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B.S. Chimni*
Introduction
Framing the syllabus for the Asian section was a difficult task for several
overlapping reasons that deserve mention.
First, only few countries in Asia are party to the 1951 UN Convention on the Status of
Refugees viz., Cambodia, China, Japan and Philippines.
Second, unlike Africa, the Asian Region does not have a regional convention on the
status of refugees. There is also no regional convention on human rights.
Third, the non-binding AALCO principles, first adopted in 1966, have not had, as for
instance the Cartagena Declaration (1984) has had in Latin America, any serious
influence on the law and practice in the region.
Fourth, most countries in Asia have not passed a national legislation on the status of
refugees so that it is not always easy to discover the law that governs the world of
refugees in individual national jurisdictions. In South Asia the status of refugees is not
distinguished from that of aliens in general.
Fifth, the absence of national law has meant scarce case law on matters relating to
the determination of refugee status or the rights of refugees. Even where cases have
gone before Courts there is a tendency not to engage with international refugee law.
The decisions are taken on the basis of domestic legal provisions regulating the rights
of aliens.
Sixth, the secondary literature on the legal status of refugees for the very reasons is
scant and of uneven quality. While there is a reasonable literature on the origin and
condition of refugees it does not extend to a legal analysis of the relevant issues.
Seventh, there is little literature on explaining why States in the Asian region have
not become parties to the 1951 Convention, or adopted a regional convention or for
that matter passed national laws.
Eighth, while several States from Asia are members of the Executive Committee of
UNHCR there is very little written about the role these have played in shaping the
policies of UNHCR in the region.
Ninth, the legal texts defining the relationship of UNHCR with individual countries are
not always easy to access. For instance, the MOUs of UNHCR with Pakistan are not
readily available.
Tenth, it was not sensible to try and include materials on every jurisdiction. First, this
is a task beyond an individual editor within a short period of time. Second, it is not
easy to find the relevant materials because the literature is scant, scattered and
often not available in translation. Third, and most significantly, it did not seem very
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useful to include fragmented materials that do not offer any serious understanding of
the status of refugees in a particular jurisdiction.
Eleventh, last, but not the least, the definition of Asia is not clear.
II
The Syllabus
In the light of the above the decision was taken to place materials in the Syllabus
under four headings: 1. Asia: General 2. States Parties to the 1951 Convention 3.
States not parties to the 1951 Convention and 4. Extended Readings. Some points
need to be made by way of explanation.
First, a problem was how to introduce the Asia section in the absence of relevant
laws, cases and secondary materials for most countries. It was felt that assembling
general materials on Asia, including readings that explained Asian exceptionalism
may offer the right setting in the backdrop of which to read available materials.
Section I has this objective.
A second problem was identifying the States to be included in the third category viz.,
States not party to the 1951 Convention. It was decided to include the law and
practices of States that had been or are hosts to large number of refugees or had a
corpus of reasonably evolved jurisprudence on the status of refugees. Some selection
had to be made here as well. It was decided to include the practices, in so far as
available, of four States: Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Thailand. Three of these
States are in South Asia. This decision was taken because among the States parties
to the 1951 Convention all belong to the South East or East Asian region and their
practice was being included in Section II.
First, the syllabus does not cover the fate of Palestinian refugees and the work of
UNRWA because of the distinct legal regime, issues and concerns.
Second, no materials have been included on countries of Central Asia and West Asia.
When we talk of Asia the reference is to South and South East Asia.
Third, the secondary readings recommended are in some cases dated but it is
believed that these are useful as preliminary readings.
Fourth, the materials used here can be usefully supplemented with information and
analysis provided in annual surveys like the World Refugee Survey (Can be scanned
and uploaded or a hyperlink can be provided) published by the USCR which provides
an overview of the refugee situation in most of the Asian countries.
Fifth, no material has been included on internally displaced persons (IDPs). Such
material could however easily be included.
III
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Section I “Asia: General”
Reading 3 sketches some theoretical models in relation to which the debate on the
entry of aliens and refugees takes place in the North and posits an alternative
perspective that takes into account the concerns of post-colonial States.
Reading 4 offers in this background the possible reasons why a country like India
does not ratify the 1951 Convention and considers their validity.
Reading 6 is the text of the AALCO declaration on the Status of Refugees. Even
though not influential it is the only legal text at the regional level and therefore
worthy of study.
Readings 8 and 9 contain the text of Comprehensive Plan of Action (CPA) and an
insightful discussion of its negotiation and operation. These two texts have been
included to see if the CPA offers a model for responding to refugee flows in Asia in the
future.
IV
Part B is devoted to China and contains five readings. Reading I and Reading III
include a brief description of the legal status of refugees in China and its response to
asylum seekers from North Korea. Reading II is the text of a border control agreement
between China and North Korea (authenticity to be confirmed). Reading IV contains a
brief section on North Korean refugees in general. Reading V contains a report on
protecting North Korean refugees in China.
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Part C is concerned with Japan. Reading I is the text of the Japanese legislation on
immigration control and refugee recognition. Reading II refers to some case law.
Readings III and IV briefly describe Japan’s legal framework to deal with immigration
and refugees. Besides, the two readings also look at issues such as burden sharing,
urban refugees, and the role of NGOs. Reading V discusses the Free Afghan refugees
movement after September 11 and reforms in the Japanese asylum system.
Section III refers to the relevant legislation of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and
Thailand. In the instance of Bangladesh there is a single secondary reading. In the
case of India two readings are included. There is some case law as well: the key cases
have been incorporated. For Pakistan besides relevant legislation, a brief reading has
been included. In the case of Thailand the readings chosen are by established
scholars of refugee law.
VI
Section IV will contain an advanced reading list. This is a short list that will be
extended in due course.
VII
Concluding Remarks
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B.S.Chimni
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1. MUNTARBHORN, V (1992), The Status of Refugees in Asia, Clarendon Press,
Oxford. (Text to be scanned and uploaded) pp.3-29. (This text may be read with the
latest issue of World Refugee Survey)
3. CHIMNI, B.S (2005), 'Outside the bounds of citizenship: The status of aliens, illegal
migrants and refugees in India', in Civil Society, Public Sphere and Citizenship:
Dialogues and Perceptions, edited by Rajeev Bhargava and Helmut Reifeld, SAGE,
New Delhi. Pp. 277-313. (Text to be scanned and uploaded) pp. 277-285; 295-297
6. AALCO Text
9. BETTS, A (2006), ‘Comprehensive Plans of Action: Insights From CIREFCA and the
Indo-Chinese CPA’, New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No. 120 (PDF file
to be uploaded)
A. CAMBODIA
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Chapter III – Residing, Labour, entry, Exit
B. CHINA
C. JAPAN
1. Japan, Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act 1951 (last amended
2006) Chap II- Entry and Landing; Chap VII2, Articles 61-62 Recognition of Refugee
Status and other Related Issues.
2. Case Law:
3. DEAN, M. & NAGASHIMA. M (2007), 'Sharing the Burden: The Role of Government
and NGOs in Protecting and Providing for Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Japan',
Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 20, no.3, pp.481-499.
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4. BANKI, S (2006), 'Burmese Refugees in Tokyo: Livelihoods in the Urban
Environment', Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol.19. No.3., pp.328-344.
D. PHILIPPINES
BANGLADESH
(Bangladesh had no refugee law. The 1920 Passport Act, the 1946 Foreigners Act,
and the 1952 Control of Entry Act applied to all foreigners without exception for
refugees.)
3. ABRAR, C (2003) “State, Refugees and the Need for a Legal Procedure” in C R
Abrar and Shahdeen Malik eds., Towards National Refugee Laws in South Asia pp.45-
49.
INDIA
Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920 and Passport Act, 1967
Registration of Foreigner’s Act, 1939
Foreigner’s Order, 1948
Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act, 1983
Indian Penal Code, 1860
Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
3. Case law
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• National Human Rights Commission vs State of Arunachal Pradesh and
Another 1996, SCC (1) 742 (Right to Life and Liberty) Article 21 of the
Constitution of India
• The Sarbananda Sonowal v Union of India (2005) 5 Supreme Court Cases 665
(Aliens; Aggression; Illegal Migrants; Powers of State)
• The State of Arunachal Pradesh v Khudiram Chakmas 1994 Supp. (1) SCC 615
(Citizenship of Chakma Refugees)
4. SAXENA, P (2007) 'Creating Legal Space for Refugees in India: the Milestones
Crossed and the Roadmap for the Future', International Journal of Refugee Law, pp.
246-72. (PDF can be uploaded)
6. OBEROI, PIA (2006) “Tibetan Refugees in India” in Exile and Belonging: Refugees
and State Policy in South Asia Oxford: New Delhi pp. 77-103
PAKISTAN
THAILAND
2. MUNTARBHORN, V ‘Refugee Law and Practice in the Asia and Pacific Region:
Thailand as a Case Study’.
1. OBEROI, P (2006), 'Conclusion', Exile and Belonging: Refugees and State Policy in
South Asia, Oxford University Press (OUP), New Delhi. Pp. 232-244.
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SECTION 4 : EXTENDED READINGS
CHIMNI, B.S (2005) “Cooption and Resistance: Two Faces of Global ” New York
University Journal of International Law and Politics, vol.37, no.4, pp.799-827 (Link can
be provided)
Statelessness
1. SEN. S (1999), 'Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of
South Asia – Part 1', International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol.11. No.4, pp. 625-645.
(PDF file to be uploaded) pp. 629-639.
2. ……… (2000) 'Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of
South Asia – Part 2', International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol.12. No.1, pp. 41-70.
(PDF file to be uploaded)
CPA
India
4. DHAWAN, R (2004) Refugee Law and Policy in India, PILSARC, New Delhi, pp.32-80.
(Text to be scanned and uploaded) pp. 43-59.
5. CHIMNI, B.S (2000) International Refugee Law: A Reader New Delhi: Sage Chapter
VIII (Text to be scanned and uploaded)
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