and other notiIied stretches by 2012
Water Harvesting-Concepts &Methods
INTRODUCTION
Water is nectar oI liIe and liIe cannot sustain without it. Ever increasing demands oI water Ior
domestic,
irrigation as well as industrial sectors have created water crisis worldwide. Ground water is the
only
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dependable source oI water. InIerior quality oI groundwater with high salinity, Iluoride and
nitrate
contents Iurther limits the availability oI Iresh water assets.
Depleting groundwater resources, water logging hazards, deep water levels, higher degree oI
salinity, high
Iluoride and nitrate concentration, industrial pollution etc. are the main ground water related
areas oI
concern which needs appropriate attention oI management Ior Rain Water Harvesting &
ArtiIicial
Recharging.
WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING?
Ground water plays a critical role in the urban environment. It has a signiIicant contribution in
municipal, industrial and domestic water supply. Urbanization strongly aIIects ground water
recharge
Ilow and quality thereby creating serious impact on urban inIrastructure that may lead to socio .
economic and environmental degradation oI the area. As urban dwellings go on increasing
shrinkage oI
open land leads to continuous decline in ground water levels in many areas.
Rain water harvesting is essential because :-
SurIace water is adequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground water.
Due to rapid urbanization inIiltration oI rain water into the sub . soil has decreased drastically
and recharging oI ground water has diminished.
Over . exploitation oI ground water resources has resulted in declined in water levels in most
part
oI the country.
To enhance availability oI ground water at speciIic place and time.
To arrest sea water ingress.
To improve the water quality in aquiIers.
To improve the vegetation cover.
To raise the water levels in wells & bore wells that are drying up.
To reduce power consumption.
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BENEFITS OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING
An ideal solution oI water problem in areas having inadequate water resources.
The ground water level will rise.
Mitigates the eIIect oI drought & achieves drought prooIing.
Reduces the runoII which chokes the storm water drains.
Flooding oI roads is reduced.
Quality oI water improves.
Soil erosion will be reduced.
Saving ground water . one meter oI rise in water level saves about 0.40 KWH oI electricity.
WHAT IS RAIN WATER HARVESTING :
An old technology is gaining popularity in a new way. Rain water harvesting is enjoying a
renaissance oI sorts in the world, but it traces its history to biblical times. Extensive rain
water harvesting apparatus existed 4000 years ago in the Palestine and Greece. In
ancient Rome, residences were built with individual cisterns and paved courtyards to
capture rain water to augment water Irom city`s aqueducts. As early as the third
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millennium BC, Iarming communities in Baluchistan and Kutch impounded rain water
and used it Ior irrigation dams.
ARTIFICAL RECHARGE TO GROUND WATER :
ArtiIicial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that obtaining under natural conditions or
replenishment. Any man-made scheme or Iacility that adds water to an aquiIer may be
considered to be an artiIicial recharge system.
WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING:
Rain water harvesting is essential because:-
SurIace water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground
water.Due to rapid urbanization, inIiltration oI rain water into the sub-soil has decreased
drastically and recharging oI ground water has diminished.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES:
There are two main techniques oI rain water harvestings.
1. Storage oI rainwater on surIace Ior Iuture use.
2. Recharge to ground water.
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The storage oI rain water on surIace is a traditional techniques and structures used were
underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a new
concept oI rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are :-
Pits: - Recharge pits are constructed Ior recharging the shallow aquiIer. These are
constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back Iilled with boulders, gravels,
coarse sand.
Trenches:- These are constructed when the permeable stream is available at shallow
depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m deep and 10 to 20 m. long depending
up availability oI water. These are back Iilled with Iilter. Materials.
Dug wells:- Existing dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure and water should
pass through Iilter media beIore putting into dug well.
Hand pumps :- The existing hand pumps may be used Ior recharging the shallow/deep
aquiIers, iI the availability oI water is limited. Water should pass through Iilter media
beIore diverting it into hand pumps.
Recharge wells :- Recharge wells oI 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally constructed
Ior recharging the deeper aquiIers and water is passed through Iilter media to avoid
choking oI recharge wells.
Recharge Shafts :- For recharging the shallow aquiIer which are located below clayey
surIace, recharge shaIts oI 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed
and back Iilled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
Lateral shafts with bore wells :- For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquiIers
lateral shaIts oI 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon availability oI water
with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral shaIts are back Iilled with
boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
Spreading techniques :- When permeable strata starts Irom top then this technique is
used. Spread the water in streams/Nalas by making check dams, nala bunds, cement
plugs, gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.
DIVERSION OF RUN OFF INTO EXISTING SURFACE WATER BODIES
Construction activity in and around the city is resulting in the drying up oI water bodies
and reclamation oI these tanks Ior conversion into plots Ior houses.
Free Ilow oI storm run oII into these tanks and water bodies must be ensured. The storm
run oII may be diverted into the nearest tanks or depression, which will create additional
recharge.
Urbanization effects on Groundwater Hydrology :
Increase in water demand
More dependence on ground water use
Over exploitation oI ground water
Increase in run-oII, decline in well yields and Iall in water levels
Reduction in open soil surIace area
Reduction in inIiltration and deterioration in water quality
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Methods of artificial recharge in urban areas :
Water spreading
Recharge through pits, trenches, wells, shaIts
RooItop collection oI rainwater
Roadtop collection oI rainwater
Induced recharge Irom surIace water bodies.
Computation of artificial recharge from Roof top rainwater collection:
Factors taken Ior computation:
RooI top area 100 sq.metre Ior individual house and 500 sq.m. Ior
multi-storied building.
Average annual monsoon rainIall - 70 mm.
EIIective annual rainIall contributing to recharge 70 - 550 mm.
Individual
Houses
Multistoried
building
RooI top area 100 sq. m. 500 sq. m.
Total quantity available
Iorrecharge per annum
55 cu. m 275 cu. m.
Water available Ior 5 member
Family
100 days 500 days
Benefits of Artificial Recharge in Urban Areas :
Improvement in inIiltration and reduction in run-oII.
Improvement in groundwater levels and yields.
Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal / Municipal
Corporation water supply
Improvement in groundwater quality
Estimated quantity oI additional recharge Irom 100 sq. m. rooI top area is
55.000 liters.
ATTRIBUTES OF GROUNDWATER :
There is more ground water than surIace water
Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.
Ground water is sustainable and reliable source oI water supply.
Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
Ground water is usually oI high bacteriological purity.
Ground water is Iree oI pathogenic organisms.
Ground water needs little treatment beIore use.
Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
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Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative Ior lower
sanitary quality surIace water.
Ground water is usually universally available.
Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
There are no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies.
Ground water has low vulnerability to drought.
Ground water is key to liIe in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ground water is source oI dry weather Ilow in rivers and streams.
Urbanization
In the last Iour decades, the population oI India has increased at a very rapid rate and has
more than doubled. The spread oI urbanization and the rapid expansion oI urban countries
across the country have in the absence oI basic inIrastructure, created vast urban slums. The
estimate oI the proportion oI urban people living in slum varies Irom 20 to 30 oI the
population oI the urban centers. Each day almost 15,000 people move into urban areas Irom
villages resulting in 25-50 oI population oI the country live in crowded densely populated
cities and major towns.
The presence oI migrants combined with poor civic amenities in the urban areas creates low
living standards Ior slum dwellers. Improper and inadequate management oI urban waste has
led to the prevalence oI unhygienic conditions that create a breeding ground Ior all manner oI
epidemics.
However, avoidance oI slum creation totally impossible as the city master plan
implementation
becomes impossible, as all rules and regulations oI city planning gets violated. It is very
diIIicult to create suIIicient inIrastructure within a short interval oI time. This ends up with
Iormation oI slums, where individual houses do not have proper latrines and not even public
tap or borewell water supply system provided Ior thousands oI slum dwellers.
There are a number oI schemes designed to improve urban inIrastructure such as centrally
assisted programmes Ior construction oI individual and community latrines. There are
schemes Ior water supply to small towns with population less than 20,000. Initiatives create
inIrastructure Ior the urban poor include, schemes to provide drinking water, drainage and
lighting to notiIy slums. The urban basic service schemes . 196 promotes women and child
development, low cost water supply and sanitation. A programme Ior environmental
improvement oI urban schemes was introduced in 1974.
What is Acid Rain?
Acid rain is a Iorm oI air pollution in which airborne acids produced by electric utility plants and
other
sources Iall to Earth in distant regions. The major contributors, called PRECURSORS to the acid
are the
common air pollutants, like Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen oxides
Through a variety oI chemical reactions the gases Iorm Sulphuric acid and Nitric acid, which are
the two
acids responsible Ior the acid rain.
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How is acid produced?
Nitric oxide can react with oxygen O2 to Iorm nitrogen dioxide which can be broken down again
by
Sunlight(hv )to give Nitric oxide and an oxygen radical (O).
2NO O2 2N2NO2 hv NOO
The oxygen radical then enables the Iormation oI Ozone (O3)
OO2 O3
The presence oI ozone causes the Iormation oI more nitrogen dioxide by its reaction with nitric
oxide.
NOO3 NO2O2
Or, the oxygen radical reacts with water to give the hydroxyl radical (OH)
OH2O 2OH.
This radical then reacts with nitric oxide to give nitrous acid (HNO2) and nitrogen dioxide to
give nitric
acid (HNO3). It also combines with Sulphur dioxide to produce Sulphuric acid
HONH HNO2
NH2HO HNO3SO22HO H2SO4
Where does the .precursors. come from?
While Nitric oxide and Sulphur dioxide are produced biogenic ally (in nature), there are major
anthropogenic (man made) sources oI both these polluting gases. Sometimes, natural production
oI the
gases is much higher than human production, but these natural emissions tend to be spread over
large
area, dispersing their eIIects, while the man . made emissions are concentrated around the source
oI
their production.
Biogenic Sources (Or Natural Sources)
Volcanic eruptions and decay oI organic matter produce signiIicant amounts oI Sulphur dioxide.
Nitrogen
oxides are also generated by push Iires as well as by microbial process (in Soil) and lightning
discharges.
Anthropogenic Sources (or man made sources)
Nitrogen oxides are produced mainly Irom the burning oI Iossil Iuels such as Diesel and petrol in
automobiles and Irom power stations burning coal.
Sulphur dioxide is Iormed primarily in the burning oI (Sulphur containing) Coal, Iossil Iuels and
in metal
smelters.
How are acids deposited?
.Acid pollutants are deposited on the ground either in wet Iorm through rain, Iog or snow. As dry
matter,
such as gases or particulates, Ialling directly Irom the atmosphere to the ground.
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.The term acid deposition describes all these possibilities and thereIore . generally preIerred to
.acid
rain..
.Environmental problems Irom dry deposition tend to occur closer to the source oI the pollution.
Wet
deposition can occur upto hundreds oI kilometer away in a diIIerent region or country, because
microscopic aerosol droplets can be carried in clouds.
How can we reduce acid rain?
.The most eIIective way to reduce the incidence oI acid deposition is to reduce the emission oI its
causes .
The .PRECURSORS., nitrogen oxides and Sulphur dioxide.
.Nitrogen oxide reduction.
The main method oI lowering the levels oI nitrogen oxides is by a process known as .Catalytic
reduction..
Catalytic reduction is used in Industry & in motor vehicles.
Example
In a motor vehicles the Catalytic converter will convert much oI the nitric oxide Irom the engine
gases to
the nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen is not there in the actual Iuels or power stations. It is
introduced Irom
the air when combustion occurs. Using less air in combustion can reduce emissions oI nitrogen
oxides.
Temperature also has an eIIect on emission. Lower the temperature oI combustion, lower will be
the
production oI nitrogen oxides.
Temperatures can be lowered by using processes such as two stage combustion and Ilue gas
recirculation
water injection or by modiIying the design oI the burner.
Sulphur dioxide reduction:
There are several method to lower the Sulphur dioxide emission Irom Coal . Iired stations.
Simplest oI the
lot is using Coal with low Sulphur content and physical coal cleaning.
Most Complex is by the process oI .FLUE GAS DESULPHURISATION. and .FLUIDISED
BED
COMBUSTION..
Physical coal cleaning:
Coal can be cleaned because, Sulphur in Coal is oIten in the Iorm oI mineral impurities (pyrites).
This is
achieved by Iinely crushing the Coal.
Flue gas Desulphurization:
In this method the Sulphur dioxide (Ilue gas) is absorbed using lime stone. This method is the
most
eIIective oI removing Sulphur dioxide The process generates Solid wastes (Calcium Sulphate,
CaSO3 and
CaSO4) which require disposal.
CaCO3(limestone)SO2CaSO3CaSO4CO2H2O.
Fluidized bed combustion
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In this process, coal is crushed and passed into a Iluidized .bed. Ior combustion.
The bed consists oI Iine particles oI an absorbent material such as lime stone. Hot air is passed
through it
and this causes the particles to behave as through they are a Iluid.
The sulphur dioxide can then be absorbed by the lime stone particles in the bed.
Fluidized bed combustion can be operated at lower temperatures and thereIore produce less
nitrogen
oxide, but once again, solid waste is created and requires disposal.
What is affected by acid rain?
The acids in the acid rain can react chemically with any object they contact. Acids are corrosive
chemical
that react with other chemical by giving up hydrogen atoms. Acid rain or acid deposition has an
adverse
eIIect on environmental eco system as well as humans, animals,buildings, textiles. etc.
Soil: Acid rain dissolves in Soil and washes away nutrients needed by the plants. It can also
dissolve toxic
substances such as aluminum & mercury, releasing these toxins to pollute water or to poison
plants that
absorb them.
Trees: Removal oI useIul nutrients Irom the soil, acid rain slows the growth oI plants,
particularly trees. It
also attacks trees more directly by eating holes in the waxy coating oI needles & leaves, causing
brown
dead spots.
Acid rain has been blamed Ior the decline oI Spruce Iorests on the highest ridges oI Apalachian
Mountains in the eastern United States. In the black Iorest oI South Western Germany, halI oI
the trees
are damaged Irom the acid rain.
Agriculture: Most Iarm crops are less aIIected by acid rain than the Iorest. Farmers can prevent
acid rain
damage by monitoring the condition oI the soil and, when necessary, adding crushed lime stone
to the
soil to neutralize acid.
Surface water: Acid rain Ialls into streams, lakes and marshes. Due to this the water liIe is
destroyed. All
Norway.s major rivers have been damaged by acid rain, severely reducing the Iish liIe.
Plants and Animals: The eIIects oI acid rain on wild liIe can be Iar reaching, iI a population oI
one plant
or animal is adversely aIIected by acid rain, animals that Ieed on that organism may also suIIer
ultimately
an entire ecosystem may become endangered.Land animals dependent on aquatic organisms are
also
aIIected.
Man made structure: Acid rain and dry deposition oI acidic particles damage building, statues,
automobiles, and other structures made oI stone metal or any other material exposed to weather
Ior long
periods. Parthenon in Greece and the Taj- Mahal in India, are deteriorating due to acid
deposition.
Human health: AcidiIication oI SurIace water cause little direct harm to human health, it is saIe
to swim
in even the most acidiIied lakes.
In the air: acids join with other chemicals to produce urban smog, which can irritate the lungs an
make
breathing diIIicult, especially Ior people with respiratory diseases. Solid particles oI sulphates
can damage
the lungs.
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Acid rain and Global warming: Acid pollution has one surprising eIIect that may be beneIicial.
Sulphates
in the upper atmosphere reIlect some sunlight out into the space, and thus tend to slow down
global
warming.
OZONE LAYER DEPLECTION
B Ozone layer was discovered by a French physicist CHARLES FABRY and HENRI BUISSON
in
1913.
B Its properties were explored in detail by G.M.B.DOBSON, a British Meteorologist.
B Dobson established a world wide network oI ozone monitoring stations which operate even
today.
B The total amount oI zone in a column overhead is measured in .OBSOA Unit. (DU),
1DU0.01mm
B Ozone layer a region oI the atmosphere Irom 19 to 4 km above the earth.s surIace.
B Although the concentration oI ozone is the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to
liIe
because it absorbs biologically harmIul ultra violet (UV) radiation emitted Irom the Sun.
B UV radiation is divided into three categories basd on its wave length, ie., UV-A, UV-B, UV-C.
B Most oI the UV-A (315 to 400nm) reaches the surIace this radiation is signiIicantly less
harmIul,
although it can potentially cause genetic damage.
B UV-B (20 to 315nm) radiation is the main cause oI Sun burn; excessive exposure can also
cause
genetic damage, resulting in problems such as Skin cancer. It rapidly damages biota oI all types.
B UV-C 20nm, the ozone layer is very eIIective at screening out UV-B, Ior radiation with a
wave
length oI 290nm, the intensity at Earth.s surIace is 350 million times weaker at the top oI the
atmosphere.
Stratospheric Ozone layer:
B Atomic oxygen O, oxygen molecules O2 and Ozone O3 are involved in the ozone . oxygen
cycle.
B Ozone is Iormed in the Stratosphere when oxygen molecules dissociate aIter absorbing the
ultraviolet photon whose wave length is shorter than 240nm.
B This produces two oxygen atoms. The atomic oxygen then combines with O2 to create ozone
O3Ozone molecules absorb UV light between 310 and 200nm, Iollowing which ozone splits into
a
molecule oI O2 and O. The process O3 generation and splitting are as per the equations below.
O2 ----- OO
O2O ----- O3O3 -----
O2O
O3O ----- 2O2Under
normal conditions the creation and destruction oI ozone molecules is roughly constant and
ultimately result in eIIect absorption oI short wave length ultraviolet raditions in the stratospheric
region.LiIe underneath is thus protected Irom the harmIul solar radiations.
B The average thickness oI ozone layer in stratosphere is approximately 300DU.
Ozone hole: Certain human produced pollutants lead to destroy the stratosphere ozone and
causing an
imbalance between Iormation and dissociation oI ozone. This decrease in the ozone level is
called
depletion or thinning oI ozone layer or zone hole.
Cause of Ozone depletion:
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Ozone can be destroyed by a number oI Iree radical catalyst, like hydroxyl (OH), the nitric oxide
(NO),
atomic chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br).
All oI these are generated by both natural and anthropogenic (man made) sources.
At preset most oI the OH and NO is the stratosphere is oI natural origin, but human activity has
dramatically increased the chlorine and bromine.
.These elements are Iound in certain stable organic compounds, particularly chloroIluorocarbons
(CFC.s)
.Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are liberated Irom the parent compounds by the
action oI
ultra violet light and can destroy ozone molecules in a catalytic cycle.
Cl O3 ClOO2ClO0 ClO2In sum, O3O O2O2
Final result is an oxygen molecule and a chlorine atom, which then reinitiates the cycle.
A Single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone Ior up to two years. On a per atom
basis,
bromine is even more eIIicient than chlorine at destroying ozone, but there is much less bromine
in the atmosphere. As a result both chlorine and Bromine contribute signiIicantly to the overall
ozone depletion.
CFC.s were used in air . conditioning / cooling units as aerosol spray propellants prior to the
190.s and in the cleaning process oI electronic components.
CFC.s when reach the Stratosphere, are dissociated by ultraviolet light to relase chlorine
atoms.
The chlorine atoms act as Catalyst, and can breakdown many thousands oI ozone molecules
beIore removed Irom the Stratosphere.
It is calculated that CFC molecules takes an average oI 15 years to go Irom Ground level upto
the
upper atmosphere, and it can stay there Ior about a century, destroying up to one hundred
thousand ozone molecules during that times.
The Antarctic ozone hole is an area oI the Antarctic Stratosphere in which the recent ozone
levels
have dropped to as low as 33 oI their Pre- 1975 values.
The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, Irom September to early December, as
strong
westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container,
within this .polar vertex., over 50 oI the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the
Antarctic spring.
The overall cause oI ozone depletion is th presence oI chlorine . containing source gases
(primarily CFC.s and related hydrocarbons). In the presence oI UV light, these gases dissociate
releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The chlorine catalyzed
ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence
oI polar stratospheric clouds (PSC.s)
Polar Stratospheric clouds Iorm during winter. In the extreme cold temperatures would be
around
. 00C, without Sunlight and the .polar vertex. trapping the chill air.
This enhances the SurIaces Ior chemical reactions that lead to ozone destruction.
Most oI the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere. Warming temperatures near
the
end oI Spring break up the vortex around mid . December.
As warm ozone . rich air Ilows in Irom lower latitudes, the PSC.s are destroyed, the ozone
depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole heals.
The decrease in the ozone layer was predicted in the early 190.s to be roughly 7 over a
sixty .
year period.
The term Ozone depletion Ior distinct but related, observations: a slow decline (about 3 per
decade) in the total amount oI ozone in the earth.s stratosphere and much larger, but seasonal,
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decrease in Stratospheric ozone over the earth.s polar regions during the same period. Cause oI
both trends is believed to be the Catalytic destruction oI ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine.
The reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSC.s) are oI great importance.
The PSC.s only Iorm in extreme cold. The Antarctic stratosphere is colder than the Arctic, and
the
PSC.s Iorm more readily, which is the reason Ior ozone hole Iormation over Antarctic. This is
why
the Arctic zone holes are not as deep. In middle latitudes declines are bout 3 below pre-190
values Ior 35-60N and bout 6 Ior 35-60S. In the topics, there are no signiIicant trends.
Consequences of Ozone depletion:
Since the ozone layer absorbs UV-B light Irom the Sun, ozone layer depletion is expected to
increase surIace UV-B levels, which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer.
Scientists have estimated that a one percent decrease in Stratospheric ozone would increase
the
incidence oI skin cancers by 2
A direct correlation has been observed between cataract Iormation in eyes and UV radiations.
An increase oI UV radiation would also aIIect crops like rice.
At ground level ozone is generally recognize to be a health risk, as ozone is toxi due to its
strong
oxidant propertiesPresently, ozone at ground level is produced mainly by the action oI UV
radiation as exhaust gases, Irom vehicles.
Lower trophic level organisms shall be the worst suIIerers as they have a simple cell wall Ior
their
protection against UV radiation. With the primary tropic levels drastically impaired the entire
ecosystems could collapse.
Current events and future trends.
In 1994 UN General, assembly voted to designate September 16 as .World Ozone day..
A 2005 IPCC summary oI ozonic issue observed that global average amount oI ozone
depletion is
now approximately stabilized.
The thickness oI the ozone layer over Europe which has decreased by since the 190.s has
now slowed down to about 4 a decade. The Antarctic ozone hole reached its largest ever size in
September 2000 at 11.5 million Square miles.
Acid Rain-Causes & Consequences
ACID RAIN
As the name suggests, acid rain is just rain which is acidic. The rain becomes acidic because
oI
gases which dissolve in the rain water to Iorm various acids.
In general about 70 percent oI acid rain comes Irom sulphur dioxide (SO2), which dissolves
into
the water to Iorm sulphuric acid.
The rest comes Irom various oxides oI nitrogen mainly NO2 and NO3, collectively called
NOx,
Oxides oI carbon
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These gases are produced almost entirely Irom burning Iossil Iuels, mainly in power stations
and
road transport.
o 62 sulphuric acid, SO2 H2O H2SO4
o 32 nitric acid and, NOX H2O HNO3
o 5 hydrochloric acid, Cl2 H2O HCl HOCl
o 1 carbonic acid, CO2 H2O H2CO3
Acid rain causes lakes and rivers to become acidic, killing oII Iish . |Ex: All the Iish in 140
lakes
in Minnesota have been killed, and the salmon and trout populations oI Norway`s major rivers
have been severely reduced| because oI the increased acidity oI the water.
Short-term increases in acid levels kill lots oI Iish, but the greatest threat is Irom long-term
increases, which stop the Iish reproducing.
The extra acid also Irees toxic metals which were previously held in rocks, especially
aluminium,
which prevents Iish Irom breathing.
Single-celled plants and algae in lakes also suIIer Irom increased acid levels.
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A very highly publicized problem is the eIIect oI acid rain on trees. ConiIers appear to be
particularly aIIected, with needles dropping oII, and seedlings Iailing to produce new trees.
When
acid rain Ialls on trees, it makes their leaves turn brownish-yellow and the tree can no longer
carry out photosynthesis properly
The acid also reacts with many nutrients the trees need, such as calcium, magnesium and
potassium, which starves the trees. The trees are then much more susceptible to other Iorms oI
damage, such as being blown down, or breaking under the weight oI snow.
Many toxic metals are held in the ground in compounds. However, acid rain can break down
some oI these compounds, Ireeing the metals and washing them into water sources such as
rivers.
In Sweden, nearly 10,000 lakes now have such high mercury concentrations that people are
advised not to eat Iish caught in them. As the water becomes more acidic, it can also react with
lead and copper water pipes, contaminating drinking water supplies.
In Sweden, the drinking water reached a stage where it contained enough copper to turn you
hair
green! Presence oI more amount oI copper can also cause Diarrhoea in young children, and can
damage livers and kidneys.
Acid rain can cause buildings, statues and bridges to deteriorate Iaster than usual. Acid rain
aIIects certain materials, particularly limestone and marble. The acid dissolves the calcium
carbonate in the stone, and this solution evaporates, Iorming crystals within the stone. As these
crystals grow, they break apart the stone, and the structure crumbles. This picture shows how
much the gargoyle on the leIt has been damaged by acid rain - the gargoyle on the right has been
reconstructed.
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Birds can be harmed iI they live in aIIected waters or Ieed on
There are several places around the world aIIected by acid rain and here are the main ones.
The Northeastern section oI the United States where acid rain is caused by high numbers oI
Iactories and power plants is one aIIecte
Iish living in aIIected waters.
aIIected area.
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Also Southeastern section oI Canada is aIIected and the main cause is Iactories in the Toronto-
Hamilton area and possibly large numbers oI automobiles.
The Taj Mahal in India, one oI the ten wonders oI the world, is being constantly threatened by
acid rain.
Some Iamous statues, such as the Lincoln Memorial and Michael Angelo`s statue oI Marcus
Aurelius, have started deteriorating because oI acid rain.
In London in 1952, very thick acid smog killed 4,000 people.
CONTROL METHODS
The best approach to reduce acid rain is to reduce the amount oI NOx ,SO2 and CO2 being
released into the atmosphere.
Fitting a catalytic converter to a car can reduce the emissions oI NOx by up to 90 percent, but
they are very expensive, and cause more carbon dioxide to be released, which contributes to the
greenhouse eIIect.
Best option is not to burn Iossil Iuels, but to use alternative energy sources which are less
polluting.
SO2 emissions Irom power stations can be reduced beIore, during, or aIter combustion. II a
Iuel
with low sulphur content is burned, not much sulphur dioxide will be Iormed. However, low
sulphur Iuels are more expensive because they are in greater demand, and although highsulphur
Iuels can be treated to reduce their sulphur content, this is very expensive.
The SO2 created during combustion can be absorbed iI an appropriate chemical adsorbent
(such
as limestone) is present as the Iuel burns.
Once the Iuel has been burned, the SO2 can be removed Irom the exhaust gases. Most systems
spray a mixture oI limestone and water onto the gases. This mixture reacts with the SO2 to Iorm
gypsum, a useIul building material.
The best way to reduce them is not to use as much energy in the Iirst place. You can help in
lots
oI ways:
Turn oII lights when you leave a room
II you have a car, don`t use it Ior short journeys
Get your parents to insulate their house properly
Basically, anything at all that uses less energy
Green House EIIect-Causes & Consequences
GREENHOUSE GASES
The Iollowing industries are among those that emit a great deal oI pollutants into the air:
thermal
power plants, cement, steel, reIineries, petro chemicals, and mines.
Air pollution results Irom a variety oI causes, Dust storms in desert areas and smoke Irom
Iorest
Iires and grass Iires contribute to chemical and particulate pollution oI the air.
The source oI pollution may be in one country but the impact oI pollution may be Ielt
elsewhere.
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The discovery oI pesticides in Antarctica, where they have never been used, suggests the
extent to
which aerial transport can carry pollutants Irom one place to another.
Probably the most important natural source oI air pollution is volcanic activity, which at times
pours great amounts oI ash and toxic Iumes into the atmosphere. The eruptions oI such
volcanoes as Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mt. St. Helens in Washington, USA and Katmai in Alaska,
USA, have been related to measurable climatic changes.
GREEN HOUSE GASES
S.NO GAS CONTRIBUTION
1 Carbon dioxide 64
2 Methane 19
3 ChloroIluorocarbons 11
4 Nitrous oxide 6
5 SulIur hexaIluoride 0.4
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Gases stay in the air Ior a long time and warm up the planet by trapping sunlight. This is
called the .greenhouse eIIect. because the gases act like the glass in a greenhouse.
Some oI the important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas, and it comes Irom the burning oI
Iossil Iuels in cars, power plants, houses, and industry.
Methane is released during the processing oI Iossil Iuels, and also comes Irom natural
sources like cows and rice paddies.
Nitrous oxide comes Irom industrial sources and decaying plants.
The greenhouse eIIect can lead to changes in the climate oI the planet. Some oI these
changes might include more temperature extremes, higher sea levels, changes in Iorest
composition, and damage to land near the coast.
Human health might be aIIected by diseases that are related to temperature or by
damage to land and water. The greenhouse eIIect causes trouble by raising the
temperature oI the planet. The actual rise is not very much, but the Earth`s ecosystem is
very Iragile, and small changes can have large eIIects.
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Problems of The Greenhouse Effect
There are some natural greenhouse gases: water vapour, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide,
methane and ozone. However, over the past IiIty years, production oI carbon dioxide, nitrous
oxide and methane has risen sharply, and a new type oI chemical - the chloroIluorocarbon, or
CFC - has been introduced as a reIrigerant, solvent and aerosol propellant, but it is also a very
powerIul greenhouse gas, because it can trap a lot oI radiation - one molecule oI CFC is 12,000
to
16,000 times as eIIective at absorbing inIra-red radiation as a molecule oI carbon dixide
The carbon dioxide comes mainly Irom burning Iossil Iuels in power stations, which also
causes acid rain. It is also created by living animals breathing, and is naturally converted by
plants back to oxygen. However, deIorestation is reducing the planet`s carbon dioxide absoring
capability. Nitrous oxide is a by-product oI nylon production, and is also released by Iertiliser
use
in agriculture. The extra methane is produced in coal mining, natural gas production and
distribution (natural gas is methane), and waste disposal. One IiIth oI all methane generated by
human activity comes Irom microbial decay oI organic material in Ilooded rice Iields.
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WHAT CAUSES GREEN HOUSE EFFECT?
The Earth is kept warm by it`s atmosphere, which acts rather like a woolly coat - without it, the
average
surIace temperature would be about -1 degrees Centigrade. Heat Irom the sun passes through
the
atmosphere, warming it up, and most oI it warms the surIace oI the planet. As the Earth warms
up, it
emits heat in the Iorm oI inIra-red radiation - much like a hot pan emits heat even aIter it`s taken
away
Irom the cooker. Some oI this heat is trapped by the atmosphere, but the rest escapes into space.
The socalled
"greenhouse gases" make the atmosphere trap more oI this radiation, so it gradually warms up
more than it should, like a greenhouse (although a greenhouse actually does this by stopping
warm air
rising and escaping Irom it).
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
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The diagram shows where the ozone layer is positioned relative to other layers in the atmosphere
oI the
earth. The diagram does not show the entire atmosphere that surrounds the earth, above the
mesosphere
there are two other layers, the thermosphere and the exosphere. The exosphere is around 700km
Irom the
Earth`s surIace. The distance between an object and the level oI the sea is deIined as the object`s
altitude.
On the diagram is an indication oI the variation oI temperature as altitude increases
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PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF GLOBAL WARMING
CLIMATE CHANGE
Causes Ior climate change
Global climate change due to human activities is the most important environmental issue.
Svante Arrhenius* predicted that increase oI CO2 level in the atmosphere due to coal burning
could cause global warming.
In 19 the united nations environmental program and world meteorological organization
Iormed
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)with 700 scientist Irom 100 countries.
The report said that .recent changes in the world.s climate have had severe impacts on more
than
420 diIIerent physical and biological systems.
They reported that .we have altered the chemical composition oI the atmosphere through the
buildup oI green house gases-primarily carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
More than 30 billion tons oI CO2(containing billion tons oI carbon) is released every year
due to
burning Iossil Iuels, manuIacturing cement, burning Iorest and grassland and by other human
activities.
Methane absorbs sun radiation 20 to 30 times as much as CO2 absorbs.
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Methane is released Irom animal.s wastes, wet-rice paddies, coal mines, land Iills and pipeline
leakages
Chloro Iluoro carbons (CFC) are also powerIul IR radiation absorbers.CFC release have
declined
since its use were banned. but CFC already present in the atmosphere will persist Ior longer
period oI time
Nitrous oxide is produced by burning organic matters and by soil denitriIication.
CFC.s and Nitrous oxide together accounts Ior 17 oI global warming
*received Nobel Prize in 195 Ior this invention
Consequences oI climate change
CLIMATIC CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING
Carbon di-oxide is a natural constituent oI atmosphere, but now, its concentration is increasing at
an
alarming rate. According to an estimate, CO2 level is expected to be doubled by 2030 A.D.
The term .Green House EIIect. is also called as .Atmospheric EIIect., .Global Warming. or .CO2
Problem..
Human activities are changing the composition as well as behavior at an unprecedented rate. The
pollutants Iorm a wide range oI human activities are increasing the global atmospheric
concentration oI
certain heat trapping gases, which act like a blanket, trapping close to the surIace that would
otherwise
escape through the atmosphere to the outer space. This process is known as .Green House
EIIect..
Green House is that body which allows the short wave length incoming solar radiation to come
in, but
does not allow the long wave outgoing terrestrial inIra red radiation to escape. The progressive
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warming up oI the earth.s surIace due to blanketing eIIect oI manmade CO2 in the atmosphere is
called
.Green House EIIect.. (Figure 1).
The Iour major green house gases, which cause adverse eIIects are CO2, CH4, N2O and CFC.s.
Among
these CO2 is the most common and important green house gas. In addition, ozone and SO2 are
also act
as serious pollutants in causing global warming.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
Under normal concentrations oI CO2, the temperature oI the earth.s surIace is maintained by the
energy
balance oI the sun.s rays that strike the planet and the heat is radiated back into the outer space.
However, when concentration oI CO2 in the atmosphere increases, the thick envelope oI this gas
prevents the heat Irom being re-radiated out. The heated earth can radiate this absorbed energy as
the
radiation oI longer wave length.
Figure 1 Green House Effect
Sources
A number oI industrial as well as agricultural operations generate and emit waste gases into the
atmosphere. Burning oI Iossil Iuel emit CO2, growing paddy, or live stock releases methane. The
use
oI aerosols and coolants in reIrigerators and air conditioning devices or sprays releases
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chloroIluorocarbons into the atmosphere. These gases create a canopy in the atmosphere and trap
the
solar radiation reIlected back Irom the earth.s surIace leading to atmospheric and climatic
changes.
Green House Effect on Global Climate
A huge amount oI CO2 gets introduced into the environment Irom Iurnaces oI power plants,
Iossil Iuel
burning, vehicular exhaust and breathing oI animals, but the ocean may not be able to absorb this
increased CO2 and the plants also cannot utilize the whole during photosynthesis. So, much oI
CO2 is
still leIt in the atmosphere, which is supposed to be responsible Ior increasing the atmospheric
temperature.
As a result oI rise oI temperature oI earth, the oceans get warm up and sea level would rise
Ilooding low
lying regions. A slight increase in sea level could have proIound eIIects on habitation and coastal
land.
In temperate regions, the winter will be shorter and warmer and the summer will be longer and
hotter.
A warmer climate is likely to make some cities extremely hot. There will be enormous increase
in
rainIall, but the problem oI desertiIication, drought and soil erosion will Iurther worsen. The
most
obvious eIIect oI climate change will be on agriculture. Because CO2 is a natural Iertilizer, the
plants
will grow larger and Iaster with increasing CO2 in the atmosphere. The abnormal Iast growth
results in
increase oI yield but the soil Iertility goes down at a very Iast rate.
Scientists believe, the average global temperature will be higher than ever in the past thousand
years.
The global warming trend can cause signiIicant climatic changes. Human society is highly
dependent
on the earth.s climate pattern and human adaptations determine the availability oI Iood, Iresh
water
and other resources Ior sustaining liIe. The social and economic characteristics oI a society have
also
been shaped largely by adapting to the seasonal and year to year patterns oI temperature and
rainIall.
Some potential effects associated with the enhanced green house effect and the associated
global
warming is as follows.
Water Resources
Due to changes in precipitation pattern and increased evaporation the quality and quantity oI
water
available Ior drinking, irrigation, industrial use, electric generation, aquatic liIe, etc., are
signiIicantly
aIIected.
Coastal Resources
An estimate oI 50 cm rise in sea level by the year 2100, could inundate more than 000 Km oI
dry land.
Health
Changing pattern oI temperature and precipitation may produce new breeding sites Ior pests,
shiIting
the range oI inIectious diseases. Heat stress mortality could increase due to higher temperature
over
longer periods.
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Oceans
Oceans can provide sources Ior the increased water vapour because oI the earth.s increased
temperature. On the other hand, the thermal holding capacity oI the oceans would delay and
eIIectively
reduce the observed global warming. In addition, oceans play an important role in the global
green
house gas budgets. The ocean biota, primarily phytoplankton is believed to remove at least halI
oI the
anthropogenic CO2 added to the atmosphere. The ocean sink oI CO2 is called .Biological CO2
Pump..
Vegetation
Vegetation changes due to climatic change would aIIect the hydrologic cycle. The biggest impact
oI CO2
induced climatic change would be changing precipitation Iorm lead to overall lower rainIall
amount or
drought during growing season with increased Irequency and severity. However, the rise in
atmospheric CO2 should cause increase in photosynthesis, growth and productivity oI the earth.s
vegetation. Thus the change in climate on vegetation has less adverse impact. Higher
temperature
could increase Iorest susceptibility to Iire, disease and insect damage.
Clouds and Water Vapour
Global warming will lead to an increase in the amount oI water vapour in the atmosphere and
because
water vapour is a powerIul green house gas, lead to an increase into the warming. However,
tropical
storm clouds reach higher in the atmosphere under warmer conditions. Then the clouds would
produce more rain thus adding less water vapour to the middle troposphere.
Sea Ice
Increased temperature would tend to melt ice and result in increased absorption oI solar energy
by the
ocean. However, a decrease in sea ice would also lead to larger heat Iluxes Irom the ocean to the
atmosphere. Thus, the interaction among the atmosphere, the ocean, sea ice and the interaction oI
sea
ice to climate change need to be observed and quantiIied.
Global Climate
It is even postulated by scientists that melting oI glaciers and the release oI the resultant cold
water in
large quantities could aIIect the major sea currents in the Atlantic Ocean. The ocean currents oI
Atlantic in Iact, act as a heat conveyer oI the planet regulating the global climate. II the heat
conveyer
is interrupted, the northern hemisphere would plunge into an ice age and the southern
hemisphere will
be Iacing severe drought.
In general, global warming is likely to make the weather more unpredictable in the coming years.
Prevention of Global Warming
The major steps to be taken Ior the reduction oI green house gases includes, improving the
energy
eIIiciency oI electric generation, as well as switching to less polluting Iossil Iuels. Following are
some oI
the suggestions to prevent global warming.
B Reduction and elimination oI green house gases emission that is disturbing the climate. Clean
electricity technologies including wind turbine, solar panels and hydrogen Iuel cells are
continually improving, becoming more eIIicient, economical and capable oI competing with
polluting gas and coal power plants.
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B Bio-Iuels including ethanol and bio-diesel could substantially cut down the CO2 emission
Irom
automobiles.
B Sustainable Iarming and Iorestry techniques look up carbon in plants and soils and provide
new
revenues to rural communities.
B Besides protecting the climate, CO2 emission control techniques dramatically reduce air
pollution
provide communities with higher quality oI liIe and climate.
B Conservation and produce energy that causes no environmental damage with cost less than
building new power plants. They lower electricity bills and reduce constraints on energy
systems.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto protocol is a legally binding international agreement to reduce green house gas
emissions. It
was initially negotiated during a meeting held at Kyoto, Japan in 1977. The protocol commits in
industrialized countries to reducing emissions oI six green house gases by 5 beIore 2012.
Global Dimming
In contrast to global warming there is another phenomenon called .Global Dimming.. Scientists
have
observed that 2-4 reduction in the amount oI solar radiation reaching the earth.s surIace, due to
increase in cloud cover aerosols and particulates in the atmosphere. Higher temperature leads to
an
increased cloud cover. The scattered light through the clouds boosts the plant.s adsorption oI
CO2 and
photosynthesis process. Thus global dimming is a process working against global warming to
some
extent.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Smog is a mixture oI smoke and Iog.
Oxides oI nitrogen and hydrocarbons are let into the atmosphere Irom automobile
exhaust. The action oI sunlight on these pollutants leads to the Iormation oI
peroxyacyl nitrate which causes photochemical smog.
N2 O2 2NO
2NO O2 2NO2
NO sunlight NO O
2
O O2 O3
RCH CHR O2 3 2 RCO RCH
(hydrocarbon)

2 RCH O2 RCH O2 2

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RCH O2 2
NO NO2 RCH O 2
RCH O 2 O2 HO RCHO 2
HO NO 2 HO NO2
RCHO HO RC O H2O
RC O O2
3 RCO NO RC O
O O NO2
Peroxyacyl nitrate
(PAN)
OZONE DEPLETION
Formation oI ozone in the atmosphere:
Ozone absorbs uv radiations and is broken into atomic and molecular oxygen.
O2 2O uv-C
O3 O O2
The products Iormed combine again to Iorm ozone
O O2 O3
and hence a dynamic equilibrium is set up due to which the concentration oI ozone in
the atmosphere remains constant.
The ozone layer protects the earth Irom the harmIul uv radiations.
II the concentration oI ozone is reduced (ozone depletion), the concentration oI uv radiations
reaching the earth increases.
This leads to irritation oI the eyes, skin cancer and damage to immune system in human
beings
In agriculture it causes decrease in productivity.
Causes of ozone depletion
ChloroIluorocarbons (CFCs) are used as reIrigerants, aerosols and as industrial
solvents.
CFCs are noncombustible and volatile. They reach the atmosphere and are
broken down into chlorine Iree radicals by uv radiations.
CF2 Cl2 uv - C
CF Cl Cl 2

The chlorine Iree radical brings about the degradation oI ozone
3 2 Cl O ClO O
Thus CFCs reduce the concentration oI ozone in the atmosphere causing ozone hole.
Ill effects
Due to ozone hole, the uv radiation increases causing eye inIections, skin cancer in human
beings and decrease in photosynthesis in plants.
2 ClO O Cl O
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The temperature on the earth.s surIace is raised and this leads to global warming.
Control of ozone depletion:
Ozone depletion can be controlled by using hydrochloroIluorocarbons and
hydroIluoroalkanes in place oI CFCs. These contain more hydrogen in their molecule and
undergo oxidation readily.
Green house effect
Most oI the inIrared radiation Irom the sun is absorbed by the earth.s surIace and a small
amount oI it is reIlected back.
An equilibrium is established and this keeps the earth.s temperature constant.
Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, ozone and CFCs absorb the inIrared
radiations and reemit into the earth.
This raises the temperature oI earth.
This is called green house eIIect and leads to global warming.
Sources:
The main cause Ior green house eIIect is carbon dioxide.
The sources oI carbon dioxide are combustion oI Iuels, degradation oI vegetable matter,
deIorestation and industrial activities.
Ill effects:
Due to green house eIIect and global warming, glaciers and icecaps would melt raising the
sea level.
The winters would be shorter and summers would be longer.
Weeds , insects and rodents thrive better in warm conditions and these damage the crops.
Control:
Use oI non Iossil Iuels as energy sources, using alternatives Ior CFCs, aIIorestation are some
oI the methods Ior control oI green house eIIect.
Environmental Impacts oI Human Activities
All living beings including man are dependant on their environment Ior existence. But every
manmade
activity has some impact on the environment. More oIten it is harmIul than benign. But human
beings
cannot live without taking up these activities Ior their Iood, shelter, comIort, security and many
other
needs. The Iollowing activities cause major impacts on the environment:
- Agriculture
- Housing
- Transportation
- Industries
- Water resources projects including irrigation projects
- Power Generation
- Mining
- Tourism
- Socio-Economic activities
- DeIence related activities
- Petroleum processing
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- Urbanization
- Commercial deIorestation
- Providing public amenities such as water supply, sanitation, electricity, telephone,
transportation etc.,
- Religious places . public activities
The list is not exhaustive. Every activity oI the man Irom birth to death has its impact on the
environment. Some oI the major impacts are listed below :
Activities and Impacts
Activity Impacts
Agriculture - Soil erosion
- Discharge oI nutrients into water bodies /
ground water
- Discharge oI pesticides into the
environment. These pesticides end up in
the Iood chain oI the ecosystem.
EndosulIan problem oI cashew nut Iarms
in Kerala which has crippled human
beings is a living example.
- Imposing Water burden on water
resources
- Water pollution
Water Resources projects - DeIorestation
- Submergence oI Iorest and other lands
- Water logging problems
- Evacuation and rehabilitation oI people
and villages
- Disturbance to wild liIe
- Masquito breeding
Housing - Extraction oI construction material
- Cutting oI Iorests
- Energy utilization
- Stress on water resources
- Urban centres impose heavy burden on
the environment
- Disruption oI storm water drainage
pattern
Transportation - DeIorestation Ior constructing roads and
railways
- Utilization oI valuable agricultural land
Ior construction oI airports which change
the land use pattern
- Air pollution
- Noise pollution
- Disruption oI wild liIe habitats
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- Pollution oI marine waters due to
harbours
Industries - Pressure on land and other natural
resources Ior raw material
- Water pollution
- Air pollution
- Noise pollution
- pressure on transport systems
Power Generation - Hydroelectric plants . submergence oI
valuable lands, deIorestation, disruption
oI wild liIe etc.,
- Thermal power plants create water
pollution, air pollution and thermal
pollution problem besides requiring
large quantity oI water
- Power transmission lines lead to
deIorestation
- Thermal power plants require coal.
Coal mining is environmentally critical
activity. Also coal has to be hauled
over long distances creating
transportation related problems
- Nuclear power plants carry the risk oI
radioactive hazards
- Global warming / climate change and
acid rain are related to combustion oI
Iossil Iuels in thermal power plants.
Mining - DeIorestation
- Large tracts oI land is made barren
- Air pollution
- Water pollution
- Soil erosion
- Transportation oI ores imposes heavy
burden on transport Iacilities
Tourism and Religious activities - Create congestion
- Transport problems
- Sanitation problems
- Water supply related problems
- Spread oI diseases
- Social problems
- Accumulation oI plastic and other solid
wastes
Human Habitation and Urbanization - Growth oI urban centres create all sorts
oI environmental problems like air,
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water and noise pollution, traIIic related
problems sanitation problems etc.,
- Solid waste generation
- Water burden
- Social tensions
Environmental Protection Acts
Introduction
Constitution oI India has a number oI provisions demarcating the responsibility oI the central and
state government towards .Environmental Protection.. The state.s responsibility has been laid
down under
article 4-A which reads as Iollows, .the state shall endeavor to protect and improve the
environment and
saIeguard the Iorests and wildliIe oI the country..
Environmental protection has been made a Iundamental duty oI every citizen oI this country
under article 51-A(g) which read as .it shall be the duty oI every citizen oI India to protect and
improve the
natural environment including Iorests, lakes, rivers and wild liIe and to have compassion Ior
living
creatures..
Article 21 read as, .No person shall be deprived oI his liIe or personal liberty except according to
procedure established by law..
Definition of Environment under Indian Law
According to section 2(a) oI Environmental Protection Act (196), .Environment. includes, (i)
water, air and land, (ii) the interrelationship which exists among and between, (a) water, air and
land and
(b) human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property.
Various statues / legislations are enacted in India exclusively Ior Environment Protection are,
The Water (Prevention and Control oI Pollution) Act, 1974
The Air (Prevention and Control oI Pollution) Act, 191
The Environmental Protection Act, 196
The Forest Conservation Act, 190
The Wild LiIe Protection Act, 1972
The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, etc.
________________________________________WATER POLLUTION
ACT______________________________________
The objective oI the Water Prevention and Control oI Pollution Act was to provide Ior the
prevention and control oI water pollution and maintaining or restoring oI wholesomeness oI
water Ior the
establishment with a view to carrying out the purpose aIoresaid, oI boards Ior the prevention and
Iunctions relating thereto and Ior matters connected therewith.
Functions of Central Board
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Promote cleanliness oI streams and wells in diIIerent areas oI the state.
Advise the central government on any matter concerning the prevention and control oI water
pollution
Co-ordinate the activity oI the state boards and resolve disputes among them.
Provide technical assistance and guidance to the state board, carryout and sponsor
investigations
and research relating to problems oI water pollution.
Organize through mass media, a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control
oI water pollution.
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and the
measure devised Ior its eIIective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes regarding
the
treatment and disposal oI sewage and trade eIIluents.
Establish and recognize a laboratory to enable the board to perIorm its Iunctions under this
section eIIectively, including the analysis oI samples oI water Irom any stream or well oI
samples
oI any sewage or trade eIIluents.
Functions of State Board
To plan a comprehensive programme Ior the prevention, control or abatement oI pollution oI
stream and wells in the state and to secure the execution there oI.
To advise the state government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement
oI
water pollution
To collect and disseminate inIormation relating to water pollution, prevention, control or
abatement oI water pollution.
To encourage, conduct and participate the investigations and research relating to problems oI
water pollution.
To collaborate with central board in organizing the training oI persons engaged in programmes
relating to water pollution, prevention, abatement and treatment.
To inspect eIIluent treatment plants trade waste and domestic waste.
To lay down, modiIy standard Ior trade and domestic wastes.
To evolve economical and reliable methods oI treatments, utilization oI treated eIIluent Ior
agriculture and disposal into land.
To lay down standards oI treatment oI sewage and trade eIIluents to be discharged into a
stream
during dry weather Ilow.
To advise state government with respect to the location oI any industry the carrying on which
is
likely to pollute a steam or well.
Importance of Section 24 of Water Act, 1974
No person should knowingly cause or permit any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter
determined in accordance with such standards as may be laid down by the state board to enter
into any
stream or well or sewer or on land.
However, a person shall not be party oI an oIIence under subsection (1), by reason only oI
having
done or could to be done by any oI the Iollowing acts namely;
Constructing bridge, weir, dam, sluice, dock, pier, drain or sewer or other permanent works
which he has a right to construct, improve or maintain.
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Depositing any material on the bank or in the bed oI any stream Ior the purpose oI reclaiming
land or Ior supporting repairing or protecting the bank or bed oI such stream provided such
materials are not capable oI polluting such streams.
Polluting into any stream by any sand or gravel or other natural deposit which has Ilowed
Irom or
been deposited by the current oI such stream.
Whoever contravention oI provisions oI section (24) shall be punishable with imprisonment upto
six
years and with Iine. Even the municipality corporation, companies, government departments also
be
prosecuted under water act. Varieties oI powers are given to the central / state boards to make
application to courts Ior restrains apprehended pollution oI water in streams and wells.
_________________AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT,
1981___________________
.Air Pollution. means the presence in the atmosphere oI any air pollutant. Air pollution means
any solid, liquid or gaseous substances (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such
concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property
or
environment.
The objective oI the Act is to provide Ior the prevention, control and abatement oI air pollution
Ior
the establishment with a view to carrying out the aIoresaid purpose oI boards Ior conIerring on
and
assigning to such boards powers and Iunctions relating there and Ior matters connected
therewith.
Functions of Central Board
The main Iunction oI the central board as speciIied in Section 16 oI the act shall be to improve
the quality oI air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
Advice to central government on any matter related to air quality
To execute nation wide awareness programme
Co-ordinate with state boards and resolve disputes among them
To provide technical assistance and guidance to state boards
Sponsor research and investigation regarding problem oI air pollution
Collect technical and statistical data to prepare manuals, code, and guide related to air.
To lay down standards Ior the quality oI air.
Importance of Various Section of Air Act
Section 19 . Declaration oI air pollution control area
Section 10 . Lays down the standards Ior emission oI air pollutants Irom automobiles
Penalty for Contravention of Certain Provision of the Act
Whoever contravenes any oI the provisions oI this act or any order or direction issued there
under Ior which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this act shall be punishable with
imprisonment Ior a term which may extend to 3 month or with a Iine extend to Rs. 10,000/- or
with both.
Both companies and government departments are also prosecuted under the Air Act.
No court shall take cognizance oI any oIIence except on a complaint made by any person who
has given notice oI not less than 60 days, in the manner prescribed oI the alleged oIIence and
his intention to make a complaint to the board.
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________________________ ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 1986 (EPA)
___________________________
Terms like .Environment., environmental pollutants, environmental pollution and hazardous
substance deIined under EPA 196.
(a) .Environment. includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists among and
between them and human beings, other living creature, plants, micro-organisms and property.
(b) .Environmental Pollutant. means any solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to environment.
(c) .Environment Pollution. means the presence in the environment oI any environmental
pollutants.
(d) .Hazardous Substance. means any substance or preparation which by reason oI its chemical
or
physico-chemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living
creatures, plants, micro-organisms, property oI the environment.
General Powers of the Central Government under EPA
Subject to the provisions oI the act, the central government shall have power to take all such
measures as it seems necessary or expedient Ior the purpose oI protecting and improving the
quality oI
the environmental pollution.
In particular and without prejudice to the generality oI the provisions oI sub-section (1) such
measures may include measures with respect to all or any oI the Iollowing matters.
Co-ordination oI actions by the state government oIIicers.
Planning and execution oI nation wide programme on .Environmental Pollution..
Laying down standards Ior emissions or discharge oI environmental pollutants Irom various
sources whatsoever.
Laying down procedures and saIeguards Ior the prevention oI accidents which may cause
environmental pollution.
Laying down procedures to saIeguard hazardous substances.
Examination oI such manuIacturing process, materials and substances as are likely to cause
environmental pollution.
Carrying out and sponsoring investigation and research.
Inspection oI the premises, plants, equipment, machinery, manuIacturing or other processes,
material or substances.
Establishment or recognition oI environmental laboratories and institutions to carryout
Iunction entrusted to them.
Preparation oI manuals, codes, guides, etc.
Section 4 . Appointment oI oIIicers and their powers and Iunctions
Section 5 . Power to give directions
Section 6 . Rules to regulate environmental pollution
Under EPA pollution oI land and soil is also covered. Penalties Ior violation under EPA are also
listed. Companies and government may also be prosecuted under EPA.
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____________________________ THE FORESTS CONSERVATION ACT, 1980
_____________________________
.Non Forest Purpose. means the breaking up or cleaning oI any Iorest, land or portion thereoI Ior
the cultivation oI tea, coIIee, spices, rubber, palms, oil bearing plants, horticultural crops,
medicinal
plants or plantation crops.
It is well known that breaking up the soil or clearing oI the Iorest land aIIects seriously
reIorestation or regeneration oI Iorests and thereIore, such breaking up oI soil can only be
permitted aIter
taking into consideration all aspects oI the question, the over all advantages and disadvantages to
the
economy oI the country. Environmental conditions, ecological imbalance that is likely to occur,
its eIIects
on the Ilora and the Iauna in the area, etc., it was thereIore thought that the entire control oI the
Iorest
areas should vest in the central government. With that end in view, Section 2 provided that prior
approval oI the central government should be obtained beIore permitting the use oI the Iorest
land Ior
non-Iorest purposes.
Current Requirements that should be met before declaring an area into a Wild Life
Sanctuary /
National Park under Forest Act
(a) The state government may by notiIication in the oIIice declare the provisions oI their chapter
applicable to any Iorest land or wasteland which is not included in a reserve Iorest, but which is
the
property oI the government.
(b) The Iorest land and waste land included in any such notiIication shall be called a .Protected
Forest..
(c) No such notiIication shall be made unless the nature and extent oI the rights oI government
and oI
private persons in or over the Iorest land or wasteland comprised therein have been inquired into
and
recorded at a survey or settlement, or in such other manner as the state government thinks
suIIicient.
Section 5 . Protection of Forests for Special Purposes
1) The state government may, by notiIication in the OIIicial Gazette, regulate or prohibit in any
Iorest or
wasteland.
2) The state government may, Ior any, such purpose, construct on its own expense, in or upon
any
Iorest or wasteland, such work on it thinks Iit.
3) No notiIication shall be made under subsection (1) nor shall any work begun under subsection
(2)
until aIter the issue oI notice to the owner oI such Iorest or land calling on him to show cause,
within
a reasonable period to be speciIied in such notice, why such notiIication shall not be made or
work
constructed, as the case may be and until such objections, iI any and any evidence he may
produce
in support oI the same, have been heard by an oIIicer duly appointed Ior that purpose and have
been
considered by the state government.
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 with Amendments Made in 1988
An Act to provide Ior the conservation oI Iorests and Ior matters connected therewith or ancillary
or
incidental thereto.
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-Iirst Year oI the Republic oI India as Iollows:-
1. Short title, extent and commencement.
This Act may be called the Forest (Conservation) Act, 190.
It extends to the whole oI India except the State oI Jammu and Kashmir.
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It shall be deemed to have come into Iorce on the 25th day oI October, 190.
2. Restriction on the dereservation of forests or use of forest land for non-forest purpose.
Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law Ior the time being in Iorce in a State, no
State
Government or other authority shall make, except with the prior approval oI the Central
Government, any
order directing-
that any reserved Iorest (within the meaning oI the expression "reserved Iorest" in any law Ior
the
time being in Iorce in that State) or any portion thereoI, shall cease to be reserved;
that any Iorest land or any portion thereoI may be used Ior any non-Iorest purpose;
that any Iorest land or any portion thereoI may be assigned by way oI lease or otherwise to
any
private person or to any authority, corporation, agency or any other organisation not owned,
managed or controlled by Government;
that any Iorest land or any portion thereoI may be cleared oI trees which have grown naturally
in
that land or portion, Ior the purpose oI using it Ior reaIIorestation.
Explanation - For the porpose oI this section, "non-Iorest purpose" means the breaking up or
clearing oI
any Iorest land or portion thereoI Ior-
(a) the cultivation oI tea, coIIee, spices, rubber, palms, oil-bearing plants, horticultural crops or
medicinal plants;
(b) any purpose other than reaIIorestation;but does not include any work relating or ancillary to
conservation, development and management oI Iorests and wildliIe, namely, the establishment oI
check-posts, Iire lines, wireless communications and construction oI Iencing, bridges and
culverts, dams, waterholes, trench marks, boundary marks, pipelines or other like purposes.
. Constitution of Advisory Committee.
The Central Government may constitute a Committee consisting oI such number oI persons as h
may
deem Iit to advise that Government with regard to-
(i) the grant oI approval. under Section 2; and
(ii) any other matter connected with the conservation oI Iorests which may be reIerred to h by the
Central Government.
A. Penalty for contravention of the provisions of the Act.
Whoever contravenes or abets the contravention oI any oI the provisions oI Section 2, shall be
punishable
with simple imprisonment Ior a period which may extend to IiIteen days.
B. Offences by the Authorities and Government Departments.
(1) Where any oIIence under this Act has been committed -
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(a) by any department oI Government, the head oI the department; or
(b) by any authority, every person who, at the time the oIIence was committed, was directly in
charge oI, and was responsible to, the authority Ior the conduct oI the business oI the authority
as well as the authority;
shall be deemed to be guilty oI the oIIence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
punished
accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render the head oI the department or
any person reIerred to in clause (b), liable to any punishment iI he proves that the oIIence was
committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the
commission
oI such oIIence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an oIIence punishable under
the
Act has been committed by a department oI Government or any authority reIerred to in clause (b)
oI sub-section (1) and it is proved that the oIIence has been committed with the consent or
connivance oI; or is attributable to any neglect on the part oI any oIIicer, other than the head oI
the department, or in the case oI an authority, any person other than the persons reIerred to in
clause (b) oI sub-section (1), such oIIicer or persons shall also be deemed to be guilty oI that
oIIence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
4. Power to make rules.
(1) The Central Government may, by notiIication in the OIIicial Gazette, makes rules Ior
carrying
out the provisions oI this Act.
(2) Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be aIter it is made, beIore each
House oI Parliament, while it is in session, Ior a total period oI thirty days which may be
comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and iI, beIore the expiry oI the
session immediately Iollowing the session or the successive sessions aIoresaid, both Houses
agree
in making any modiIication in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made,
the rule shall thereaIter have eIIect only in such modiIied Iorm or be oI no eIIect, as the case may
be; so, however, that any such modiIication or annulment shall be without prejudice to the
validity oI anything previously done under that rule.
5. Repeal and saving.
(1) The Forest (Conservation) Ordinance, 190 is hereby replaced.
(2) Notwithstanding such repeal, anything done or any action taken under the provisions oI the
said Ordinance shall be deemed to have been done or taken under the corresponding provisions
oI this Act.
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________________________________WILD LIFE PROTECTION
ACT________________________________
8A. Constitution of Central Authority
(1)
The Central Government shall constitute a body to be known as the Central Zoo
Authority (hereinaIter in this Chapter reIerred to as the Authority), to exercise
the powers conIerred on, and to perIorm the Iunctions assigned to it under this
Act.
(2)
The Authority shall consist oI:
(a)
Chairperson
(b)
such number oI members not exceeding ten and
(c)
Member-Secretary
to be appointed by the Central Government.
8B. Term of office and conditions of service of chairperson and members etc.
(1)
The chairperson and every member other than the member-secretary shall hold oIIice Ior
such period, not exceeding three years, as may be speciIied by the Central Government
in this behalI..
(2)
The chairperson or a member may, by writing under this hand, addressed to the Central
Government, resign Irom the oIIice oI chairperson or, as the case may be, oI the Member.
(3)
The Central Government shall remove a person Irom the oIIice oI chairperson or member
reIerred to in sub-section (2) iI that person:
(a)
becomes an undischarged in solvent
(b)
gets convicted and sentenced to imprisonment Ior an oIIence which, in the opinion
oI the Central Government, involves moral turpitude.
(c)
becomes oI unsound mind and stands so declared by a competent court.
(d)
reIuses to act or becomes incapable oI acting.
(e)
is, without obtaining leave or absence Irom the authority, absent Irom three
consecutive meetings oI the Authority. or
(I)
in the opinion oI the Central Government has so abused the position oI chairperson
or member as to render that person`s continuance in oIIice detrimental to the public
interest.
Provided that no person shall be removed under this clause unless that person had been
given a reasonable opportunity oI being heard in the matter.
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(4)
A vacancy caused under sub-section (2) or otherwise shall be Iilled by Iresh appointment.
(5)
The salaries and allowances and other conditions oI appointment oI chairperson,
members and Member-Secretary oI the Authority shall be such as may be prescribed.
(6)
The Authority shall, with the previous sanction oI the Central Government, employ such
oIIicer and other employees as it deems necessary to carry out the purposes oI the
Authority.
(7)
The terms and conditions oI service oI the oIIicers and other employees oI the authority
shall be such as may be prescribed.
()
No act or proceeding oI the Authority shall be questioned or shall be invalid on the
ground merely oI the existence oI any vacancies or deIect in the constitution oI the
Authority.
8C. Functions of the Authority
The Authority shall perIorm the Iollowing Iunctions, namely:
(a)
speciIy the minimum standards Ior housing, upkeep and veterinary care oI the
animals kept in a zoo.
(b)
evaluate and assess the Iunctioning oI zoos with respect to the standards or the
norms as may be prescribed.
(c)
recognise or derecognize zoos;
(d)
identiIy endangered species oI wild animals Ior purposes oI captive breeding and
assigning responsibility in this regard to a zoo.
(e)
co-ordinate the acquisition, exchange and loaning oI animals Ior breeding purposes.
(I)
ensure maintenance oI stud books oI endangered species oI wild animals bred in
captivity.
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CHAPTER-V PROVIDES INFORMATION ON:
POPULATION GROWTH
POPULATION VARIATION AMONG NATIONS
HUMAN RIGHTS
FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME
WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE

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UNIT . 5
HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMEN
FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMME/FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMME
India launched the national Iamily welIare programme in 1951.
India started Iamily planning programme in the year oI 1952.
Indian government Iorced Iamily planning campaign all over the nation in the year oI 1970
The minimum age oI marriage is increased Irom 1 to 21and Irom 15 to 1 Ior men and
women respectively
The objective oI the programme is to reducing the birth rate to extent necessary to stabilize
the population at a consistent level with the requirement oI the national economy.
Strict implementation oI Iamily planning will help to reduce human population
Mass media like television, radio, etc can be used Ior canvassing the people to adopt birth
control methods
Campaign should be launched to promote small Iamily concept.
We should encourage .one child Ior one couple concept.
EIIicient management oI public health is needed to control population
The demographic scenario oI Tamilnadu as per government oI India sample registration
2000
Birth rate 19.3/1000 population
Death rate 7.9/1000 population
InIant mortality 51/1000
The Iollowing demographic goals have been Iixed to be achieved by the year 200(tenth Iive
year plan)
InIant mortality rate 30/1000 live birth
Birth rate 15/1000 population
InIrastructure Iacilities in the government hospitals and health care center must be
improved.
Achieving 100 registration oI birth, death .pregnancy and marriage
Encouraging late marriage and late child-bearing.
Encouraging breast Ieeding.
Constraining the spreading oI AIDS/HIV
Prevent and control oI communical diseases.
Providing Iree education to all children up to the age 14.
Improving women.s health and education.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights day is celebrated on 10th December oI every year
Every individuals oI India has the Iollowing rights:
Human rights to Freedom
Human rights to Property
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Human rights to Freedom oI religion
Human rights to Culture and civilization
Human rights to Education
Human rights to Equality
Human rights to Iind Solution to exploitation
Human rights to Food and shelter
Human rights to health
Human rights to employment
Human rights to social security
Human rights to Iorm trades and companies
HUMAN POPULATION
Every second, 4 or 5 children are born somewhere on the earth and 2 people die. DiIIerence
between birth and death is nearly 2.5.it means that there is the increase oI 2.5 huma
second.
Over population will deIinitely cause natural resources depletion and environmental
degradation.
Crude birth rate: the number
Total Iertility rate: the number oI children born to an average woman in a popu
whole reproductive period.
The highest recorded total Iertility is 12 children per women (in north America)
Zero population growth: it is
emigration.
Crude death rate: the number oI deaths per 1000 persons in any given year.
oI births/1000 persons in a year.
the situation in which birth immigration is equal to death
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humans/every
population during her
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LiIe expectancy: it is average age oI a person at death. Current average liIe expectancy is
around
40 to 50 years.
POPULATION GROWTH, URBANIZATION AND AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION
Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years.
Our distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way oI liIe
kept their total numbers small (10 million).
AIter agriculture was invented, communities evolved that could support more people.
World population expanded to about 30 crore by A.D.1 and continued to grow at moderate
rate.
But aIter the beginning oI the industrial revolution, the living standards rose and wide spread
Iamines and epidemics diminished in some regions and population growth accelerated.
The population climbed to about 76 crore in 1750 and reached 100 crore around 100.
In 100, the vast majority oI the world.s population (6) resided in Asia (65) and Europe
(21).
In 2000, the world had 610 crore human habitants. This number could rise to more than 900
crore in the next 50 years.
For the last 50 years world population multiplies more rapidly than ever beIore.
Improved medicine, sanitation and nutrition have produced a major decline in death rates.
Throughout the 20th Century, it has occurred in developing countries with astonishing speed.
Birth rate (number oI live births / 1000 population / year) have also been Ialling in most oI the
Western Countries now.
In South Asia and AIrica, birth rates remain quite high.
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Endemic poverty, low levels oI education and weak Iamily planning programmes have kept
the
average number oI children born to each women is over six.
The world population adds more than quarter million people daily and this rapid growth is
placing enormous pressure on environment.
The US population has doubled Irom 135 million to more than 270 million during last 60
years.
China.s population is 1.2 Billion and despite the government policy oI permitting only one
child
per couple, it is still growing at an annual rate oI 1.1.
India has nearly 1 Billion people living an approximately 1/3 oI the land oI either to US or
China.
India.s current population growth rate is 1.9.
Population Pyramids
The age-sex distribution oI population is an important Ieature to understand a country.s
demographic
situation. These statistics give government the tools they need to make inIormed decisions that
will
aIIect our lives today and in the Iuture. One way to illustrate the structure oI a population is to
plot
the number oI males and Iemales Ior various ages. Such a horizontal bar graph with data Ior
males on
the leIt and Iemales on the right is called a .Population Growth Pyramid.
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Population Growth Pyramid
The increase in average liIe expectancy has lead to the population oI older people to grow at a
rate oI
2. per year world wide. A parallel trend has been a reduction in Iecundity and Iertility and so
the
overall population growth has been less only 1.6 per year. The consequences is an ageing
(trend oI
more people to live to reach old age while Iewer children are born) society with a proportionately
high
number oI older people.
Population Prediction
Sl.
No.
Country Population (in Million)
2004 2050
1 China 1300 1440
2 India 1075 1630
3 USA 295 420
4 Indonesia 220 310
5 Brazil 10 310
6 Pakistan 160 300
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* About 40 oI Indians 15 years
* About 70 live ~ 55,000 villages
* India was the Iirst country in the world to start Iamily planning.
Poverty, low literacy and education levels among women, lack oI consistent support Irom
government,
poor planning and bureaucratic ineIIiciency are some oI the reasons why Iamily planning
programme
has not been a big success.
Environmental Implications of Population Growth
Population growth and urbanization will place a greater pressure on natural resources, but
there are eco-Iriendly alternatives that could mitigate the problem to certain extent.
Rapid population growth will overstress the earth.s natural resources and crowd out
undomesticated plant and animal species.
All people want to be Ied, clothed, housed and have ac
requirements, water, land, Iorest and other natural resources must be exploited to some degree.
As population increases, more resources are needed to meet the basic requirements. More
Iorest must be cut down to pro
agriculture and development. All
More than 99 oI the world.s Iood supply comes Irom the land, while less than 1 Irom
oceans
and other aquatic habitats.
The continued production oI an adequate Iood supply is directly depended an ample Iertile
land, Iresh water, energy, plus the maintenance oI biodiversity.
As the human population grows, the requirements Ior these resources also grow. .

ratic iendly access to clean water. To meet these
provide wood Ior housing and Iuel. More cleared land is needed Ior
oI these are Iinite.
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At the same time as people consume these resources, they produce waste that is put back into
the air, land and water. The greater amount oI waste Irom larger populations put more stress
on ecosystems.
It is true that the highest population growth rates are Iound the developing countries.
However, because aIIluent countries consume more resources, they remain the primary
contributors to certain global environmental problems like global warming.
The G7 nations, the US, Canada, Britain, France, Germany, Japan and Italy represents only
10 oI global population but consumes 40 oI Iossil Iuels as well as Iorest commodities.
Because consumption rates are so high in these countries, even small increase in population
can have a signiIicant impact.
Water is critical Ior all crops which require large amount oI water during their growing
season.
For example, a hectare oI corn will require more than 5 million litres oI water during one
growing season. This means that more than million litres oI water per hectare must reach
the crop.
In total, agricultural production consumes more Iresh water by agriculture. Competition Ior
water resources among individuals, regions and countries is already occurring with the current
world population.
In China, where more than 300 cities already short oI water, these shortages are intensiIying.
Water resources, are under great stress as populous cities, states and countries require and
withdraw more water Irom rivers, lakes and aquiIers. Every year, a major threat to
maintaining Iuture water supplies is the continuing over-draIt oI surIace and groundwater
resources.
Fossil energy is another prime resource used Ior Iood production. Nearly 0 oI the world.s
Iossil energy used each year is used by the developed countries and part is expended in
producing high animal protein diets.
The intensive Iarming technologies oI developed countries use massive amounts oI Iossil
energy
Ior Iertilizer, pesticides, irrigation, etc., as a substitute Ior human labour. In general,
developing countries have been relying heavily on Iossil energy, especially Ior Iertilizers and
irrigation to augment their Iood supply.
The Human Population
TEN MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES
MOST POPULOUS NATIONS(in 2000)
MOST POPULOUS NATIONS(in
2050)
COUNTRY
POPULATION
(MILLIONS) COUNTRY POPULATION
(MILLIONS)
CHINA 1265 INDIA 162
INDIA 1002 CHINA 1369
USA 21 USA 404
INDONESIA 212 INDONESIA 312
BRAZIL 170 NIGERIA 304
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PAKISTAN
RUSSIA
BANGLADESH
JAPAN
NIGERIA
Human Population History:
Human Population facts:
2,000 years ago the estimated human population was 150 million
By 150, the human population was one billion. By 1930, it was 2 billion.
It took 10,000 generations to reach 2 billion.
The human population is now growing at a rate oI about 3 people/second or 260 thousand/day
or 1. million per week or 93 million/year
Every 3 years, the global environment must support another 25 million pe
Even the U.S. population is growing Iast. We`re currently adding the equivalent oI three
Washington, D.C.s every year; another New Jersey every 4 years.
As a result of this rapid growth:
Approximately 1.3 billion oI the world`s people are impoverished, living on the equivalent oI
less
than 1 dollar a day. And as population steadily increases, the gap between rich and poor is
widening.
Some 60 oI the 4. billion people in developing count
third have no access to clean water.
151 PAKISTAN 25
145 BRAZIL 244
12 BANGLADESH 211
127 ETHIOPIA 1
123 CONGO 12
people.
countries lack basic sanitation, and almost one
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Nearly 1 billion people in the world are illiterate, two-thirds oI them women.
Despite increases in grain production that began in the 1950s, thanks to "miracle wheat" and
other advances in agricultural technology, such increases seem to have leveled oII in recent
years. Some 41 million people today are chronically malnourished, and there are "Iood
deIicit" countries. This means "they can neither Ieed themselves nor aIIord the imports they
need," according to the United Nations Population Fund, a subsidiary oI the UN General
Assembly and the largest internationally-Iunded source oI population assistance to developing
countries.
Supplies oI water Ior irrigation are declining around the world as underground water reserves -
aquiIers - become depleted Iaster than nature can Iill them. Groundwater overdraIting is now
widespread in the crop-producing regions oI central and northern China, northwest and southern
India, parts oI Pakistan, much oI the Western United States, North AIrica, the Middle East, and
the Arabian Peninsula.
Nearly halI the earth`s land mass already has been changed by human activity - wetlands Iilled
in, Iorests cut down, prairies plowed under. RunoII Irom Iarms, industries, and urban areas has
resulted in some 50 "dead zones" in
coastal waters.
Among the ocean`s 200 major Iish stocks, 35 are in decline, and another 25 are being Iully
exploited.
Species are going extinct at a Iaster rate than ever beIore, including the time when dinosaurs
were dying out.
Factors Contributing to the Population Explosion:
The green revolution
Agricultural advances have insured that no one has to starve. For thousands oI years, the
Earth`s carrying capacity depended on the available Iood supply. That is no longer the
case.
Advances in medicine
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Disease has throughout history always been the deIinitive Iactor in the limiting oI the
human population. However, medical research has largely controlled (or eliminated) such
diseases as smallpox, malaria, & cholera. As a result, death rates have declined
dramatically.
LIFE EXPECTANCY( in Years)
1900 2000
NATION MALES FEMALES MALES FEMALES
INDIA 22.6 23.3 60.3 60.5
JAPAN 42.4 43.7 77.4 4.2
RUSSIA 30.9 33.0 61.7 73.6
SWEDEN 56.6 59.5 77.0 2.1
USA 45.6 4.3 74.7 79.3
The industrial revolution
An increase in the availability and use oI technology has lead to a more densely packed
society that attempts to make room Ior an ever increasing population. The inIlux oI new
technology into the global market over the past 150 years has made liIe generally easier
in the industrialized nations oI the world and led to promising social situations that
provoke the tendency oI people to have more children.
Other factors:
o In some countries people lack awareness oI birth control or the ability to limit the size oI
their Iamilies. Recent United Nations statistics indicate that 90 oI women in 10 AIrican
nations had not heard oI contraception.
o People in some developing countries who do want to limit the growth oI their Iamilies lack
access to contraception or reproductive-health services. Family planning methods are
simply not available in large sections oI the world. As many as 500 million women in
developing countries live too Iar Irom health centers to obtain contraceptives, & unsaIe
abortions kill an estimated 70,000 women a year.
o Human reproduction is a matter oI great religious and cultural importance as well. The
religious teachings oI many people prohibit or discourage contraception. And some
cultures traditionally value large Iamilies as a sign oI prestige and power.
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Population growth:
The overall rate oI population increase depends on the number oI births and deaths, but also
on
the length oI generations --
o For example, iI all women had three kids with a 15
oI population growth would be 2.7. II the average spacing were 30 years, the growth
would drop in halI --
o How does percent population growth translate into
HISTORY WORLD POPULATION & DOUBLING TIME
YEAR
5000 B.C
800 B.C
200 B.C
A.D 1200
A.D 1700
A.D 1900
A.D 1965
A.D 1990
the age at which women have their Iirst baby.
15-year average generation time, the
to 1.35.
`doubling times?`
POPULATION DOUBLING TIME
50 MILLION --
100 MILLION 4200 Yrs
200 MILLION 600 Yrs
00 MILLION 500 Yrs
3200 MILLION 65 Yrs
5300 MILLION 3 Yrs
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rate
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A.D 2020(EXPECTED)
Population Age Structure:
Birth and death rates do not tell the whole story oI population growth. A country`s
Iertility rate) can be below replacement level while the population continues to grow, iI there are
a
disproportionately large number oI couples in these younger age groups.
That is the situation in Kenya and, to a lesser degree, the United States. The age structure oI
population, then, is also an important Iactor in population change (see the population pyramids
Ior
Kenya, Sweden, & the U.S. above).
When a substantial proportion oI a country`s population is young, high population growth
rates in a
country are to be expected, even iI the average TFR is modest. The reason is that so many
Iemales
are oI childbearing age, that
Fertility Rates:
Replacement-level Iertility the number oI children a couple must bear to replace themselves
o slightly more than 2 children because some children die beIore reaching their
reproductive years
o reproducing at this level does NOT mean that population growth stops; there are so many
"Iuture parents" already alive that, even at replacement
grow Ior many years
Total Iertility rate (TFR) - estimate oI the average nu
childbearing years
o In 1995, the TFR was 3.1 children per woman ; still Iar above replacement level
230 MILLION 55 Yrs
even a modest average TFR results in a large number oI births
replacement-level, population will continue to
number oI children a woman will have during
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TFR (total
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This map shows the average number oI children born to a woman during her liIetime. The darker
the
color, the greater the number oI children. For example, France at 1.7 children has a lower Iertility
rate
than Egypt at 3.6 children. The total Iertility rate (TFR) is the average number oI children a
woman would
have, assuming that current age-speciIic birth rates will remain constant throughout her
childbearing
ears (usually considered to be ages 15-49).
Earth`s Carrying Capacity (is the Earth overpopulated?):
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Carrying capacity is the number oI organisms an environment (e.g., the Earth) can support
o determined by: Iood production, living space, waste assimilation, & resource availability
o Ior humans, carrying capacity can be expanded through advances in agriculture,
industry, & medicine
Some believe Earth`s carrying capacity has already been exceeded as illustrated by:
o polluted air
o depleted Iisheries
The world`s marine catch has increased more than Iour times in the past 40
years -- Irom 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 2.5 million tons by 1992. This
staggering growth has resulted in overIishing and wasteIul, destructive Iishing
practices worldwide which now threaten the lives oI hundreds oI millions oI
people who are vitally dependent on Iishing Ior Iood and livelihoods. They Iace
resource depletion, competition Irom industrial and distant water Ileets, and loss
oI access to traditional marine Iood supplies.
o deIorestation
Continued Iorest loss and degradation will have serious implications at local,
regional, and global levels. Exploitation and clearance oI natural Iorests are
destroying the environment and way oI liIe Ior tens oI thousands oI indigenous
people. Disappearing Iorest cover also represents incalculable losses in biological
diversity and ecological services, including nutrient recycling, watershed
management, and climate regulation.
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o species extinction
o denuded landscapes
o global warming
o starvation
o poverty
o and so on
Others are more optimistic & believe Earth could support many more people
o More people more productivity more knowledge better production methods
discovery oI new substitutes, and so on
Impacts of continued growth in human populations include:
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increased hunger/starvation while Iood production levels oII or even declines (i.e., less
Iood/person)
increasing desertiIication
o DesertiIication is the conversion oI productive rangeland or cropland into desertlike land.
It is usually caused by a combination oI overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought and
climate change.
increased number oI reIugees
increased urbanization
o Cities may oIIer opportunities Ior the people oI developing countries. However, the danger
lies in the structural inadequacies typical oI many cities in these countries. The most
obvious oI these inadequacies are those oI public sanitation. InsuIIicient or non-existent
sewage systems in exist in many parts oI these cities. Water supplies can thereby become
polluted, leading to the high incidences oI disease.
TOP 10 LARGEST URBAN CITIES IN THE WORLD
S.NO NAME OF THE CITY POPULATION IN MILLION
1 TOKYO 2.
2 MEXICO CITY 17.
3 SAO PAULO,BRAZIL 17.5
4 MUMBAI,INDIA 17.4
5 NEW YORK,AMERICA 16.5
6 SHANGHAI.CHINA 14.0
7 LOS ANGELES 13.0
LAGOS,NIGERIA 12.
9 CALCUTTA,INDIA 12.7
10 BUENOS AIRES 12.3
Emerging diseases
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dying seas & rivers, Ior example:
o Colorado River
Projected
population
(millions)
2025
Projected
population
(millions)
2050
Infant
martality
Rate
Total
fertilit
y Rate
of
population
of age , 15
World 7,1 9,036 56 2. 30
More
developed
1,24 1,242 1.6 1
Less
developed
6,570 7,794 61 3.2 33
India 1,363 1,62 70 3.2 36
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ROLE OF NGO ORGANISATION
Creating awareness among people on current environmental issues and their solutions.
Being involved in the protection oI human right to have a clean environment.
Conducting participatory rural appraisal.
TransIerring inIormation through newsletter, brochures, articles, audiovisuals, etc.
Helping the village administrative oIIicials in the preparation, application and execution oI
projects
on environmental protection.
There are more than 10,000 NGO.s in India ranging Irom National Agencies to local groups. The
Ministry oI Environment and Forests (MOEF) is increasingly extending support to NGO activity
and
routing many oI its own programme through them.
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
The Environmental Ministry has been organizing National Environmental Awareness Campaigns
(NEAC), every year in order to spread the messages oI environmental conservation across
society. Each
year.s campaign has a speciIic theme. The district level programme called Paryavaran Vahini
was
launched to promote and support Ior Environmental Legislation in order to ensure compliance.
WOMEN EDUCATION
Until recently Indian women stood Ior a signiIicant tradition and culture since the Vedic age.
However, they are suppressed, neglected and harassed due to gender discrimination. They suIIer
Irom
malnutrition, education, etc. They are underpaid. Women suIIered all sorts oI abuse by men.
Now the government has revealed that progress cannot be achieved without adopting women
welIare programmes specially women education. So special care (reservations and incentives)
has been
taken to provide education, health, job and other Iacilities to women.
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QUESTION
BANK
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND NATURAL
RESOURCES
QUESTIONS - Part A
1. DeIine environmental science. (Dec. 05)
2. Explain biosphere. (Dec. 05)
3. What role does the lithosphere play in the environment?
4. Mention the various Iunctions oI the atmosphere.
5. Mention the various subdivisions oI the biotic and abiotic components oI the environment.
6. What are the conventional sources oI energy Ior mankind? (Dec. 05)
7. Give two examples each oI renewable and non-renewable resources.
. ClassiIy natural resources with suitable examples.
9. State the problems caused by the construction oI dams. (Dec. 05)
10. Mention Iour minor Iorest products.
11. DeIine sustainable Iorestry. (Dec. 05)
12. What are the various causes oI deIorestation?
13. What are the eIIects oI timber extraction?
14. Mention the various commodities and environmental services provided by Iorests.
15. Mention Iour eIIects oI deIorestation.
16. Mention the problems associated with traditional agriculture.
17. Mention the main sources oI Iood, with an example each.
1. Mention the problems associated with overexploitation oI water resources.
19. Mention Iour eIIects oI mining.
20. State the environmental eIIects oI extracting and using mineral resources. (June 05)
21. Under what conditions do we encounter land subsidence?
22. Mention the various causes Ior soil erosion.
23. ClassiIy energy resources with suitable examples.
24. What is geothermal energy? (Dec. 05)
25. State the need Ior public awareness Ior solving environmental problems. (June 05)
QUESTIONS - Part B
1. Explain brieIly the structure oI the atmosphere. (Dec. 05)
2. Discuss in detail the economic importance oI Iorests.
3. What are the major causes oI deIorestation? Discuss its consequences. (Dec. 05)
4. Discuss the ill eIIects oI deIorestation. (Dec. 05)
5. Discuss in detail the ecological services provided by Iorests.
6. Mention the various eIIects oI timber extraction.
7. What problems are caused by the over-exploitation oI water resources?
. Explain the eIIects oI deIorestation and over utilization oI ground water. (June 05)
9. Explain in detail the various beneIits and problems associated with the construction oI dams.
10. Discuss in detail the various environmental impacts oI mining.
11. Write short notes on: a) shiIting cultivation b) eutrophication
12. Discuss the problems associated with modern agriculture with respect to Iertilizers and
pesticides.
13. Discuss any two renewable energy sources in detail.
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14. Explain brieIly the various methods oI harvesting solar energy. (June 05)
15. Write a note on tidal power. (June 05)
16. Discuss in detail the role oI an individual in conservation oI natural resources. (Dec. 05)
17. What are the measures recommended Ior conservation oI natural resources? (June 05)
UNIT 2: ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
QUESTIONS - Part A
1. DeIine ecosystem. Give two examples.
2. Give the classiIication oI ecosystems with suitable examples.
3. DeIine producers. (Dec. 05)
4. What are chemo autotrophs? Give an example.
5. What are consumers?
6. Give the classiIication oI consumers with examples.
7. What are decomposers? Give two examples.
. What is the role played by decomposers?
9. DeIine Iood chain.
10. Give two examples oI simple Iood chains.
11. What are the types oI Iood chains? Give an example Ior each type.
12. Why do we Iind Iood webs in nature rather than simple Iood chains?
13. DeIine trophic level. Assign trophic levels to producers and various types oI consumers.
14. JustiIy: A given species may occupy more than one trophic level depending on its Iood
source.
15. DeIine Iood web. Give an example.
16. Discuss the importance oI Iood webs with a suitable example.
17. Mention the various types oI ecological pyramids.
1. The pyramid oI energy Ilow always takes a true upright shape. Why?
19. DeIine ecological eIIiciency.
20. DeIine pyramid oI numbers with a suitable example.
21. DeIine pyramid oI biomass with a suitable example.
22. What is ecological succession? (June 05)
23. Distinguish between primary succession and secondary succession.
24. What is a climax community?
25. What are the various Iunctions oI an ecosystem?
26. DeIine primary productivity oI an ecosystem.
27. What is meant by secondary production?
2. Name the Iour ecosystems. (Dec. 05)
29. Mention three types oI Iorests.
30. Mention the various biotic components oI the Iorest ecosystem with examples.
31. Mention the various types oI grassland ecosystems.
32. What are the characteristics oI the desert ecosystem?
33. DeIine biodiversity. (Dec. 05)
34. What is biodiversity and what is its signiIicance? (June 05)
35. Enumerate the human activities which destroy the biodiversity. (Dec. 05)
36. DeIine: hot spots oI biodiversity. Which are the two hot spots in India?
37. Explain threatened and endangered species. (Dec. 05)
3. What are rare and endangered species? Give relevant examples in the Indian environment.
(May 05)
39. Name two wildliIe sanctuaries iI India. Name the species protected and the state in which it
is
located.
QUESTIONS - Part B
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1. What is an ecosystem? Describe the structure and Iunction oI various components oI an
ecosystem.
(Dec. 05)
2. DeIine Iood chains. Name and explain the various types oI Iood chains with suitable
examples.
3. Depict diagrammatically a terrestrial Iood web in an ecosystem. How many Iood chains are
there in
that Iood web?
4. Why is the concept oI a Iood web more real ecologically than the concept oI a simple Iood
chain?
5. Explain two applications oI the pyramid oI energy Ilow.
6. DeIine ecological succession. Give an account oI primary succession.
7. Explain: ecosystem, energy Ilow in ecosystem, Iood chain, Iood webs, and ecological
pyramids. (June
05)
. Explain Iood chain and Iood web. (Dec. 05)
9. Write a note on carbon cycle. (Dec. 05)
10. Name and describe the characteristic Ieatures oI various types oI Iorest ecosystems (biomes).
Also
describe the structure oI the Iorest ecosystem.
11. Describe the characteristic Ieatures and structure oI the grassland ecosystem. Where do such
ecosystems occur?
12. State the chieI characteristic Ieatures oI a desert ecosystem. Describe the biotic and abiotic
components oI the desert ecosystem.
13. Describe the biotic and abiotic components oI any Iresh water ecosystem studied by you.
14. State the biotic and abiotic components oI the ocean ecosystem.
15. Describe the types, characteristic Ieatures, structure and Iunction oI:i) Iorest ecosystem ii)
aquatic
ecosystem. (June 05)
16. a) Explain ecosystem. b) Discuss the components oI ecosystem. c) BrieIly explain the energy
Ilow
through ecosystem. (Dec. 05)
17. Discuss the value oI biodiversity.
1. Discuss in detail the causes Ior extinction oI species by human actions.
19. a) Discuss the threat Iaced by Indian biodiversity. B) Discuss the strategy adopted to
conserve
biodiversity. (Dec. 05)
20. Explain the various threats to biodiversity and the measures recommended Ior conservation
oI
biodiversity. (June 05)
UNIT 3: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
QUESTIONS - Part A
1. Mention three sources oI indoor pollution.
2. What is smog? Distinguish between the two types oI smog.
3. DeIine BOD. What are its units?
4. What will be the eIIect on aquatic ecosystems when high temperature eIIluents are discharged
into it?
5. DeIine thermal pollution. (Dec. 05)
6. Write any two causes oI soil pollution. (Dec. 05)
7. When does a sound cause noise pollution? (Dec. 05)
. What is eutrophication? (May 05)
9. What is acid rain? (Dec. 05)
10. What is acid deposition? (Dec. 05)
11. List any two air pollutants and their eIIects on human beings Irom automobile emission.
(May 05)
12. Name any Iour air pollutants, their sources and eIIects. (June 05)
13. Name the sources and eIIects oI marine pollution. (June 05)
14. What are the causes and eIIects oI global warming? (June 05)
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15. Give some examples oI green house gases? (Dec. 05)
16. What are the causes and eIIects oI ozone layer depletion? (June 05)
17. Name two ozone depleting substances (ODS). (May 05)
QUESTIONS - Part B
1. Give an account oI the green house eIIect.
2. Discuss in detail the importance oI the green house eIIect Ior human survival. What is the
enhanced
green house eIIect?
3. Write short notes on: a) cyclone collectors b) electrostatic precipitators.
4. What are the sources and eIIects oI various air pollutants? Discuss any two control methods.
5. What are the major pollutants oI the atmosphere? Enumerate the adverse eIIects caused by
these
pollutants. (Dec. 05)
6. What is thermal pollution? Discuss the eIIects and control methods oI thermal pollution.
7. Explain the causes, eIIects and control measures oI water pollution. (June 05)
. Discuss sewage treatment with a suitable block diagram.
9. What are the various causes and eIIects oI noise pollution? Discuss the control measures Ior
noise
pollution.
10. Discuss the various aspects oI prevention and control oI noise pollution. (Dec. 05)
11. Discuss the causes and eIIects oI soil pollution. How can soil pollution be controlled?
12. What are the causes oI soil erosion and the methods oI preventing it? (Dec. 05)
13. DeIine Ilood. What are its causes? What measures should be taken to mitigate Ilood disaster?
14. Compare nuclear power with coal power. (Dec. 05)
15. How will you take care oI solid wastes generated in urban areas? (Dec. 05)
16. What are the eIIects oI improper municipal solid waste management? State the measures
recommended Ior proper management oI the solid wastes. (June 05)
17. Explain the methods oI disposal oI municipal solid waste. (Dec. 05)
1. Write a note on disposal oI radioactive wastes. (Dec. 05)
19. Explain Bhopal gas tragedy. (Dec. 05)
UNIT 4: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
QUESTIONS - Part A
1. Explain the term sustainable development. (Dec. 05)
2. What is acid rain? (Dec. 05)
3. Mention three substances which contribute to the green house eIIect.
4. List any Iour pollution control acts. (Dec. 05)
QUESTIONS - Part B
1. What do you mean by sustainable development? What are the measures to be adopted to attain
sustainability?
2. Discuss the agenda Ior sustainable development. (Dec. 05)
3. What is meant by rain water harvesting? Why is it necessary in the present situation? (Dec.
05)
4. Write in detail about global warming. (Dec. 05)
5. Discuss the measures to conserve water.
6. What is rainwater harvesting? What are the purposes served by it?
7. What are the major issues and problems related to rehabilitation oI displaced tribes?
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. Critically discuss the anthropocentric and eco-centric world views. Which view appeals to you
more
and why?
9. What are greenhouse gases and greenhouse eIIect? Discuss the potential and contribution oI
these
gases to global warming phenomenon.
10. What are the major implications oI enhanced global warming?
11. What are the major impacts oI acid rain and how can we control it?
12. Discuss the natural Iormation and occurrence oI ozone in the stratosphere.
13. Which are the agents responsible Ior ozone depletion?
14. Write a critical note on nuclear holocaust.
15. Discuss various methods Ior wasteland reclamation.
16. Name the laws that have been Iramed Ior environmental protection and mention the
objectives Ior
each Act. (Dec. 05)
17. Discuss the salient Ieatures oI a) WildliIe (Protection) Act, 1972 b) Forest (Conservation)
Act, 190.
1. How do you deIine pollution as per Water (Prevention and Control oI Pollution) Act, 1974?
What are
the salient Ieatures oI the Act?
19. State the important provisions in Environmental Protection Act, Air Act and Water Act.
(June 05)
20. Discuss brieIly on the Indian Environmental Acts. (Dec. 05)
21. Write short notes on: a) environmental ethics b) wasteland reclamation. (June 05)
22. JustiIy: Greenhouse gases at its natural levels is very essential Ior liIe to survive on this earth.
23. What are the eIIects oI ozone layer depletion?
24. Explain the mechanism oI ozone layer depletion. (Dec. 05)
25. What is the signiIicance oI ozone layer depletion and global warming? What are the
pollutants that
are responsible and control measures? (Dec. 05)
26. What are the diIIerent methods to propagate environmental awareness in the society?
27. Write brieIly on the community participation in environment management programmes.
UNIT 5: HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
QUESTIONS - Part A
1. What is population explosion? (Dec. 05)
2. State how environment and human health are related. (Dec. 05)
3. Expand: a) HIV b) AIDS
QUESTIONS - Part B
1. What is meant by population explosion? Discuss the Indian scenario.
2. Population explosion aIIects the environment seriously. Discuss. (Dec. 05)
3. Deterioration oI environment leads to deterioration oI human health. JustiIy. (Dec. 05)
4. Discuss brieIly on the reasons Ior population explosion. (Dec. 05)
5. Discuss the environmental and social impacts oI growing population. (Dec.05)
6. Write brieIly on the eIIect oI increasing aIIluence on environment. (Dec. 05)
7. What do you mean by: a) doubling time b) total Iertility rate c) zero population growth d) liIe
expectancy?
. How can age structure pyramids serve as useIul tools Ior predicting population growth trends
oI a
nation? Explain with examples.
9. Discuss the Iamily welIare programme in the Indian context.
10. What are the objectives and elements oI value education?
11. Discuss the various issues and measures Ior women and child welIare at the national and
international levels.
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12. What is the role oI NMIS, ENVIS and GIS in dissemination oI environmental inIormation
and
environmental management?
13. Explain the role oI inIormation technology in environment and human health. (June 05)
14. Write a short note on value education. (June 05)
15. Write brieIly on the implementation oI Iamily planning programme. (Dec. 05)
16. Write a note on AIDS in developing countries. (Dec. 05)
17. Discuss the Iactors inIluencing the Iamily size. (Dec. 05)
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