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January-February 2011

Conducting vital power system studies in data centers

Photo: istockPhoto/Petrovich9
By Karl A. Homburg

Electrical equipment in data centers is in constant heavy use, and sometimes abuse, on a daily basis. One useful method to maintain optimal performance of the various utility sources and generators present in a data center environment is to conduct routine power system studies. The unique challenges in electrical equipment applications, such as multiple operating modes, must be carefully implemented to achieve desirable system performance under both normal and abnormal conditions. Short Circuit Studies, Coordination Studies, and Arc Flash Hazard Analysis are important elements to the best practice of data center operations to avoid costly damage and system downtime, and should be supplemented with regular maintenance for the best performance. Short Circuit Studies Collecting and Assessing Data and Common Pitfalls to Avoid. The first step in short circuit studies is finding the maximum available fault currents at all locations in the power system. Those results are then compared with power system component ratings to determine equipment ratings needed to safely withstand or interrupt calculated fault currents. The results from short circuit studies are also used when conducting the subsequent coordination and arc-flash studies. Results are usually presented in a table listing each bus along with voltage and equipment connections, calculated available fault currents, and equipment short circuit ratings. The table indicates that the equipment is either adequate or inadequate based on the available short circuit current. Inadequate ratings must be addressed, if found, to comply with the National Electrical Code, and other regulations. If direct action is not taken, a data center risks serious safety hazards such as melted or bent bus bars, enclosure rupture, or even failure of fault interrupting devices, any of which can cause extensive damage and loss of service continuity. There are several pitfalls to be wary of when conducting short circuit studies in a data center. The operating scenario that will

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supply the most fault current should be referenced and all sources of fault current considered. In most cases, the operating scenarios and motor information are not readily apparent upon examining the one-line diagram of the power system. The system study engineer must obtain this information from the system designer during the study. Parallel Operation. Even in data centers that do not intentionally operate with parallel sources, many of them experience some time in which sources are paralleled. This is the case if switching is performed as a closed transition. In this scenario, sources are briefly paralleled to allow the switching of sources without interruption to the load. If done automatically, the time the sources are paralleled is brief, up to only a few seconds. If switching manually, the time can be significantly longer based on the time needed for the worker operating the equipment. During the time that the sources are paralleled, the power system equipment is exposed to the much larger fault current of the paralleled sources. Single Line-to-Ground Faults. Single line-to-ground faults when a delta-wye-connected 3-phase, 4-wire system or wye-grounded generators are employed pose yet another pitfall, especially when substation transformers or generators are closecoupled to distribution switchgear. The smaller the distance, the smaller the zero sequence impedance, compared to positive and negative sequence impedance. This may cause single line-to-ground fault magnitude up to a theoretical maximum of 150% of the three-phase fault magnitude. X/R Ratio. The X/R ratio is always larger than zero since inductive impedance is found in every power system. An inductor stores energy in a magnetic field, which requires current flow. Since that energy cannot be instantaneously dissipated, the inductor opposes changes to current flow, thereby creating a DC offset after a fault is initiated. During fault conditions, the higher the X/R ratio, the higher the DC offset. DC Offsets. DC offsets are important factors when calculating the interrupting duty of fault interrupting devices like circuit breakers. For LV interrupting devices, the result used to compare to the device interrupting rating will be higher than the actual calculated fault current if the X/R ratio calculation shows the X/R ratio of fault is greater than that for which the device has been tested. This becomes an issue if the interrupting rating of the device is only marginally higher than the available fault current, a concern especially in data center applications containing low-voltage generators operating in parallel.

Coordination Studies The purpose of a coordination study is to determine the proper settings for overcurrent protective devices in the data center power system. Ideally, the selection of the proper settings will both protect the power system equipment as well as remove the smallest portion of the electrical system as necessary from service in order to isolate a fault. In most instances, compromises must be made in order to provide the best overall system reliability. To establish the proper setting for the overcurrent protective devices, they are plotted on time-current curve graphs (TCCs). The time-current characteristics of properly coordinated devices will not overlap on a TCC graph.

Interpreting the TCC Graph The TCC graph relies on the information determined in the short circuit analysis to determine where the device time-current curve is cut off. Each device has its characteristic cut off at the maximum fault current available for the connected bus. Many data centers utilize ANSI draw-out style switchgear, or similar hybrid switchboard construction, at their service entrances. This type of switchgear has the benefit of the ability to conduct rated fault currents for time periods up to 30 cycles. This capability to withstand allows the instantaneous function of the main circuit breaker to be turned off in many cases avoiding overlap and providing for better coordination.
Photo: Schneider Electric DC offsets are important factors when calculating the interrupting duty of fault interrupting devices like circuit breakers.

There are some exceptions to the no-overlap concept, for example, if two devices are operating in a current-limiting mode at the available fault current the curves will fall below 0.01s on the TCC graph. Even though they do not show overlap on the graph, additional techniques are required to judge

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selectivity. Generally, this occurs with fuses and requires the use of fuse ratio tables to determine selectivity. With circuit breakers, there are some instances where the overlap of device characteristics does not necessarily mean that the devices do not coordinate. Most often this occurs with thermal magnetic circuit breakers. Several circuit breaker manufacturers publish what are called selectivity tables for their circuit breakers. These are similar to the fuse ratio tables that have existed for fuses for many years. Coordinating Parallel Generators The coordination of parallel generators can pose a great challenge in a data center. It is not uncommon for the feeder breakers in generator paralleling switchgear to have a similar long time trip rating as the generator breakers. In this scenario, it may be impossible to adjust the devices to have good selective coordination, while providing protection that matches the generators decrement curve. If two identically sized generators with identical impedance characteristics are operating in parallel, the fault current will be split approximately equally between them both. Meaning, the generator breakers will only see half of the fault current that a feeder breaker would see. Using this relationship, the generator breaker curves can be shifted to the right by a factor of two. This shifting of the curves allows a visual representation of the actual conditions that exist during the parallel operation. The same methodology applies to numbers of generators greater than twothe curves would be shifted by a factor of three for three generators, four for four generators, and so on. This shifting of curves applies only to faulted conditions where the fault is downstream of both generators with shifted curves, and not to overloads. If only one of the sources is in operation, however, fault overcurrent coordination would still be based on the non-shifted curves. This technique can additionally be applied to a generator paralleled with a transformer, or two generators of different sizes. The scaling factors would simply need to be adjusted based on the ratio of the impedances of the sources.

Arc Flash Hazard Analysis An arc-flash hazard analysis has become a standard and incredibly important part of many system studies. The analysis determines the available arc-flash incident energy at all of the buses in the power system so that electrical workers are aware of the potential hazard and can make informed choices about personal protective equipment. The foundations of arc-flash analysis are the IEEE-1584-2002 [4] and NFPA 70E-2009 [5] standards. The calculation methodologies for arc-flash analysis require the results from the data centers short circuit and coordination studies. The results of these studies have to be applied carefully to the arc-flash analysis so that realistic estimates of the available incident energy are made. Multiple Operating Scenarios Multiple operating scenarios need to be considered by the system study engineer in order to properly calculate the incident energy levels in the system for the arc-flash analysis. Unlike short circuit studies where the main objective revolves around the maximum available fault current, when it comes to arc-flash studies, all possible available fault currents are a concern. In many cases, the highest incident energy levels are produced by the scenario that produces the lowest available fault current. This is a result of fault currents falling just below the instantaneous or, short time pickup of circuit breakers that will last for a much longer time period, exposing an electrical worker to more energy. PDUs and Transformers According to the IEEE 1584 standard, buses operating at 240 V or less, fed by transformers less than 125 kVA in size, do not need to be considered in an arc-flash hazard analysis and can be assumed to be Category 0 (1.2 cal/cm^2). Many data centers, however, use transformers larger than 125 kVA in their power distribution units (PDUs). This can pose a problem if trying to keep the incident energy levels in the power system low. There are two problems associated with 480- to 208-V transformers in relation to arc-flash within data centers, the first concerning the physical construction of the PDUs and the second is related to the low level of arcing faults on the 208-V terminals of the transformer. PDUs are typically constructed with 208-V secondary breakers and a branch circuit panelboard within the same enclosure. This specific construction poses two risks. First, the primary of the transformer represents a 480-V hazard while a worker is performing
Photo: Schneider Electric A system study engineer analyzes a variety of operating scenarios.

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work on the 208-V components. The second risk is exposure to the line side of the 208-V secondary breakers. This location is quite often an arc-flash Hazard Category 3. The arcing fault current on the secondary of a 480- to 208-V transformer is usually relatively low when compared to the instantaneous pickup of the 480-V breaker feeding the PDU. For that reason, the primary breaker usually takes several seconds to clear a fault on the 208-V side. When the arc-flash calculations are stopped at two seconds, per IEEE 1584, a Category 3 arc-flash hazard/risk rating is very common. Something to always keep in mind is that for locations where clear egress is not possible, it may be prudent to extend the calculations past two seconds. Since all the components are in the same enclosure, this rating must be applied to the entire PDU. Yet there is a possible solution to this PDU problem.

To work around this, consider the equipment construction and layout. A solution is to move the branch circuit panelboards to a separate enclosure. Most of the time the 208-V breaker feeding the branch circuit panelboard is capable of interrupting the arcing fault fast enough to allow for a Category 0 rating at the panel. By moving it to a separate enclosure the worker is no longer exposed to the unprotected transformer secondary when working on the branch circuit panelboard. The hazard still exists in the PDU, but workers need access to the PDU less often than the panelboards. Arcing Faults on the Output of a UPS When performing arc-flash studies the assumption that an UPS system will switch into bypass during an arcing fault is the norm. If the arcing fault current is too low, however, this may not be the case. Information about the behavior of a UPS system for low level arcing faults is difficult to obtain from most of the major UPS manufacturers and any information that is available shows that different UPS models have different behaviors, even if from the same manufacturer. Generally, if the arcing fault current is less than the overload rating of the UPS, the unit will not switch into bypass and the only current flow will be from the output of the UPS itself. For slightly higher faults the unit may operate in pulsed parallel mode in which both the UPS output and the bypass are paralleled for approximately 40 milliseconds, at which time the UPS output breaker will open, leaving only the bypass to supply the fault. The third scenario is one in which the fault current significantly exceeds the UPS overload rating. In this case, the UPS will immediately switch to bypass mode. The scenario that produces the worst-case incident energy level could vary significantly depending on the UPS size, available fault current and overcurrent protection types. Each system should be carefully considered in consultation with the UPS manufacturers published data to make a final decision. Power System Study Data Accuracy Accurate data about the power system in a data center is absolutely essential for any system study to accurately predict its behavior. Sometimes even seemingly insignificant errors in the system data can produce significant errors in results. This is especially the case with an arc-flash hazard analysis. Even small errors in the power system data can have a very significant effect on arc-flash calculations. Underestimating cable lengths, for example, can cause arc-flash incident energy levels to be underreported. Overestimating lengths could also have an effect when comparing the withstand ratings of equipment when performing a short circuit analysis if the fault current falls close to the actual equipment rating. Another area that could cause significant errors is neglecting to consider the type of conduit used for feeders. Assuming a magnetic conduit when PVC is actually used or vice-versa can have a significant effect on the fault current calculations. Finally, a third common area that can introduce errors is the available utility fault current. Incorrect Cable Lengths Incorrectly estimating the lengths of the power cables in the system can have a negative impact on data center study results. There are two concerns that are in opposition with each other, the first concern would be overestimating the length. This would cause the study results to underestimate the available fault current at a bus and determine that devices are adequately rated, when in actuality they are not. Generally, this would only be a problem for a gross overestimation of the lengths since most of the time equipment ratings are not chosen to be too close to the available fault current. It is also relatively easy to guard against this situation by simply scanning through the short circuit comparison table for devices that are close to their interrupting rating. If there is little confidence in the accuracy of the cable lengths some time could be spent on only these cables to obtain more accurate information. The second concern would be underestimating the cable lengths. It is more difficult to spot check cable data for an arc-flash

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analysis that for a short circuit analysis. Both cables that are estimated too long and too short can produce erroneous results. A general rule of thumb would be to keep any estimation error to less than 10% of the actual length. Utility Fault Current Data A final, common area of concern, when considering the data accuracy is the available fault current as given by the electric utility. Although it has improved in recent years there are still many utilities that only give the maximum available fault current at a customers service entrance. This is most often the case with 480-V service entrances. For medium voltage service entrances it is common to get the maximum value along with an actual present value. The maximum value is needed to run the short circuit analysis however lower values should always be considered when performing an arc-flash hazard analysis since lower fault currents quite often produce higher incident energy levels. In Conclusion Data center power systems present unique challenges to system study engineers and design engineers. The selection and arrangement of the components in a given power system significantly affect the arc flash study outcome. Design practices that used to be common such as infinite bus short circuit calculation, large PDU transformers, etc., are not conducive to controlling arc flash energies. Arc flash mitigation must be designed into the data center power system and incorporated into the initial concept stage. Furthermore, due to the various operating scenarios, data center power system studies require a diligent study engineer. Selecting a study team that has sufficient resources to evaluate the system parameters completely and accurately, and investing the necessary efforts to acquire a reasonable compromise between selectivity/reliability and arc flash energies is the true key to a successfully running data center. Topics: Data Centers, Facilities, Power Systems

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