Question One: EZRA AHUMUZA AEBD 2004/HD16/2447U

EZRA AHUMUZA AEBD 2004/HD16/2447U
Question one
a) Derive the Hagen Poiseulle equation for laminar flow in pipes in a circular pipe section and state all the
necessary assumptions
b) Explain how the terms in the Darcy-Weisbach equation for pipe flow are similar to those in the Chezy
equation for open channel flow
Solution
Consider a cylinder of fluid, length L, radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe
r
R
r
The fluid is in equilibrium; therefore, shearing forces equal the
pressure forces.
(1)
Newtons law of viscosity,
We are measuring from the pipe centre, so
(2)
Hydraulic Engineering Assignment One
1
Combining equations (1) and (2), we obtain;
In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity,
The value of velocity at a point distance r from the centre
(3)
Substituting the boundary conditions into equation (3);
At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;
At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is laminar:
The flow in an annulus of thickness dr
2
Hence the discharge can be written
To get pressure loss in terms of the velocity of the flow, use the mean velocity:
(b) The relationship between the terms in Darcys equation of pipe flow and Chezy formula.
Chezy Formula
developed by Antoinne Chzy (1718-1798)
Commonly written as:
V = C (RS)

R = hydraulic radius
S = slope
C = coefficient

As Q = AV this can also be written as a discharge formula:
Q = CA (RS)

A = channel cross-section area
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
based on the work of Darcy- Weisbach and other hydraulicians
Commonly written as

V = (8 g R S f
-1
)
= (78 4R S f
-1
)

R = hydraulic radius
S = slope
g = gravitational acceleration
f = friction coefficient
As a discharge formula:
Q = A (78 4R S f
-1
)

Comparison of the two formulae
Chezy's C and Darcy-Weisbach's f:
3
C R
= (8g R S f
-1
)

C R
= 8g
f
-

Expanding brackets,
C = 8g
f
-
cancelling R
and S

C = (8g f
-1
)

In other words:
C f
-

Question two:
Explain the term boundary layer and show its significance. In your answer, you should discuss form drag,
skin friction drag, the effect of surface roughness and the effect of pressure on the boundary layer
development
Solution
Boundary Layers
When a fluid flows over a stationary surface such as the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe, the fluid
touching the surface is brought to rest by the shear stress to at the wall. The velocity increases from the wall
to a maximum in the main stream of the flow as shown below.
Maximum velocity
4
Zero Velocity shear Resistance
Wall
The above profile builds up gradually from the point where the fluid starts to enter a pipe.
Considering a flat plate in the middle of a fluid, the build up of the velocity profile can be followed as the
fluid moves over the plate.
The region where there is a velocity profile in the flow due to the shear stress at the wall is called the
boundary layer.

The thickness of this boundary layer is defined as the distance from the wall to the point where the velocity
is 99% of the free stream velocity, the velocity in the middle of the pipe or river.
Boundary layer thickness, d = distance from wall to point where u = 0.99 umainstream
The value of d will increase with distance from the point where the fluid first starts to pass over the
boundary. It increases to a maximum in fully developed flow.
Correspondingly, the drag force D on the fluid due to shear stress to

at the wall increases from zero at the
start of the plate to a maximum in the fully developed flow region where it remains constant.
Formation of the boundary layer
Skin friction drag
This is the tangential force exerted on the immersed body due to tangential shear caused by the large
velocity gradient within the boundary layer at the surface of the body.
Form drag
It is also known as pressure drag and is caused by the pressure difference between the front and rear of a
three dimensional form moving through a fluid.
The amount of this drag depends primarily upon the size and shape of the object. Hence the name form
drag.
5
The boundary layer grows from zero when a fluid starts to flow over a solid surface. As it passes over a
greater length more fluid is slowed by friction between the fluid layers close to the boundary. Hence the
thickness of the slower layer increases.
The fluid near the top of the boundary layer is dragging the fluid nearer to the solid surface along. The
mechanism for this dragging may be one of two types:
The first type occurs when the normal viscous forces are large enough to exert drag effects on the slower
moving fluid close to the solid boundary. If the boundary layer is thin then the velocity gradient normal to
the surface, (du/dy), is large so by Newton's law of viscosity the shear stress, t = m (du/dy), is also large.
The corresponding force may then be large enough to exert drag on the fluid close to the surface.
As the boundary layer thickness becomes greater, the velocity gradient become smaller and the shear stress
decreases until it is no longer enough to drag the slow fluid near the surface along. If this viscous force was
the only action then the fluid would come to a rest.
But it does not come to rest because a second mechanism comes into play. Up to this point the flow has
been laminar and Newton's law of viscosity has applied. This part of the boundary layer is known as the
laminar boundary layer
It is the viscous shear stresses that hold the fluid particles in a constant motion within layers. They become
small as the boundary layer increases in thickness and the velocity gradient gets smaller. Eventually they
are no longer able to hold the flow in layers and the fluid starts to rotate as shown below.
Fast moving layer
Vortex sheets rolling up into small
vortices
Slow moving layer
This causes the fluid motion to rapidly become turbulent. Fluid from the fast moving region moves to the
slower zone transferring momentum and thus maintaining the fluid by the wall in motion. Conversely, slow
moving fluid moves to the faster moving region slowing it down. The net effect will be an increase in
momentum in the boundary layer. We call the part of the boundary layer the turbulent boundary layer.
Surface roughness effect
In turbulent flow, if the height of the roughness of a pipe is greater than the thickness of the laminar sub-
layer then this increases the amount of turbulence and energy losses in the flow. If the height of roughness
is less than the thickness of the laminar sub-layer the pipe is said to be smooth and it has little effect on the
boundary layer. In laminar flow the height of roughness has very little effect
The effect of pressure
6
Negative pressure gradients
If flow over a boundary occurs when there is a pressure decrease in the direction of flow, the fluid will
accelerate and the boundary layer will become thinner. This is the case for convergent flows.
The accelerating fluid maintains the fluid close to the wall in motion. Hence the flow remains stable and
turbulence reduces. Boundary layer separation does not occur.
Positive pressure gradients
When the pressure increases in the direction of flow the situation is very different. Fluid outside the
boundary layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure which is trying to push it backwards. The
fluid within the boundary layer has so little momentum that it will very quickly be brought to rest, and
possibly reversed in direction. If this reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the surface as
shown below.
This phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation.
At the edge of the separated boundary layer, where the velocities change direction, a line of vortices occur
(known as a vortex sheet). This happens because fluid to either side is moving in the opposite direction.
This boundary layer separation and increase in the turbulence because of the vortices results in very large
energy losses in the flow.
7
Question three
(a)A trapezoidal section has a bottom width b and flow depth d while the side slope is n horizontally to 1
vertically. Show, using mannings equation that for the most efficient hydraulic section, the following
expression is true.
2
1 2 2 n d nd b + +
(b) A 900mm diameter conduit is laid at a uniform slope of 1 in 1500 and connects two reservoirs. When
the levels in the reservoirs are low, the conduit runs partly full and it is found that a normal depth of
600mm gives a flow of 0.322m3/s. the Chezy coefficient C is given by Km
n
where K is a constant, m is the
hydraulic mean depth and n=1/6. Neglecting losses of head at entry and exit, obtain;
(a) The value of C
(b) The discharge when the conduit is flowing full and the difference between the two reservoirs is 4.5m.
Part a
Consider the following sketch showing the trapezoidal section.
8
nd nd
d x 1

n
b
Assuming that the channel is flowing full,
Then, the following parameters can be found.
Area of flow is obtained as
) 2 (
2
1
) (
2
1
nd b b d b a h A + + +
) ( nd b d A + (1)
Note: the length of the sloping side x of the trapezium is obtained from Pythogoras theorem as
2
1 n d x +
Therefore, wetted perimeter P, is obtained as
2
1 2 n d b P + +
.. (2)
From equation (1),
nd
d
A
b . (3)
Substituting this into equation (2), we obtain,
2
1 2 n d nd
d
A
P + +
For the most economical section, the wetted perimeter must be minimum. That is;
0 1 2
2
2
+ +
n n
d
A
d
p
0 1 2
) (
2
2
+ +
+
n n
d
nd b d
2
1 2 n n
d
nd b
+ +
+

9
2
1
2
2
n d
nd b
+
+
2
1 2 2 n d nd b + +
as required.
Part b
600mm
450mm
(i)Area of flow is given by
[ ] sin
8
1
2
D A
Where is the angle subtended by the water surface at the centre of the pipe. The value of can be
computed as follows;
3
1
450
150
cos
The value 150 is the difference between the water depth and the radius of the pipe.
Hence,
1
]
1

3
1
cos
1
0
52 . 70
The required angle is given by
[ ]
0
94 . 218
057 . 141 360
2 52 . 70 360

In radians,
821 . 3
180
94 . 218
0
Radians
Therefore area of flow
10

[ ]
2
2
4505 . 0
94 . 218 sin 821 . 3 9 . 0
8
1
m

Hydraulic radius is given by
m
D R
262 . 0
821 . 3
94 . 218 sin
1 9 . 0
4
1 sin
1
4
1
1
]
1

1
]
1

From the Chezy formula,
mi AC Q
0824 . 54
013216 . 0 4505 . 0
322 . 0
013216 . 0 4505 . 0 322 . 0
1500
1
262 . 0 4505 . 0 322 . 0

C
C
C
Substituting in the expression for C,
n
Km C
6 . 67
262 . 0
0824 . 54
262 . 0 0824 . 54
6 / 1
6 / 1

K
K
When the conduit is flowing full, the hydraulic radius and area of flow are slightly different from the ones
above. That is;
m
P
A
m
m d P
m d A
2249 . 0
8274 . 2
636 . 0
8274 . 2 9 . 0
636 . 0 9 . 0
4 4
2 2 2

4.5m
Velocity of flow is computed from Darcy Weisbach Friction loss equation. i.e.
11
gd
flv
h
l
2
4
2
But f can be obtained from a relationship between C and f as follows.

0067 . 0
0824 . 54
81 . 9 2 2 2
2 2

C
g
f
f
g
C
Hence
5 . 4
9 . 0 81 . 9
3600 0067 . 0 2
2
4
2 2

v
gd
flv
h
l
s m v
v
/ 907 . 0
47 . 5
5 . 4
5 . 4 47 . 5
2

Hence discharge is computed from
s m AV Q / 577 . 0
4
9 . 0 907 . 0
3
2

Question four
a) Explain, with examples, what you understand by the following;
i. Steady uniform flow
ii. Steady non-uniform flow
iii. Unsteady uniform flow
iv. Unsteady non-uniform flow
b) Briefly discuss the following concepts of stable channel design.
i. Critical tractive force concept
ii. Maximum permissible mean velocity
c)An open channel of economic trapezoidal section with sides at 60
o
to the horizontal is required to give a
discharge of 10m
3
/s when the slope of the bed is 1 in 1600. Calculate the dimensions of the cross section
assuming v=74 i
1/2
m
2/3
Solution
Part a
Steady uniform flow. In this kind of flow, flow Conditions (velocity, pressure and cross section) do not
change with position in the stream or with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant
diameter at constant velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not change with
time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet - velocity will change as
you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
12
Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will
change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a
constant rate which is then switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time
at every point. For example waves in a channel.
Part b
Critical tractive force concept
This refers to the force exerted by the flow on the wetted area of the channel.the average unit force is
called the average shear stress and is given by
0 0
gRs
This stress is not uniformly distributed but depends on the shape of the channel shape as shown in the
figure.
This is the maximum tractive force that a flow can exert on the without causing scour.
During the design of stable channels, it should be ensured that this critical force is not exceeded. If it is
exceeded, the erosion of the channel bed will occur.
Shear stress distribution
Maximum permissible mean velocity concept
This is the greatest flow velocity that is possible without occurrence of scour. It depends on boundary
material, sediment load and depth of flow.
In the design of stable channels, it must be ensured that the flow velocity is kept below the maximum
permissible velocity.
Part c
For a channel of optimum section, the following relationships hold.
2
1 2 2 n d nd b + +
Hydraulic radius m=d/2.. (1)
Slope of the channel
n s
o
577 . 0
60 tan
1
13
nd nd
d 60
o
1
b n
From Mannings equation,
0135 . 0 74
1
1
2 / 1 3 / 2

N
N
i m
N
v
2 / 1 3 / 2
1
i Am
N
Q ..(2)
[ ] b a h A +
2
1
[ ] nd b b d A 2
2
1
+ +
[ ] nd b d A +
nd n d b 2 1 2
2
+
[ ] n n d A +
2 2
1 2
[ ]
2
2 2
732 . 1
577 . 0 577 . 0 1 2
d
d
+
Combining the last expression with equations (1) and (2) we obtain
1600
1
2
732 . 1 74
3 / 2
2
1
]
1

d
d Q
14
And,
822 . 1 577 . 0 2 577 . 0 1 822 . 1 2
2
+ b

[ ]
m 1 . 2
577 . 0 1545 . 1 644 . 3

The dimensions of the channel are therefore
Depth=1.82m & width b=2.1m
Question Five:
Solution
(a)Water flow downstream of a sluice gate is supercritical with depth
1
d . A hydraulic jump causes
subcritical conditions with depth
2
d . If the Froude Number before the jump is
1
Fr , show that
2
d can
be computed from
1
]
1
+ 1 8 1
2
2
1
1
Fr
d
(b)A hydraulic jump occurs downstream of a sluice gate of width 15.5m.
The initial depth is 1.22m and the velocity is 18.2m/s. determine;
i. Initial and conjugate depth Froude Number
ii. The energy dissipated in the jump
Part a
Consider the following sketch.
Sluice gate
V2
V1 F2
F1
Pressure forces due the flowing water are computed as follows.
15
m d
d
d
882 . 1 955 . 4
955 . 4
722 . 80
400
722 . 80 400
8 3
3 / 8
3 / 8

2
1 1 1 1
2
1
) 1 (
2
1
gd d gd F
2
2 2 2 2
2
1
) 1 (
2
1
gd d gd F
Net force causing flow is the difference between the two forces. That is;
[ ]
2
2
2
1 2 1
2
1
d d g F F
[ ][ ]
2 1 2 1
2
1
d d d d g + [ ][ ]
2 1 2 1
2
1
d d d d g +
Rate of momentum change [ ][ ]
2 1 2 1
2
1
d d d d g + [ ]
1 2
V V Q
But from continuity principle,
2 2 1 1
V A V A AV Q
2
2
1
1
&
d
Q
V
d
Q
V
Substituting in the equation above,
1
]
1
1
]
1
2 1
2 1 2
1 2
2
1 1
d d
d d
q
d d
q
[ ][ ]
1
]
1

+
2 1
2 1 2
2 1 2 1
2
1
d d
d d
q d d d d g
[ ]
1
]
1
+
2 1
2
2 1
1
2
d d
q d d g
2
2 1 2
2
1
2
2
d d d d
g
q
+
0
2
2
2
2 1 2
2
1
+
g
q
d d d d
This is a quadratic equation in either
1
d or
2
d . Solving for
2
d using the quadratic formula, it follows
that
16
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
4
2
1
2 gd
q
d
d
d +
g
v d
d
d
2
1 1
2
1
1
8
2
1
2
+ +
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
8
2
1
2 gd
v d
d
d
+ +
g
v d
d
d
2
1 1 2
1
1
8
2
1
2
+ +
1
2
1 1 1
8 1
2 2 gd
v d d
+ +
But upstream Froude number is given by
1
1
1
gd
v
Fr
2
1
1 1
8 1
2 2
Fr
d d
+ +
1
]
1
+ 1 8 1
2
2
1
1
Fr
d
as required
Part 4b
Given:
1
d =1.22m, channel width=15.5m, s m V / 2 . 18
1

Required:
Initial and conjugate depth Froude Number
Energy dissipated in the jump
Initial and conjugate depth Froude Number
From the definition of Froude Number,
gd
v
Fr
Hence,
17
1
1
1
gd
v
Fr
On substitution, we obtain;
22 . 1 81 . 9
/ 2 . 18
1
1
1

s m
gd
v
Fr
26 . 5
Therefore initial Froude number is 5.26.
To compute the conjugate Froude we need conjugate depth first from the following relation
[ ] 1 8 1
2
2
1
1
2
+ Fr
d
d
On substitution we obtain;
[ ] 1 26 . 5 8 1
2
22 . 1
2
2
+ d
m d 49 . 8
2

From continuity equation, it follows that;
49 . 8 5 . 15
2 . 18 22 . 1 5 . 15
2
1 1
2
2 2 1 1

A
V A
V
V A V A q
s m/ 62 . 2
298 . 0
49 . 8 81 . 9
/ 62 . 2
1
2
2

s m
gd
v
Fr
Energy dissipated in the jump
This is computed from the expression

22 . 1 49 . 8 4
) 22 . 1 49 . 8 (
4
) (
3
2 1
3
1 2

d d
d d
H m 27 . 9
18
Question Six:
A rectangular channel 1.2m wide has a uniform slope of 1 in 1600 and a normal depth of 0.6m when the
flow rate is 0.72m
3
/s. When a sluice gate is lowered; the upstream depth is increased to 1m. Determine the
distance upstream from the sluice gate where the depth is 0.8m.
Solution
Given:Q=0.72m
3
/s, b=1.2m, y=0.05m,
1600
1
o
S Mannings Coefficient (n) =0.015 (assumed)
The length of the backwater curve is computed from the formula
gd
v
i i
x
d
b
2
1

(1)
Where
b
i =channel bed slope
i =water surface slope

Interva
l
i
I
Depth
Range
i i
y y
+1
Avera
ge
Depth
y
Flow
Area
by A

Wette
d
Perim
eter
y b P 2 +
Hydra
ulic
Radius
P
A
R
Flow
Veloci
ty
A
Q
v
Froude
gy
v
F
2
2
Chann
el
Slope
4
10
o
S
Energy
line
Slope
4
2
1 0
3
2

,
_
R
V n
S
e
e o
S S
F
dy
dx
2
1
i i
y y y
+1
(m)
y
dy
dx
x
(m)
X
(m)
1 1.00-
0.95
0.975 1.17 3.15 0.3714 0.6154 0.0396 6.25 3.192 3140.6
0
0.05 157.03 157.03
0
2 0.95-
0.90
0.925 1.11 3.05 0.3639 0.6486 0.0464 6.25 3.643 3657.8
4
0.05 182.89
2
339.92
2
3 0.90-
0.85
0.875 1.05 2.95 0.3560 0.6857 0.0548 6.25 4.193 4595.0
4
0.05 229.75
2
569.67
4
4 0.85-
0.80
0.825 0.99 2.85 0.3474 0.7273 0.0654 6.25 4.873 6787.2
0
0.05 339.36
1
909.05
19
Sketch of the Back Water Curve
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Horizontal Distance along River (m)
W
a
t
e
r

D
e
p
t
h
/
S
t
a
g
e

(
m
)
Distance Upstream at with water depth is 0.80m (x) = 909.035 m
Sluice gate

Water Surface
20
Question seven
Local authorities in Mbarara have decided that the only way to increase agricultural production in the
district in by investing in irrigation. An investor has been identified to develop an irrigation scheme in the
district. You have been appointed the design engineer and you have identified River Rwizi as the most
economical source of water for thr scheme though it carries considerable amounts of sediment.
(a)Using an illustration, discuss the modes of transportation of sediment in a river
(b)Define the following terms as applied in sediment transport
i. Porosity
ii. Critical shear stress
(c)You have identified two possible locations for intakes to the irrigation system on river rwizi. One is on a
straight section of the river while the second is on the outer bend.Giving reasons,propose the most
economical intake site.
(d)The irrigation canal is to carry 3m
3
/s through soil consisting of coarse alluvial gravel with D50 size of
5cm. the canal is to be laid along a line having a slope of 0.01 and it may be assumed that the banks will be
grassed and protected from scour. Find the width of the canal.
Answer
(a)Sediment transport in rivers occurs basically in three forms. The total sediment load comprises the three
forms which are;
Bed load
This consists of heavy, coarser, denser material and/or particles which are dragged along the bed of the
channel. The transportation of bed load is therefore significantly influenced by the channel bed
characteristics of channel bed form and skin friction. The analysis of bed load transport hinges a lot on
these two phenomena. Movement of this load is characterized by saltation (rolling and jumping) and
traction (sliding).
Suspended load
This is the part of total sediment load that is suspended form and is carried by the bulk of the flowing fluid.
It is as a result of the agitation of fluid turbulence. It consists of lighter, fine materials. Transport is above
the channel bed and therefore effects of flow velocity (turbulence, laminar) and properties such as
buoyancy play a significant role in the analysis of this mode of transport. However, this type of load tends
to deposit over the bed though without continuous contact with the bed.
Wash load
The very thin particles of the wash-load are dominated by the current and don't encounter the bed.
The three modes are illustrated in the diagram below.
21
Part b
i. Porosity
This is the percentage of pore space in the total bulk volume of sediment. It is given by
Porosity= (bulk volume-Grain volume )100%
Bulk volume
ii. Critical shear stress
Flowing water exerts a shear stress on the bed of an estuary, i.e. it imposes a force on the bed material in
the direction of flow. The faster the water velocity, the greater the shear stresses. When the shear stress at
the bed just exceeds a certain value required for initiation of motion, sediment particles will begin rolling
and/or sliding whilst remaining in continuous contact with the bed. This is called critical shear stress.
Part c
The most economical site should be along the straight portion of the river. This is because of the river
dynamics that develop as a result of a bend in flow. A short explanation of these phenomena now follows.
If the water flowing in a stream meets an obstacle, its channel is deflected slightly to avoid this obstacle.
This causes the stream to develop a bend, which in turn disturbs the flow pattern of that river. Under
normal conditions, a stream attains its maximum velocity at the center of the channel, but in the presence of
22
an obstacle, the maximum velocity occurs closer to the outer bend of that channel, whereas closest to the
obstacle that caused the channel to bend, the stream velocity is lowest. This causes the stream to erode on
the outside of each bend and deposition on the inside. Erosion on the outside of the bend results in
deepening and widening the stream channel in those areas, forming a cut bank , whereas deposition on the
inside of the bend has the opposite effect, and the stream floor develops a slip off slope close to the point
bar. The net effect of these two processes is the migration of the river bends to the outside (laterally) as
well as downstream due to vertical erosion. These phenomena would significantly interfere with the
functioning intake structures. It would require desilting and scour protection measures.
On the straight portion, these processes of erosion and deposition are minimal and hence, there is little or
no need for frequent desilting and scour prevention. This makes the site ideal for the location of the intake
structures.
(d) From shields curve, to prevent scour, the following equations must be satisfied.
400 ,
4
1
>
n
R D
And
056 . 0
) 1 (
0
S
S D
RS
0
056 . 0
) 1 (

S
S D
RS
056 . 0
) 1 (

S
S D
RS
056 . 0
) 1 65 . 2 (

D
RS
RS RS D 11 822 . 10
m
S
D
R 454 . 0
01 . 0 100 11
5
11

Mannings constant n is computed from,
02 . 0
30
) 100 / 5 (
30
6 / 1 6 / 1
n
D
Hence, the velocity is computed as;
23
2 / 1 3 / 2
1
S R
n
v
02 . 0
) 01 . 0 ( ) 454 . 0 (
2 / 1 3 / 2
v
s m v / 953 . 2
Assuming first that the channel is wide,
d R
width m q sec/ / 34 . 1 953 . 2 454 . 0
3

Hence required width is,
m b 24 . 2
34 . 1
3

24
Question 8:
A hydropower scheme has been proposed for Bujagali in a bid to bridge ugandas power deficit.the
power plant will be situated 1,100m above sea level at Bujagali falls about 8 kms, north of lake Victoria,
the source of the Nile. The plant is a low-pressure river power plant. The vertical drop is 30m and total
installation capacity is 250MW. The main element of the project is a rock fill dam of 850m with an
asphalted core. The volume for this is 750,00m
3
. The plant will also have a power station with four
turbines and a spillway with gates. Other elements are control/service building and switchyard and
100km transmission line to Kampala and Owen falls with two substations.
a) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of hydropower as compared to other sources of energy.
b) Hydropower is known to a renewable energy source though it still faces a lot resistance form
environmental conservation groups. Outline some of the key points in defense of and against
development of Bujagali hydropower scheme.
c) Briefly discuss some of the key components of a hydropower scheme
Answer
a) Advantages of Hydropower over other Sources
Hydropower is the most efficient energy source to use in terms of both actual efficiency being 85% and it is
the most environmentally friendly. One of the major advantages of hydropower is the fact that it is cost-
efficient. This is because the fuel, being water is a natural resource. By not being required to use fossil
fuels, the earths natural water cycle replenishes the fuel supply.
Unlike fossil fuels, hydropower energy does not produce any greenhouse gases as well as any other air
pollutants. Also, it leaves no waste behind and does not get ruined during the production of electricity
therefore it is able to be used again for other functions.
Hydropower energy is also beneficial because it is extremely abundant. There are rivers all around us and
most are appropriate for dam constructing. Also, water is not under the mercy of foreign suppliers; so there
is no need to worry about unstable prices, transportation issues, or other issues dealing with foreign trade.
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Another reason hydropower energy is beneficial is due to the fact it is convenient because it is able to react
instantly to the instability of demand. The gates of a dam may be opened or closed on demand, depending
on daily use or gradual economic growth in the community. Since people use less energy at night, the
production of hydroelectricity is reduced. When a facility is in use there is no water wasted because it
returns undamaged to carry on the cycle.
In addition to all of these benefits of hydropower energy, one that is sometimes forgotten about is that the
reservoir of water from the dam, which is stored energy, can support fisheries and preserves, and provide
various forms of water-based recreation for locals and tourists. Many hydroelectric companies open their
land for public hiking, hunting, and skiingcontributing to local communities.
All of these benefits of hydropower energy have made it the principal source of renewable energy.
Hydropower energy accounts for 20% of all the electricity used worldwide. By using hydropower energy,
we would be rescuing our environment from all pollutants fossil fuels produce causing a thinning ozone
layer, global warming, acid rain, and contaminated ground water.
a) Disadvantages of Hydropower
Hydroelectricity is an extremely clean source of power in comparison to the traditional fossil fuels,
because it is renewable, there is no fuel combustion involved, emissions of items that are harmful to the
environment such as carbon dioxide and methane are much less, in fact they are virtually non-existent.
Economically, after the initial cost of building the dams it is one of the cheapest renewable fuel sources
currently known to man.
There are however many side effects of hydroelectric power that are harmful to people and the surrounding
environment.

Disruption of the Culture of many communities By building the gigantic dams, many people
can be displaced. All of these people lose land that not only they have worked hard to cultivate but
their ancestors have as well. They are forced to move into cities that are already overcrowded.
Safety A major concern regarding hydropower Dams is the safety of the surrounding citizens.
Even with advances in technology, there is still the risk of the dam cracking or breaking. Because
of the pressure of so much water on the dam, there is an increased risk of earthquakes.
Earthquakes, even if they are minor, can cause the dam to crack or break. Again, this would cause
major flooding as well as possible landslides. If a catastrophe like this were to occur the number
of lives lost would be huge
Deforestation While this is one of the lesser environmental problems associated with
hydropower, it is still eminent. Because of changes in the climate associated with the Dam, as
well as the numerous citizens who will need new places to live, many forests will be cut down.

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Water pollution - By damming a river, it will turn it into an extremely deep and large reservoir
thus creating potential for a large buildup of silt. This will cause the water levels to increase, the
toxic substances and pollutants from the land will be released into the water, thus contaminating it.
The contamination of the water has many effects on things such as animal life. Because of the
contamination, the water temperature is likely to increase due to more light infiltration. With a
temperature change and an increased light penetration due to stratification, it would produce
plankton blooms, which triggers the start of eutrophication. The total productivity of the river
increases until the nutrients are depleted.

Local Climate Changes Large bodies of standing water such as reservoirs can affect the climate.
The humidity is often the first thing to change. In most places, it increases due to evaporation.
This then leads to an increase in fog thus affecting the local plant and animal life.

Fish Migration Natural Rivers are normally home to many different species of fish. By building
Dams on these rivers, many of these fish are going to be affected. This could cause the extinction
of several endangered species, as well as drastically reduce the numbers of fish.

b) (i) Arguments in favour of Bujagali development
It will increase the available hydropower in the country thus speeding up the governments energy
policies such as rural electrification
It will contribute significantly to the countrys economy through foreign exchange from power
export to neighboring countries
The problem of power supply interruptions due to insufficient power to meet demand will be
minimized
Availability of adequate power for rural electrification will help improve the quality of life of the
majority of Ugandans
Its construction will offer employment to the locals hence providing a temporary means of
livelihood. Operation and maintenance will be an additional source of employment
It will reduce the stress on the existing structures at Owen Falls and hence enhance sustainability
The reservoir created upstream the dam could be used for recreation and thus improve the quality
of life for the local populace.
Support the countrys industriasation policy by offering cheap, reliable, source of power
Make electricity affordable by balancing the market forces of demand and supply
(ii) Negative environmental Impacts of Bujagali Dam
The dam would be built 8 miles below two other large dams, the existing Owen Falls Dam and the Owen
Falls Extension .The project is expected to "catalyze" further hydro development along the Nile, up to six
27
more dams on the Nile. The cumulative impacts of the existing dams are unknown, since there was never a
full EIA for either of the Owen Falls projects, and no post-construction monitoring.
Social Impacts: According to AES' "draft final" environmental impact assessment (1999), Bujagali Dam
would permanently displace 820 people, and affect an additional 6,000. Replacement land is practically
non-existent in the area; hence those displaced will be left permanently poorer as a result of the project.
The project will permanently submerge highly productive agricultural land as well as islands supporting
valuable natural habitats. The changes to the river morphology could permanently harm fisheries. The area
around Bujagali Falls supports a substantial number of subsistence and commercial fisherman, who depend
on the resource for both food and income.
According to the Uganda Parliamentary Research Centre, "The developer handled the issue of resettlement
and compensation very lightly in the case of the Bujagali hydropower project .The resettlement plan was
not available and there was no program for it."
Tourism: The project will also drown Bujagali Falls, a national treasure. The Source of the Nile corridor is
one of the most spectacular river stretches in the world used for rafting. Whitewater rafting is the biggest
draw for foreign tourists in Uganda. Tourism is the second largest source of foreign exchange in Uganda,
earning the country over $90 million annually. The opportunity cost in terms of revenue from tourism that
will be lost to a dam at Bujagali was essentially ignored in the Bujagali planning documents.
Hydrologic Risk: A major concern is the dams hydrological risk. The project design is based on
optimistic flow assumptions, which means the projected electricity output may be overstated. The project's
power purchase agreement (PPA) reportedly is written so that Uganda assumes most of the risks of reduced
flow, forcing Uganda to buy a set amount of power even if the dam is unable to produce its full output.
Since the region is expected to endure increasingly severe droughts due to climate change, and because
there is major disagreement on how much flow the Nile reliably can be expected to produce, the project is
considered quite risky compared to other hydro options.
Another serious risk for the project is that the primary customer for its power, the Uganda Electricity Board
(UEB), has a poor record for collecting payments and its performance after World Bank-instigated
privatization remains unknown. While the proposed Bujagali dam assessment presently considers UEB as
the power off-taker, a fully privatized sector in which ideally multiple distribution companies will act as
off-takers is crucial to the sustainability of the project." However, such a private sector does not currently
exist.
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The possibility that electricity demand projections are exaggerated is another risk. In more than 100
national demand forecasts used by the World Bank, actual demand seven years after the forecasts were
made was on average one-fifth lower than had been projected.
c) Components of a hydropower scheme
1. Reservoir
A place where water is stored
Usually a lake
2. Dam
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Raises the water level of the river to create falling water
Controls the flow of water
Forms a reservoir of stored energy
3. Intake
Pulls the water through the penstock to the turbine
4. Penstock
A pipeline that leads to the turbine
Brings water from the reservoir to the turbine
5. Turbine
The falling water from the dam causes the turbine blades to spin
Converts kinetic energy of the falling water to mechanical energy
6. Generator
Connected to the turbine by shafts
Spins when the turbine spins
Converts mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy
7. Transformer
Takes the energy generated by the generator and converts it to a higher-voltage current
8. Transmission/Power lines
Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and businesses
9. Outflow
Used water is carried through pipelines, so it can re-enter the river downstream

30
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Hydraulic Engineering Assignment One

But f can be obtained from a relationship between C and f as follows.

i =water surface slope

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