Ue Techbook

FORGED HARDENED STEEL ROLLS SERVICE PROBLEMS CAUSES AND PREVENTION
UNION ELECTRIC STEEL CORPORATION

Union Electric Steel Corporation was founded in 1923 as a manufacturer of forged steel products. Since 1930, Union Electric Steel has made forged steel rolls our sole product. This specialization has made Union Electric Steel the recognized world leader in the forged steel roll market. Leadership in the highly technical field of roll manufacturing is achieved only through a focused plan of continuous improvement. The basis of this plan is firmly rooted in an extensive research and development program. Union Electric Steel is continually developing new chemistry and heat treatment combinations to provide new products with increased value for the ferrous and non-ferrous industries. Our global customer base is served by a highly trained staff of Sales Engineers. Practical and innovative problem solving is the core of our customer service program. Training seminars provide an ongoing education of current developments in both roll technology and roll maintenance. Union Electric Steel provides the roll user with not only the highest level of technology, but also an unparalleled level of after-sales service.
Copyright 1999 Union Electric Steel Corporation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NUMBERS I. INTRODUCTION 5
II.
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS A. B. C. D. E. INCLUSION ORANGE PEEL ROLL MARK BRUISE FIRE CRACKS 1. 2. HOT MILL WORK ROLL COLD MILL WORK ROLL 21 22 - 29 7-8 9 - 10 11 - 14 15 - 20
III.
SPALLING A. B. SURFACE INITIATION SUB-SURFACE INITIATION 1. 2. MATERIAL QUALITY CONTACT STRESS a. b. c. d. GENERAL MECHANISM COLD MILL WORK ROLLS HOT MILL WORK ROLLS BACK-UP ROLLS 53 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 67 68 - 73 50 - 52 31 - 49
PAGE NUMBERS IV. NECK BREAKAGE A. FATIGUE 1. SURFACE INITIATION a. 2. NECK STRESS CALCULATION 75 - 81 77 - 79
SUB-SURFACE INITIATION a. ROLL DESIGN or MATERIAL QUALITY 80 - 85 86 - 89
3. B.
NECK REPAIR
INSTANTANEOUS 1. 2. MATERIAL QUALITY MILL OVERLOAD 90 - 91 92 - 94
V.
BODY BREAKAGE A. B. FATIGUE INSTANTANEOUS 1. 2. MILL OVERLOAD MATERIAL QUALITY 99 - 100 101 - 102 95 - 97
VI.
ROLL INSPECTION A. B. C. D. E. F. EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION ETCH TESTING MAGNAFLUX TESTING HARDNESS TESTING
103 105 - 106 107 - 112 113 - 115 116 - 118 120 - 121 122 - 126
PAGE NUMBERS VII. ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE 127
VIII. ROLL NOMENCLATURE
129
IX.
REFERENCES
131
INTRODUCTION
The performance characteristics of rolls in service are critical to mill productivity and to the quality and acceptance of the rolled products. Rolls also represent a significant investment and input to a value analysis of cost per ton rolled. The purpose of this investigation is to present a summary of service problems encountered with forged hardened steel rolls and provide the following analysis: - Type of service problem - Characteristics - Examples (photographs, illustrations) - Mechanism - Prevention
Nondestructive testing (NDT) of forged rolls is important to both the roll manufacturer and the roll user. NDT is employed by the roll manufacturer to verify that both the surface and the interior of the roll are acceptable prior to hardening and subsequent to the finish machining operations. End-user roll shops utilize NDT to ensure that grinding removals are adequate for restoration of the roll surface prior to further usage. Common NDT methods and their application are also included as a guide for optimizing roll maintenance procedures. Roll handling and storage is also a factor that can impact premature roll problems. Guidelines for proper movement and placement of rolls are listed. Roll nomenclature is described as an aid in communication of roll problems and their location. In the event of a roll problem, it is recommended that the following applicable steps be taken by the roll user: Roll Spalls/Breakage - Collect all pieces of the fracture and protect them from oxidation. Roll Records - Review current and past history for abnormal conditions (mill incidents, grinding removals, length of mill campaign). - Document (photograph) prior to removal. - Verify calibration and proper testing procedure. - Notify the roll manufacturer for assistance and review of the roll manufacturing history.
Surface Indications NDT Communication
INTRODUCTION
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS

II. ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS A. B. C. D. E. INCLUSION ORANGE PEEL ROLL MARK BRUISE FIRE CRACKS 1. 2. HOT MILL WORK ROLL COLD MILL WORK ROLL 21 22 - 29 7-8 9 - 10 11 - 14 15 - 20
CATEGORY: TYPE:
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION
CHARACTERISTICS Typical inclusions that are visible on the roll surface are irregular in shape with the major axis in the longitudinal direction. Their length can be in the range of 0.05 mm (0.002) to 5 mm (0.020). The hole left in the roll surface after removal of the included material is rough in appearance. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Exogenous inclusion on the roll surface (50X).
EXAMPLE 2 Close-up of the exogenous inclusion shown in Example 1 (200X).
MECHANISM Inclusions that are visually detectable are normally exogenous in nature. The source material can range from refractory, slag or other external materials entrapped during ingot solidification. Indigenous inclusions require the aid of a microscope for detection. This type of inclusion is inherent in the steel making process and can be classified according to its composition (sulfide, aluminate, silicate or oxide).
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION
PREVENTION Prevention of inclusions is the responsibility of the roll manufacturer. Inclusions are inherent in all steels, however, their size and multitude can be reduced through identification and control of critical melting variables. The probability for an irregularity to exist in the material after solidification can be reduced by changing from electric arc furnace vacuum degassed material to ESR (Electroslag Remelt) material.
CATEGORY: TYPE:
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL (WOOD GRAIN, INGOTISM)
CHARACTERISTICS Orange peel can be characterized as a textured wood grain pattern or differential roughness that develops on the roll body during a campaign. The surface finish highlights the dendritic pattern developed during solidification. This pattern is located over the entire rolling surface and usually appears after a significant amount of stock removal. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Roll exhibiting an orange peel pattern on the rolling surface.
EXAMPLE 2 Roll exhibiting an orange peel pattern on the rolling surface.

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ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL
MECHANISM This degree of ingotism or dendritic pattern can be associated with either minimal forge reduction or an excessive amount of stock removal from the original roll diameter (cut down rolls). The dendritic macrostructure of the roll material can be described as a tree-like structure of almost pure iron. The iron rich dendrites are softer (lower in hardness) than the alloy rich areas between them. The friction induced on the roll surface during rolling will wear down the softer dendrites faster than the alloy rich zones forming the textured surface. Insufficient lubrication during mill service can accelerate the development of orange peel.
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL
PREVENTION The development of orange peel can be delayed through the use of sufficient lubrication of the roll surface during rolling. Orange peel can be further prevented through proper forge reduction during new roll processing and scheduling appropriate cut down candidates.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARK (PIN-HEADS, PITS, BUTTONS AND HOLES)
CHARACTERISTICS Roll marks are characterized as random localized indentations, typically round, with a maximum diameter of approximately 3 mm (0.125) and a depth of 0.08 mm (0.003). The surface finish or texture of the roll is typically retained within the indentation. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 (ref.1) Three dimensional optical interferometer plot of a roll mark on the surface of a roll.
EXAMPLE 2 (ref. 1) Two dimensional optical interferometer plot of a roll mark on the surface of a roll. Note the retention of the surface finish within the indentation.
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ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS
EXAMPLE 3 (ref. 1) Three dimensional optical interferometer plot of a roll mark imprinted on the surface of the strip. ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS
EXAMPLE 4 Arrows highlight typical roll marks on the surface of a roll.
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EXAMPLE 6 Close-up view of the roll mark shown in Example 5 revealing the retention of the surface roughness within the impression (50X). Arrows highlight the edges of the impression on the surface.
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ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS
EXAMPLE 5 Circle highlights a typical roll mark on the surface of a roll.
MECHANISM Roll marks are generated as debris enters either the roll bite or the work roll/back-up roll (intermediate roll - 6 hi mills) contact zone. The size of the particles required to mark the work rolls within the roll bite would have to be greater than the gauge of the product being rolled. As particles become trapped within the bite or the work roll/back-up roll contact zone, stresses can develop in excess of 100,000 psi, causing the particle to indent the work roll or both the work roll and the back-up roll. Potential sources of the debris include grit, weld spatter, scale and the incoming strip quality. With continued mill service, roll marks can initiate surface cracks that propagate radially and circumferentially until spalling occurs (see Spalling - Surface Initiation)
PREVENTION Roll marks can be prevented by the following: Identification and elimination of the mill debris source. ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS Increased work roll hardness/depth of hardness. Increased hardness difference between the work roll and the back-up roll (intermediate roll - 6 hi mills).
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE (SOFT SPOT, PINCH MARK)
CHARACTERISTICS An area on the roll surface that exhibits a softened condition (lower hardness) than the remainder of the roll surface. Detection methods include eddy current inspection, hardness testing, acid etching and shot blasting. These areas typically have fire cracks within the bruised area (see Roll Surface Indications - Fire Cracks). In extreme cases, the bruise may also contain a hardened condition and a tempered color (blue/brown).
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Grinding wheel bump mark after etching and Rockwell Hardness testing. The light area is 7 HRc points harder than the base material (re-hardened). The dark area is 11 HRc points softer than the base material (re-tempered). The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
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ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE
MECHANISM A bruise occurs in mill service when the local temperature exceeds the tempering temperature the roll was subjected to during processing. The tempering temperature is set to establish the roll hardness. In general, the higher the tempering temperature, the lower the roll hardness. Therefore, a bruise is created when the local temperature exceeds the tempering temperature of the roll, which reduces the hardness within the bruised (re-tempered) area. A change in specific volume also occurs when martensitic steel is hardened (BCC > BCT). During tempering and re-tempering, contraction occurs with increasing temperature (see Figure 1 below). This contraction can cause fire cracking within the bruise (see Roll Surface Indications - Fire Cracks). With continued mill service, the fire cracks can propagate inward and spalling is inevitable (see Spalling - Surface Initiation).
FIGURE 1 Dimensional changes that occur during heat treatment of the roll body.
PREVENTION Some of the potential heat sources for manifestation of a bruise are: grinding wheel bump marks, strip breaks, skids, mill wrecks (metal wrap or metal weld), non-uniform spray cooling, variation in gauge of product being rolled, coolant temperature and mill speed. Avoiding any one of these potential causes will reduce the occurrence of bruises being formed on the roll surface. Use of softer rolls (higher tempering temperatures during processing) is a consideration for mills with a high incidence rate for the above problems.
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF BRUISES
EXAMPLE 2 Evidence of bruising (localized over tempering) resulting from heat induced during a mill wreck where a metal wrap was involved. The dark areas are softer than the surrounding base metal. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent. ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE EXAMPLE 3 Evidence of bruising resulting from friction heat induced on the roll surface during a skid. The dark area is softer than the surrounding base metal. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
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EXAMPLE 4 Arrows highlight the location of bruising resulting from friction heat induced on the roll surface during a skid. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
EXAMPLE 5 Evidence of bruising resulting from friction heat induced on the roll surface by foreign particles being dragged across the roll surface. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
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EXAMPLE 6 Evidence of bruising resulting from friction heat induced on the roll surface by a foreign particle being dragged across the roll surface. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
EXAMPLE 7 Close-up of the bruise shown in Example 6. Note the presence of longitudinal fire cracks within the bruise.
19
EXAMPLE 8 Arrow highlights the location of a small bruise manifested on the roll surface during an aggressive grinding operation. The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
EXAMPLE 9 Evidence of bruising resulting from heat induced on the roll surface during a mill wreck where metal wrap was involved. The numbers written on the surface indicate the hardness difference between the bruised areas and the parent metal (measured in HLd). The surface was etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
20
CATEGORY: TYPE:
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS (STRESS CRACKS)
CHARACTERISTICS Fire cracks range in appearance from small (1 mm, 0.040), tight longitudinal cracks to various patterns (crazing, dry river bed) and densities depending on the mill operation and cause (hot mill/cold mill). Typically, fire cracks are also associated with areas of bruising (see Roll Surface Indications - Bruise). EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Evidence of fire cracking on an aluminum hot mill work roll.
21
ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS
EXAMPLE 2 Evidence of fire cracking on the surface of a spall from a cold mill work roll.
MECHANISM A bruised area (see Roll Surface Indications - Bruise) is the first stage for the generation of a fire crack. Non-uniform stress within the bruise is created as the re-tempered martensite contracts from the surrounding roll material. A fire crack (stress crack) is initiated as the bruise undergoes stress relief. With continued mill service, fire cracks can propagate radially and circumferentially into the roll until spalling occurs (see Spalling - Surface Initiation). Thermal shock (spalling resulting from rapid heating and cooling of the roll body surface), a more severe form of fire cracking, occurs in an instantaneous manner. Thermal shock is usually associated with a mill induced metal wrap (metal weld) where the heat generated on the roll surface is large enough to instantly result in cracking and spalling.
PREVENTION Avoiding the conditions that create a bruise or result in thermal shock will reduce the possibility of fire cracks being formed on the roll surface.
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS
EXAMPLE 3 Evidence of fire cracking on a cold mill work roll.
EXAMPLE 4 Arrows highlight a small fire crack that manifested within a small grinder burn (50X).
23
24
EXAMPLE 8 Fire cracks highlighted during dye penetrant inspection of a cold mill work roll.
25
EXAMPLE 9 Fire cracks highlighted during dye penetrant inspection of a cold mill work roll.
EXAMPLE 10 Fire cracks highlighted during dye penetrant inspection of a cold mill work roll. Notice the cracks to be circumferentially in line with a spall that occurred.
26
EXAMPLE 11 Evidence of spalling resulting from thermal shock (a severe form of fire cracking) that manifested during a mill wreck where metal wrap was involved.
EXAMPLE 12 Evidence of spalling resulting from thermal shock that manifested during a mill wreck where metal wrap was involved.
27
EXAMPLE 13 Evidence of spalling resulting from thermal shock that manifested during a mill wreck where metal wrap was involved.
EXAMPLE 14 Close-up view of the thermal shock shown in above in Example 13 showing a typical nondistinct fracture face.
28
EXAMPLE 15 Evidence of spalling on an aluminum hot mill work roll that manifested from thermal shock that occured during a cobble.
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SPALLING
III. SPALLING A. B. SURFACE INITIATION SUB-SURFACE INITIATION 1. 2. MATERIAL QUALITY CONTACT STRESS a. b. c. d. GENERAL MECHANISM COLD MILL WORK ROLLS HOT MILL WORK ROLLS BACK-UP ROLLS 53 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 67 68 - 73 50 - 52 31 - 49
CATEGORY: TYPE:
SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION (FATIGUE PATH, WRECK PATH, WAGON TRACKS)
CHARACTERISTICS Surface initiated spalling can be identified by the presence of a fatigue wreck path on the fracture face. The fatigue path is marked as a circumferential path of fracture that can in some cases be visually traced back to the surface. The distinguishing characteristics of a fatigue path are the typical fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) and the fan shaped fracture flow lines on the fatigue fracture face. A fatigue path can range in length from a few inches to several complete laps around the roll circumference and sometimes has a shiny (rubbed) or dark (oxidized) appearance. The surface initiation point is typically associated with a thermally initiated crack (fire crack - see Roll Surface Indications - Fire Cracks) or a crack from a mechanically initiated indication (roll mark - see Roll Surface Indications - Roll Mark). The direction of fatigue wreck path propagation is opposite to the direction of roll rotation. Radial crack propagation is characteristic of a reversing mill application. EXAMPLES
31
SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION
EXAMPLE 1 The above figure diagrams the steps involved in surface initiated spalling. It should be pointed out though that initiation does not necessarily need to come from a bruised and fire cracked area. Fatigue cracks can initiate at any point on the surface where stress is concentrated. For example: roll marks, inherent non-bruise related surface cracks, gouges etc.
EXAMPLE 2 Fire cracks on a roll surface (stages 1-3).
EXAMPLE 3 Transverse view of a surface initiated spall (stage 4). Cracking can be seen propagating radially and circumferentially from the rolling surface (rolling surface highlighted with arrows). The direction of crack propagation is opposite to the direction of roll rotation.
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EXAMPLE 4 Fatigue path evident after spalling occurred (stages 5 and 6).
EXAMPLE 5 Fatigue path evident on a portion of a spall fracture face. Large arrow highlights typical fatigue arrest mark (beach mark). Small arrow highlights direction of fatigue propagation.
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EXAMPLE 6 Close-up of a fatigue path fracture face. Note fracture flow lines in a fan type pattern. In this case the fatigue arrest marks are present but not as evident due to the speed of fatigue propagation. Arrow highlights the direction of fatigue propagation. MECHANISM Surface initiated spalling occurs in several distinct stages (see example 1). Stages 1 to 3 - A crack is induced on the roll surface. This crack can be the result of a bruise (as discussed in Roll Surface Indications - Bruise and illustrated in Example 1) or a non-bruise related surface crack. Roll marks, gouges etc. can create surface cracks by acting as stress concentration factors. With each roll revolution, the entire roll surface cycles between states of high tensile stress to states of high compressive stress. Any concentration of stress at a single point could result in the development of a surface crack. Stage 4 - With each revolution, the crack propagates radially and circumferentially via a fatigue mode through the transition zone (depth of hardness). Stage 4 is noted by the presence of a radial and circumferential fatigue path showing distinct arrest marks and fan type fracture flow lines. Stage 5 - The crack continues to propagate circumferentially in the sub-surface transition zone. Stage 5 is noted by the continuation of the circumferential fatigue path showing distinct arrest marks and fan type fracture flow lines within the fatigue path. Stage 6 - The yield strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that spalling occurs. Stage 6 can occur any time between stage 4 and 5 depending on the material strength of the roll and the induced rolling stresses. This final stage of fracture is instantaneous and brittle in nature and can be noted by fibrous fracture flow lines originating from the fatigue path on the fracture face.
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PREVENTION Surface initiated spalling can be prevented by the following: Avoid mill related surface damage such as bruises, cracks, roll marks, gouges or any surface indication that may act as a stress concentration factor. If the induced rolling stresses are high compared to the material strength of the roll, it is possible for surface crack initiation, propagation and spalling to occur all within a single campaign. Shorter campaign times along with reduced rolling pressures could prevent surface indications, that are induced during a single campaign, from initiating into fatigue paths before they are removed during the grinding operation. Sufficient stock removal during the grinding operations to insure that any surface damage induced during the last campaign is eliminated. Consistent use of eddy current and ultrasonic inspection techniques on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. This will insure that every roll that is returned to the mill for service is free of any surface damage that may initiate a fatigue path.
FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FATIGUE PATHS
EXAMPLE 7 Arrow highlights a fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred.
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EXAMPLE 8 Arrow highlights the location of a fatigue path evident after spalling occurred.
EXAMPLE 9 Close-up view of the initiation site for the fatigue path shown above in Example 8. Arrow highlights a portion of the surface crack that initiated the fatigue path.
EXAMPLE 10 Side view of the fatigue path shown in Example 8. Arrows highlight the radial and circumferential path of propagation from the surface into the rolls interior.
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EXAMPLE 11 Transverse view of a surface initiated spall from a reversing cold mill work roll. Cracking can be seen propagating radially and circumferentially (in both directions) from the rolling surface (rolling surface highlighted with arrows).
EXAMPLE 12 Arrow highlights a fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred.
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EXAMPLE 13 In some cases, the fatigue path cannot be initially seen after spalling occurs, but is hidden by a bridge surrounded longitudinally by one or two cone shaped-spalls.
EXAMPLE 14 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after removal of the bridge shown above in Example 13.
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EXAMPLE 15 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Arrow highlights the direction of fatigue propagation.
39
EXAMPLE 17 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred.
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EXAMPLE 19 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Arrows highlight the direction of fatigue propagation.
EXAMPLE 20 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Small arrows highlight the direction of fatigue path propagation. Large arrows highlight general fatiguing away from the fatigue path.
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EXAMPLE 22 Small fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred.
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EXAMPLE 23 Large arrows highlight dual fatigue paths evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Small arrows highlight the direction of fatigue propagation.
EXAMPLE 24 Dual fatigue paths evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Arrows highlight the direction of fatigue propagation.
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EXAMPLE 25 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Small arrow highlights the direction of fatigue propagation. Large arrow highlights the indication on the surface where fatiguing initiated.
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EXAMPLE 26 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Large arrow highlights the location where radial fatiguing from the surface ended. Small arrows highlight the direction of longitudinal fatiguing away from the radial fatigue path.
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EXAMPLE 29 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Large arrow highlights the location where radial fatiguing from the surface ended. Small arrows highlight the direction of longitudinal and circumferential fatiguing away from the radial fatigue path.
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EXAMPLE 30 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Arrows highlight the direction of fatigue propagation.
EXAMPLE 31 Large arrow highlights a fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Small arrow highlights the direction of fatigue propagation.
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EXAMPLE 32 Fatigue paths evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred. Arrows highlight the direction of fatigue propagation.
EXAMPLE 33 Fatigue path evident on the fracture face after spalling occurred.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION - MATERIAL QUALITY RELATED (DEEP SEATED DEFECT DSD, FISH EYE)
CHARACTERISTICS Sub-surface initiated spalling resulting from poor material quality can be identified by the presence of a concentric fatigue pattern (fish eye) on the fracture face. The fatiguing can be seen initiating from a single point with fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) emanating in an oval pattern away from the initiation site. The fatigue arrest lines are only associated with the deep seated material indication (DSD) and not with any other sources (eg. wreck paths). This fatigue pattern should not be confused with surface initiated fatiguing (see Spalling - Surface Initiation) which appears as a fatigue wreck path. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Typical fracture face of a subsurface fatigue spall initiating from a material defect. Small arrow highlights the initiation site as a small material defect. Large arrow highlights a fatigue arrest mark (stage 1). Instantaneous brittle fracture flow lines can also be seen emanating from the outer fatigue arrest mark (stage 2).
SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION
50
MECHANISM During solidification, it is possible for an irregularity to become entrapped within the ingot. This irregularity can be anything from refractory, slag, localized segregation, porosity etc. These irregularities can then act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. Spalling resulting from a sub-surface material defect occurs in two distinct stages: Stage 1 - When the localized stress induced during rolling at these irregularities exceeds the fatigue strength (but not the tensile strength) of the material, fatigue cracks initiate and propagate away from the initiation site. The fatigue arrest marks propagate in all directions away from the initiation site usually within a single plane of propagation. Stage 2 - The strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that spalling occurs. This final stage of fracture is instantaneous and brittle in nature and can be noted by fibrous fracture flow lines originating from the outer fatigue mark on the fracture face.
PREVENTION Spalling resulting from a sub-surface defect can be prevented by the following: Identification and control of critical melting variables by the roll manufacturer to reduce the possibility of an irregularity existing in the ingot after solidification. Changing from electric arc furnace vacuum degassed material to ESR (Electroslag Remelt) material for high productivity mill applications. The ESR process reduces the probability for an irregularity to exist in the material after solidification. Ultrasonic inspection techniques using a straight beam transducer on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. If accurate inspection records on every roll are maintained, rolls with sub-surface indications which are initiating fatigue can be identified and removed from service before they spall.
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF DSD SPALLS
EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of a fatigue spall that originated from a subsurface material defect. Arrow highlights the location of the fatigue initiation site.
EXAMPLE 3 Close-up view of a typical fracture face of a fatigue spall that originated from a subsurface material defect. Arrow highlights the fatigue initiation site. SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION - CONTACT STRESS (CRUSHING)
GENERAL MECHANISM Due to the applied mill load and the localized flattening of the rolls at their contact point, the maximum resultant shear stress (commonly referred to as Hertzian Stress) is located at a short distance below the roll surface (Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the stress condition). Cracks at multiple locations can initiate and propagate at that sub-surface location when the Hertzian Stress exceeds the compressive strength of the roll. This can occur via two modes: (1) Instantaneously; by a sudden increase in the Hertzian Stress. This occurs when work rolls wrap, skid or stop suddenly. The Hertzian Stress increases dramatically and can easily exceed the compressive strength of the roll. Sub-surface cracks can then form instantaneously and with further cycling of rolling stresses, propagation via a fatigue mode can occur and spalling is probable. In extreme cases of excessive contact stress, subsurface cracks can both initiate and propagate to spalling instantaneously. (2) High Cycle Fatigue Fracture; this mode of sub-surface crack initiation occurs more commonly in back-up rolls and usually occurs without mill incidents. Typically, this type of fatigue fracture is described as a crumbly type spall that manifests from cracks that initiate beneath the roll surface over time. This is readily explainable by a typical S-N fatigue graph where the number of cycles to failure is on the order of 1 million. Repeated application of stress lower than the inherent material strength of the roll can lead to crack initiation if the number of stress applications is sufficient. High cycle contact stress fatigue spalls initiate in many locations within the stressed area as very small cracks oriented parallel to the tangent of the roll surface. Repeated cycling of stress then propagates these cracks toward the surface until spalling occurs. In some cases, the contact stress fatigue cracks can begin to propagate radially and circumferentially, forming a fatigue wreck path and spalling is inevitable (See Spalling Surface Initiation). A number of factors contribute to produce contact fatigue spalls including: length of time in the mill, stock removal, rolling pressures and work roll to back-up roll diameter differential.
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FIGURE 1 (ref. 2)
FIGURE 2 (ref. 2)
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CONTACT STRESS SPALLS CONTINUED COLD MILL WORK ROLLS
CHARACTERISTICS Contact stress spalling can occur on cold mill work rolls via both modes described previously. Instantaneous - This mode can be characterized as an area that appears crushed and does not show any distinct initiation site.
High Cycle Contact Stress Fatigue Fracture - This mode has different characteristics depending on whether the stress was located on the body or the body edge. Roll Body - High cycle fatigue fracture on the work roll body is usually not directly responsible for the spalling that occurs. In this case, the contact stress fatigue cracks that form below the surface do not propagate towards the surface but rather propagate radially and circumferentially forming a fatigue wreck path. It is this mode of crack propagation that eventually causes spalling to occur (see Spalling - Surface Initiation). High cycle contact stress fatigue is difficult to diagnose when it occurs on a work roll body because the cracks that initiated the fatigue wreck path are not readily seen on the fracture face but are hidden in the sub-surface. Roll Body Edge - High cycle contact stress fatigue fracture on the work roll body edge can be present as a small crumbly type fatigue spall. The crumbly fatigue spall is usually located at the contact point between the work roll and back-up roll body edge, strip edge or at the work roll body edge. The crumbly spall is usually small in area and no greater than 0.150 deep. In many cases, a fatigue wreck path originating from the area of contact stress fatigue is also present (see Spalling - Surface Initiation).
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EXAMPLES OF CONTACT STRESS SPALLING IN WORK ROLLS INSTANTANEOUS
EXAMPLE 1 Arrows highlight the fracture face of a work roll body edge that spalled instantaneously. In this case, the contact stresses applied to the body edge were large enough to exceed the compressive strength of the material and subsurface crack initiation and propagation occurred instantaneously.
EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of a work roll body edge that spalled instantaneously. In this case, the contact stresses applied to the body edge were large enough to exceed the compressive strength of the material and subsurface crack initiation and propagation occurred instantaneously.
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EXAMPLES OF CONTACT STRESS SPALLING IN WORK ROLLS FATIGUE
EXAMPLE 1 Fracture face from a portion of spall that occurred on the body of a cold mill work roll. Arrow highlights the initiation site associated with high cycle contact stress fatigue. Note the presence of several distinct fatigue wreck paths originating from the area of contact stress fatigue.
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EXAMPLE 2 Transverse view of the spall shown in Example 1. Arrow highlights the high cycle contact stress fatigue cracks that were formed below the surface.
EXAMPLE 3 Network of high cycle contact stress fatigue cracks present in the sub-surface of the spall shown in Example 1.
EXAMPLE 4 Cold mill work roll exhibiting a body edge spall.
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EXAMPLE 5 Fracture face of the body edge spall shown in Example 4. Note the distinct fatigue wreck path responsible for the major portion of spalling. Arrow highlights the direction of fatigue propagation. SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION
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EXAMPLE 6 Close up of the fatigue wreck path initiation point that resulted in the spall shown in Example 4. Arrows highlight small crumbly spalls associated with high cycle contact stress fatigue. The fatigue path can be seen initiating from the area of high cycle contact stress fatigue spalling.
EXAMPLE 7 Cold mill work roll exhibiting a body edge spall initiating from the edge of the bevel.
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EXAMPLE 8 Cold mill work roll exhibiting crumbly contact stress fatigue spalling on the body edge.
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EXAMPLE 9 Cold mill work roll exhibiting plastic deformation resulting from contact stress that exceeded the compressive yield strength.
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MECHANISM Instantaneous Contact Stress Spalling: As was described in the General Mechanism section of Contact Stress Spalling, the maximum resultant shear stress is located a short distance below the surface. A sudden mill stop, or a skid in extreme circumstances, can cause the maximum resultant shear stress to exceed the compressive strength of the roll. This sudden rise in shear stress can cause sub-surface cracks to form instantaneously. In extreme cases, the contact stress is severe enough to cause the subsurface cracks formed to also propagate to spalling instantaneously.
High Cycle Contact Stress Fatigue: Body - Due to the high hardness, high cycle contact stress fatigue on a work roll body is usually the result of a point load being induced on the roll. This point load can be a small piece of grit stuck in the roll bite, a strip weld being passed through the roll bite or anything that would act to concentrate stresses at a single point on the roll body. If the stress is greater than the compressive strength of the material small cracks can initiate in the sub-surface which over time propagate via a fatigue wreck path mode and spalling is inevitable. Body Edge - Areas on the work roll body such as the strip edge, contact zone between the work roll and the back-up roll edge or the body edge act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. With each revolution of the roll, if the maximum resultant shear stress , located just below the roll surface (see General Mechanism section of Contact Stress Fatigue), exceeds the compressive fatigue strength of the material, cracks will form at that location. Further stress cycles will propagate the cracks toward the surface where small crumbly spalling then occurs. In many cases, fatigue wreck paths will initiate at locations where sub-surface contact stress fatigue cracks have formed. The fatigue wreck path can then propagate radially and circumferentially until the strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that large spalling occurs.
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PREVENTION
Instantaneous Contact Stress Spalls Avoid mill incidents such as skids, mill wrecks, metal wrap etc. High Cycle Contact Stress Fatigue Several steps can be taken to prevent the occurrence of high cycle contact stress fatigue on cold mill work rolls: Avoid increases in maximum resultant shear stress above the compressive fatigue strength of the roll by the passing of grit or welds etc. through the roll bite. Ultrasonic inspection techniques using a dual probe (pitch/catch) and surface wave transducer on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. This will insure that every roll that is returned to the mill for service is free of both surface and sub-surface cracks. Sufficient stock removal during the grinding operation to either assure the removal of any cracks formed in the sub-surface or to relocate those cracks further away from the zone of maximum resultant shear stress. Relocating the cracks will subject them to a lower stress state where they will be less likely to propagate. Shorten campaign times to decrease the number of stress cycles the roll is subjected to. Repeated application of stress above the compressive fatigue strength of the roll will lead to sub-surface crack initiation if the number of stress cycles is sufficient enough. Reduce the rolling pressures to reduce the maximum resultant shear stress. Develop a surface profile (work roll/back-up roll crowning practice) to insure a uniform contact stress pattern along the entire work roll/back-up roll (intermediate roll) contact zone. Change the roll design from a body bevel to a body radius to reduce the stress concentration on the roll body edge. Change the back-up roll body edge design to a body radius and proper relief (approximately 0.5) to reduce the stress concentration on the work roll body at the point of contact between the work roll and the back-up roll body edge.
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CONTACT STRESS SPALLS CONTINUED HOT MILL WORK ROLLS (THERMAL PITTING)
CHARACTERISTICS Contact stress fatigue spalling on hot mill work rolls can be characterized as small pits that may be random or clustered on the roll body at areas of stress concentration. Individual pits can exhibit evidence of fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) and erosion on the rolling surface of the spall. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Hot mill work roll exhibiting contact stress fatigue in the form of thermal pitting on the roll body surface.
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EXAMPLE 2 Close-up view of the thermal pitting condition exhibited by the hot mill work roll shown in Example 1.
MECHANISM In 4-high mills, thermal pitting typically initiates at a sub-surface location defined by the maximum shear stress (see General Mechanism section of Contact Stress Fatigue). During rolling, any one point on the hot mill work roll surface will cycle between high temperatures (when in contact with the hot strip surface) and low temperatures (when cooled with the sprays). As the material cycles in temperature, it undergoes dimensional changes. Cracks formed at the sub-surface location of maximum shear stress can then propagate, via fatigue resulting from the thermally induced dimensional changes, along shear planes both toward the surface and deeper into the roll until the strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that spalling occurs. Surface initiated thermal pitting can also occur in 2 high mills where cracks form at the roll surface and propagate via fatigue into the interior until spalling occurs. Foreign material (oxide) sticking to the roll surface can accelerate the pitting process by a localized increase in the contact stress.
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PREVENTION Thermal pitting of hot mill work rolls can be prevented by the following: Proper selection of roll material (alloy), heat treatment and hardness to optimize the thermal fatigue strength of the roll material. Use of scratch brushes to clean the roll surface and prevent debris from entering the work roll/back-up roll contact zone where a localized increase in the maximum shear stress can occur. Use of spray cooling to insure proper coverage of the roll body. Nonuniform and/or inadequate spray cooling can lead to excessive heating of the roll body during service and increase the probability of thermal fatigue spalling in the affected area. Chrome plating the roll body to improve the lubricity and resistance to oxide pickup Ultrasonic inspection techniques using a dual probe (pitch/catch) and surface wave transducer on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. This will insure that every roll that is returned to the mill for service is free of both surface and sub-surface cracks. Sufficient stock removal during the grinding operation to either assure the removal of any cracks formed in the sub-surface or to relocate those cracks further away from the zone of maximum resultant shear stress. Relocating the cracks will subject them to a lower stress state where they will be less likely to propagate. Shorten campaign times to decrease the number of stress cycles the roll is subjected to. Repeated application of stress above the compressive and thermal fatigue strength of the roll will lead to sub-surface crack initiation if the number of stress cycles is sufficient enough. Reduce the rolling pressures to reduce the maximum resultant shear stress.
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CONTACT STRESS SPALLS CONTINUED BACK-UP ROLLS
CHARACTERISTICS Instantaneous contact stress spalling does not normally occur on back-up rolls but high cycle contact stress fatigue is quite common. The high cycle contact stress fatigue spalling can occur at any location of the roll body and usually has a crumbly spall appearance. Due to the lower hardness of the back-up roll, the crumbly spalls are usually larger and their appearance is usually more enhanced compared to work roll high cycle contact fatigue spalls. The subsurface contact stress fatigue cracks can go unnoticed for quite sometime before being exposed to the surface (spall). The only way to detect subsurface contact stress fatigue cracks prior to spalling is through the use of straight beam ultrasonic inspection using a dual probe (pitch/catch) transducer. Fatigue wreck paths can, in extreme cases, be seen originating from areas of high cycle contact stress fatigue (see Spalling - Surface Initiation). EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Back-up roll exhibiting a crumbly high cycle contact fatigue spall.
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EXAMPLE 2 Close-up of the crumbly high cycle contact fatigue spall shown in Example 1. The bottom of the pits is the location beneath the roll surface where cracks initiated and then propagated toward the roll surface.
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EXAMPLE 3 Close-up view of a high cycle contact fatigue spall that was located in the center of a back-up roll body. Arrow highlights area of crumbly high cycle contact fatigue spalling. Note the fatigue path initiating from the sub-surface cracks.
MECHANISM The mechanism for high cycle contact stress fatigue in back-up rolls is as described in the General Mechanism section of Contact Stress Fatigue. Spalling occurs wherever the maximum resultant shear stress, located below the roll surface, exceeds the compressive fatigue stress of the material. The most common locations for high cycle contact stress fatigue on back-up rolls are the crown in the center of the body, the roll body edge and the contact point between the back up roll and the work roll body edge. These areas can act as stress concentration factors during rolling and can significantly increase the maximum resultant shear stress below the surface.
PREVENTION High cycle contact stress fatigue in back-up rolls can be prevented by the following: Ultrasonic inspection techniques using a straight beam dual probe (pitch/catch) and surface wave transducer on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. This will insure that every roll that is returned to the mill for service is free of both surface and sub-surface cracks. Sufficient stock removal during the grinding operation to either assure the removal of any cracks formed in the sub-surface or to relocate those cracks further away from the zone of maximum resultant shear stress. Relocating the cracks will subject them to a lower stress state where they will be less likely to propagate. Shorten campaign times to decrease the number of stress cycles the roll is subjected to. Repeated application of stress above the compressive fatigue strength of the roll will lead to sub-surface crack initiation if the number of stress cycles is sufficient enough. Reduce the rolling pressures to reduce the maximum resultant shear stress. Increase the hardness of the back-up roll to increase the fatigue strength. If contact stress fatigue spalling is occurring later in the rolls life, an increase in the depth of hardness by proper selection of grade and heat treatment will increase the fatigue strength at reduced diameters. Change from a standard bevel to a body radius or relief taper design to reduce the stress concentration at the contact zone between the back-up roll and the work roll body edge. This design would also reduce the stress concentration at the back-up roll body edge. Reduce the amount of body crown to reduce the maximum resultant shear stress at center of the body. SPALLING SUB-SURFACE INITIATION
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF CONTACT STRESS FATIGUE SPALLING OF BACK UP ROLLS
EXAMPLE 4 Back-up roll exhibiting an extreme case of crumbly high cycle contact fatigue spalling.
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EXAMPLE 5 Back-up roll exhibiting crumbly high cycle contact fatigue spalling at the location of contact between the back-up roll and the edge of the work roll.
EXAMPLE 6 Back-up roll exhibiting crumbly high cycle contact stress fatigue spalling at an improperly shaped edge relief. The sharp edge ground into the roll profile near the body edge acted to concentrate stress at that location. In this case, the spalling condition could be eliminated by grinding a tapered relief instead of a sharp change in diameter.
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EXAMPLE 7 Back-up roll exhibiting crumbly high cycle contact stress fatigue spalling located at the body bevel.
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NECK BREAKAGE
IV. NECK BREAKAGE A. FATIGUE 1. SURFACE INITIATION a. 2. NECK STRESS CALCULATION 75 - 81 77 - 79
SUB-SURFACE INITIATION a. ROLL DESIGN or MATERIAL QUALITY 80 - 85 86 - 89
3. B.
NECK REPAIR
INSTANTANEOUS 1. 2. MATERIAL QUALITY MILL OVERLOAD 90 - 91 92 - 94
CATEGORY: TYPE:
NECK BREAKAGE FATIGUE - SURFACE INITIATION (ROTATING BENDING FATIGUE, RATCHET MARKS)
CHARACTERISTICS The fracture face of rotating bending fatigue is characterized as exhibiting multiple fatigue ratchet marks initiating from the surface, oriented perpendicular to the neck surface tangent. The areas between the ratchet marks sometimes have visible fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) propagating from the surface toward the center of the neck. Ratchet marks are the result of multiple fatigue initiation points. In some cases where fatiguing initiates at a single point, fatigue arrest marks will be visible on the fracture face in a widened tear drop pattern with the point being at the neck surface. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Fracture face of a neck that broke due to surface initiated rotating bending fatigue. Large arrows highlight some of the fatigue ratchet marks. Small arrows highlight the fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) and their direction of propagation.
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NECK BREAKAGE FATIGUE
MECHANISM Rotating bending fatigue is the result of the applied rolling stresses exceeding the material strength of the neck during roll service. During rolling, force is applied to the roll necks to create the rolling forces necessary to reduce the incoming strip. Therefore, every point on the roll cycles between tensile and compressive states of stress. The surface points of the neck, being located the farther from the centerline are subjected to the highest tensile and compressive states of stress. This stress can concentrate at different locations along the roll neck surface at changes in diameter or other surface indication is present. This is usually located in the form area where the rotating bending stresses are higher than any other location along the roll neck. If the rolling pressure applied to the necks exceeds the materials tensile fatigue strength at the point of stress concentration, circumferential surface crack(s) will form. These crack(s) will then propagate radially in the transverse plane via a fatigue mode until the strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that neck fracture occurs. Fatigue ratchet marks are created when multiple fatigue initiation sites exist. Fatiguing propagates radially in the transverse plane until the edges of the propagating cracks meet. The minute longitudinal difference in location is then compromised and a ratchet mark is formed.
PREVENTION Neck breakage resulting from rotating bending fatigue can be prevented by the following: Increase the rolls material strength to resist crack initiation and propagation. The material strength can be increased by several means. If the cracks are formed near the body end face, special heat treating practices can be employed to raise the hardness of the neck past the body end face. The material strength can also be increased through alteration of the pre-hardening heat treatment of the roll. Review the roll design to avoid small fillets and corners adjacent to the body which will increase stress concentration in the zone of maximum bending stress. A separate or integral ring design should also be considered. Reduce the rolling pressures to reduce the applied bending stress. The rotating bending stress along the neck is influenced by the location of stress application. Apply the rolling pressure closer to the roll body to reduce bending stresses along the roll neck. The neck design and material strength, in conjunction with the applied mill loads should be considered to avoid crack initiation and propagation. The text on the following pages covers the calculation of bending stresses and the maximum resultant shear stresses induced on the roll neck during mill service (ref. 3 and ref. 4)
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ROLL NECK STRESS CALCULATION Shearing Stresses In A Roll Neck - Ss: When a torque is applied to one end of a roll neck, a shear stress (Ss) exists at all points on that roll neck. In addition to these stresses, elongation of the outer fibers due to twisting causes longitudinal tension over the outer half of the transverse cross section and longitudinal compression over the inner half of the transverse cross section. The maximum shear stress that can be sustained by the roll material before rupture is given by: Ss = 16 T Kt/( d3) Where: T = Torque (inch pounds) Kt = Stress Concentration Factor (defined below) d = Roll Neck Diameter (inches)
Bending Stresses In A Roll Neck- Sb: When a radial force is applied to a roll neck, as in the case of back-up rolls (work rolls in a two-high mill) or by the application of roll bending forces to achieve control of flatness of the rolled product, cyclical bending stresses are introduced into the roll neck. The maximum bending stress in the outer fiber of the roll neck cross section at the location of maximum resultant bending stress (usually located in the form/fillet area) is given by: Sb = 10.19 P L Kb/d3 Where: P = L = Kb = d = Applied Load (pounds) Lever Arm (inches) Form/Fillet Stress Concentration Factor (defined below) Roll Neck Diameter (inches)
Maximum Resultant Shear Stress - SMax: The maximum resultant shear stress due to bending and torsion is given by: Smax = (0.25 Sb2 + Ss2)1/2
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ROLL NECK STRESS CALCULATION Stress Concentration Factor - Kt and Kb: The stress concentration factor is a function of the following parameters: d h = Roll Neck Diameter = body diameter - neck diameter 2 = Form/Fillet Radius
Figures 1 and 2 can be used to determine the stress concentration factors Kt and Kb.
FIGURE 1
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ROLL NECK STRESS CALCULATION
FIGURE 2
Safety Factor - Sf: The safety factor is a ratio of the yield strength of the roll material to the maximum resultant shear stress. The minimum desired value for Sf is 2.0.
Yield Strength - Y.S.: The yield strength is an indication of the maximum stress that can be developed in a material without causing plastic (permanent) deformation. Note: The yield strength of a material in a state of shear is approximately half the yield strength in a state of tension
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FATIGUE NECK BREAKAGE
EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of a neck that broke due to surface initiated rotating bending fatigue. Arrows highlight some of the fatigue ratchet marks.
EXAMPLE 3 Close-up view of a neck that fractured due to rotating bending fatigue. Large arrows highlight some of the fatigue ratchet marks. Small arrows highlight the fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) and their direction of propagation.
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FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FATIGUE NECK BREAKAGE
EXAMPLE 4 Fracture face of a neck that broke due to single point rotating bending fatigue. Large arrow highlights the initiation point on the roll surface. Small arrow highlights a typical fatigue arrest mark.
EXAMPLE 5 Fracture face of a neck that broke due to single point rotating bending fatigue. Arrow highlights the initiation point on the roll surface.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
NECK BREAKAGE FATIGUE - SUB-SURFACE INITIATION ROLL DESIGN OR MATERIAL QUALITY (DEEP SEATED DEFECT DSD, FISH EYE)
CHARACTERISTICS Sub-surface fatigue can initiate from either a point of poor material quality (deep seated defect) or from a portion of the roll design (blow off hole), and is identified by the presence of an oval fatigue pattern (fish eye) on the sub surface portion of fracture face. The fatiguing can be seen initiating from a single point with fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) emanating in an oval pattern away from the initiation site. This fatigue pattern should not be confused with surface initiated fatiguing (see Neck breakage - Surface Initiation) which appears as either fatigue ratchet marks or a fatigue tear drop with the point at the surface. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Neck surface exhibiting a circumferential crack running through the groove for a blow off hole.
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EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of the neck shown in Example 1. Fatigue arrest marks can be seen initiating in the sub-surface from the longitudinal portion of the blow off hole. Arrow highlights typical fatigue arrest mark.
EXAMPLE 3 Fracture face of a neck that broke as a result of sub-surface fatigue initiation from a deep seated defect. Arrow highlights the area of fatiguing that occurred prior to fracture.
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EXAMPLE 4 Close-up of the fracture shown in Example 3. Arrow highlights the area of poor material quality (deep seated defect). Typical fatigue arrest marks can be seen initiating from the deep seated defect.
MECHANISM During solidification, it is possible for an irregularity to become entrapped within the ingot. This irregularity can be anything from refractory, slag, localized segregation, porosity etc. These irregularities can then act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. Specific sub-surface roll design features, such as blow off holes, can also act as stress concentration factors Neck breakage resulting from a sub-surface stress concentration factor occurs in two distinct stages: Stage 1 - When the localized stress induced during rolling at sub-surface stress concentration sites exceeds the fatigue strength of the material, fatigue cracks initiate and propagate away from the initiation site. The fatigue arrest marks propagate in all directions away from the initiation site and usually within a single plane of propagation. Stage 2 - The strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that instantaneous fracture occurs.
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PREVENTION Neck breakage resulting from a sub-surface stress concentration factors can be prevented by the following: Identification and control of critical melting variables by the roll manufacturer to reduce the possibility of an irregularity existing in the ingot after solidification. Increase the material strength of the neck through a change in the pre-hardening heat treatment. Change the roll design to move design-induced sub-surface stress concentration factors away from areas of high neck bending stress such as the form area.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
NECK BREAKAGE FATIGUE - NECK REPAIR
CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of a fracture resulting from a neck repair are very similar to those described under the section for rotating bending fatigue (see Neck Breakage - Fatigue - Surface Initiation). The fracture face is characterized by multiple fatigue ratchet marks initiating from the surface, oriented perpendicular to the neck surface tangent. The areas between the ratchet marks sometimes have visible fatigue arrest marks propagating from the surface toward the center of the neck. Ratchet marks are the result of multiple fatigue initiation points. In some cases where fatiguing initiates at a single point, fatigue arrest marks will be visible on the fracture face in a widened tear drop pattern with the point being at the neck surface. The fatigue arrest marks can be viewed initiating from the point of a previous repair. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Arrow highlights a circumferential crack located at the bottom end of the form. This location was the site of a previous repair where the journals were machined and welded up to the bottom end of the form.
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EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of the neck shown in Example 1. Arrows highlight numerous fatigue ratchet marks initiating from the surface.
EXAMPLE 3 Longitudinal view of a neck that fractured at a previous weld repair. Large arrow highlights the location of fracture within the heat affected zone of the weld repair. Small arrow highlights a typical weld bead highlighted on the surface when etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
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EXAMPLE 4 Longitudinal view of a neck that cracked at a previous weld repair. Large arrows highlight the location of the crack close to the transition zone of the weld repair. Small arrow highlights a typical weld bead highlighted on the surface when etched with a 20% Nital reagent.
MECHANISM Rotating bending fatigue is the result of the applied rolling stresses exceeding the material strength of the neck during roll service. During rolling, force is applied to the roll necks to create the rolling forces necessary to reduce the incoming strip. Therefore, every point on the roll cycles between tensile and compressive states of stress. The surface points of the neck, being located the furthest from the centerline of the neck, are subjected to the highest tensile and compressive states of stress. This stress can concentrate at different locations along the roll neck surface at changes in diameter, previous repair or other surface indication is present. This is usually located in the form area where the rotating bending stresses are higher than any other location along the roll neck. If the rolling pressure applied to the necks exceeds the materials tensile fatigue strength at the point of stress concentration, circumferential surface crack(s) will form. These crack(s) will then propagate radially in the transverse plane via fatigue mode until the strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that neck fracture occurs. Fatigue ratchet marks are created when multiple fatigue initiation sites exist. Fatiguing propagates radially in the transverse plane until the edges of the propagating cracks meet. The minute longitudinal difference in location is then compromised and a ratchet mark is formed. Areas of previous repair are especially prone to rotating bending fatigue. Common repairs include welding, and under-cutting to remove mill damage. If areas like weld/parent metal interfaces and under-cuts are too close to highly stressed portions of the neck such as the form, the tensile fatigue strength of the material can easily be exceeded at these locations.
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PREVENTION Neck breakage resulting from rotating bending fatigue can be prevented by the following: Increase the rolls material strength to resist crack initiation and propagation. The material strength can be increased by several means. If the cracks are formed near the body end face, special heat treating practices can be employed to raise the hardness of the neck past the body end face. The material strength can also be increased through alteration of the pre-hardening heat treatment of the roll. If possible, locate repairs such as weld interfaces and under-cuts away from the form or other highly stressed portion of the neck. Reduce the rolling pressures to reduce the applied bending stress.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
NECK BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS - MATERIAL QUALITY (DEEP SEATED DEFECT DSD)
NECK BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS
CHARACTERISTICS Instantaneous neck breakage resulting from a deep seated defect typically occurs along the transverse plane. The fracture face can be characterized by fracture flow lines originating from a single interior point. Close examination of the fracture origin will not reveal any evidence of fatigue (fatigue arrest marks), indicating that cracking did not occur over a period of time, but occurred instantaneously. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Fracture face of a neck that broke instantaneously as a result of a deep seated defect. Arrow highlights the fracture initiation site.
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MECHANISM During solidification, it is possible for an irregularity to become entrapped within the ingot. This irregularity can be anything from refractory, slag, localized segregation, porosity etc. These irregularities can then act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. When the localized stress induced during rolling at subsurface stress concentration sites exceeds the tensile strength of the material, crack initiation and propagation will occur instantaneously. The loads required to exceed the tensile strength of the material are large compared to those required to exceed the fatigue strength. Therefore, a mill related incident where the typical rolling pressure applied to the neck is exceeded is usually required for fracture to occur in an instantaneous manner from a deep seated defect. It is more likely that under typical rolling conditions, fatigue fracture would occur before instantaneous fracture.
PREVENTION Instantaneous neck breakage resulting from a sub-surface stress concentration factor can be prevented by the following: Identification and control of critical melting variables by the roll manufacturer to reduce the possibility of an irregularity existing in the ingot after solidification. Avoid mill related incidents that result in a large increase in the pressure applied to the roll necks. Increase the material strength of the neck through a change in the pre-hardening heat treatment.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
NECK BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS - MILL OVERLOAD
CHARACTERISTICS NECK BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS Instantaneous neck fracture resulting from a mill overload typically occurs along the transverse shear (45 degree) plane. The fracture can be characterized as initiating at a single surface point with flow lines running from the initiation site across the entire fracture face. The fracture face of the interior in typically ductile in appearance. Close examination of the fracture origin will not reveal any evidence of fatigue (fatigue arrest marks), indicating that the fracture did not occur over a period of time, but occurred instantaneously. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Side view of an instantaneous neck fracture that occurred due to a mill overload.
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EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of the breakage shown in Example 1. Arrow highlights the surface initiation site. Note the ductile appearance of the fracture face.
EXAMPLE 3 Close-up view of the initiation site for the instantaneous neck fracture that shown in Example 1. Arrow highlights the surface initiation site.
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MECHANISM Instantaneous neck fracture typically occurs when a mill related incident dramatically increases the bending stresses applied to the roll necks. If the applied bending stress exceeds the material strength of the neck, instantaneous fracture will occur. Fracture initiates at a point on the roll neck surface where the bending stress is the highest (typically the form) and flows radially and longitudinally in the transverse shear plane.
PREVENTION: Instantaneous neck breakage resulting from a mill overload can be prevented by avoiding mill incidents where the applied bending stress is dramatically increased.
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BODY BREAKAGE
V. BODY BREAKAGE A. B. FATIGUE INSTANTANEOUS 1. 2. MILL OVERLOAD MATERIAL QUALITY 99 - 100 101 - 102 95 - 97
CATEGORY: TYPE:
BODY BREAKAGE FATIGUE (DEEP SEATED DEFECT DSD, FISH EYE)
CHARACTERISTICS Sub-surface fatigue initiated body fracture can be identified by the presence of an oval fatigue pattern (fish eye) on the fracture face. The fatiguing can be seen initiating from a single point with fatigue arrest marks (beach marks) emanating in an oval pattern away from the initiation site. Body fracture associated with deep seated defects is catastrophic in nature. The roll may in some severe cases completely split longitudinally and/or break up into several large pieces. EXAMPLES BODY BREAKAGE FATIGUE
EXAMPLE 1 Fracture face of a roll body exhibiting fatigue initiation from a deep seated defect. Arrow highlights the fatigue initiation site.
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BODY BREAKAGE FATIGUE
EXAMPLE 2 Close-up of the fatigue initiation point shown in Example 1. Large arrow highlights the initiation point. Small arrow highlights typical fatigue arrest mark.
EXAMPLE 3 Fracture face of a roll body exhibiting fatigue initiation from a deep seated defect. Arrow highlights the fatigue initiation site.
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MECHANISM During solidification, it is possible for an irregularity to become entrapped within the ingot. This irregularity can be anything from refractory, slag, localized segregation, porosity etc. These irregularities can then act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. Body fracture resulting from sub-surface fatiguing occurs in two distinct stages: Stage 1 - When the localized stress induced during rolling at sub-surface stress concentration factors (DSDs) exceeds the fatigue strength but not the tensile strength of the material, fatigue cracks initiate and propagate away from the initiation site. The fatigue arrest marks propagate in all directions away from the irregularity and usually within a single plane of propagation. Stage 2 - The strength of the surrounding material is reduced to such a degree that fracture occurs. This final stage of fracture is instantaneous in nature and can be noted by fibrous flow lines originating from the outer fatigue mark on the fracture face. BODY BREAKAGE FATIGUE
PREVENTION Body fracture resulting from sub-surface fatiguing can be prevented by the following: Identification and control of critical melting variables by the roll manufacturer to reduce the possibility of an irregularity existing in the ingot after solidification. Change from electric arc furnace vacuum degassed material to ESR (Electroslag Remelt) material especially for high productivity mills. The ESR process reduces the possibility for an irregularity to exist in the material after solidification. Ultrasonic inspection techniques using a straight beam transducer on every roll after completion of the grinding operation. If accurate inspection records on every roll are maintained, rolls with sub-surface indications which are initiating fatigue can be identified and can be removed from service before they fracture.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
BODY BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS - MILL OVERLOAD
CHARACTERISTICS Instantaneous roll body fracture resulting from a mill overload typically occurs along the transverse shear (45 degree) plane. The fracture can be characterized as initiating at a single surface point. The fracture face of the interior is typically ductile in appearance. Close examination of the fracture origin will not reveal any evidence of fatigue (fatigue arrest marks), indicating that the fracture did not occur over a period of time, but occurred instantaneously. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Side view of a roll that fractured instantaneously. Note the transverse shear (45 degree) plane of fracture. Arrow highlights the surface initiation site.
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BODY BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS
EXAMPLE 2 Fracture face of the roll shown in Example 1.
MECHANISM Instantaneous body breakage typically occurs when a mill related incident dramatically increases the stress applied to the roll body. If the applied stress exceeds the material strength of the roll body, instantaneous fracture will occur. Fracture initiates at a point on the roll surface where the stress is the highest and flows radially and longitudinally in the transverse shear plane.
PREVENTION Instantaneous body breakage resulting from a mill overload can be prevented by controlling mill loads and operating conditions to avoid abnormal stress concentration an the roll body.
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CATEGORY: TYPE:
BODY BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS - MATERIAL QUALITY (DEEP SEATED DEFECT DSD)
CHARACTERISTICS Instantaneous fracture of a roll body resulting from a deep seated defect typically occurs along the 180 degree longitudinal plane. The fracture face can be characterized by fracture flow lines originating from a single interior point. Close examination of the fracture origin will not reveal any evidence of fatigue (fatigue arrest marks), indicating that cracking did not occur over a period of time, but occurred instantaneously. EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 Close-up view of the initiation point for an instantaneous body fracture that resulted from a deep seated defect. Arrow highlights the initiation site associated with a deep seated defect.
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MECHANISM During solidification, it is possible for an irregularity to become entrapped within the ingot. This irregularity can be anything from refractory, slag, localized segregation, porosity etc. These irregularities can then act as stress concentration factors when the roll is put into service. When the localized stress induced during rolling at subsurface stress concentration sites exceeds the tensile strength of the material, crack initiation and propagation will occur instantaneously. The loads required to exceed the tensile strength of the material are large compared to those required to exceed the fatigue strength. Therefore, a mill related incident where the typical rolling pressure applied to the body is exceeded is usually required for fracture to occur in an instantaneous manner from a deep seated defect. It is more likely that under typical rolling conditions, fatigue fracture would occur before instantaneous fracture.
PREVENTION Instantaneous body breakage resulting from a sub-surface stress concentration factor can be prevented by the following: BODY BREAKAGE INSTANTANEOUS Avoid mill related incidents that result in a large increase in the pressure applied to the roll bodies. Identification and control of critical melting variables by the roll manufacturer to reduce the possibility of an irregularity existing in the ingot after solidification.
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ROLL INSPECTION
VI. ROLL INSPECTION A. B. C. D. E. F. EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION ETCH TESTING MAGNAFLUX TESTING HARDNESS TESTING 103 105 - 106 107 - 112 113 - 115 117 - 119 120 - 121 122 - 126
ROLL INSPECTION
Advances in nondestructive testing have improved the methods used by both the roll manufacturer and the roll shop to evaluate the quality of the roll material. The objective of a proper roll maintenance program is to detect the earliest stage of a roll problem and to prevent that roll from being returned to mill service unless corrective action is made. The general inspection methods that can be employed by a roll shop are eddy current, surface wave ultrasonic, dye penetrant, etch, magnaflux and hardness testing. With all of the inspection techniques available, the quickest, most accurate and reliable are the eddy current and ultrasonic inspection. When used together, all surface conditions that could be detrimental to the roll or the rolled product during mill service can be detected with 100% accuracy (Table 1). Dye penetrant, and etch testing have the benefit of being an inexpensive method for inspection, however, they are time consuming and not always 100% reliable, therefore, they should be used in conjunction with eddy current and ultrasonic inspection.
TABLE 1
Inspection Method Eddy Current Effective Radial Depth (1) Bruise/Soft Spot Surface Micro Cracks (<.006") Surface Macro Cracks (>.006") Sub-Surface Indications Residual Magnetism Work Hardening X X X Ultrasonic Pitch Catch Dual Probe 0-6"
Surface (2)
Straight Beam ROLL INSPECTION
0-.003" X
0-.050"
.5" -Bore
X X X X
(1)Function of equipment parameters (Frequency crystal, type crystal, probe design) (2) Circumferential Direction (3 scans required) Longitudinal Direction (2 scans required)
103
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION Eddy current testing is an inspection method for locating indications such as soft areas (bruises), wide cracks and magnetism and is performed after completion of the grinding operation. (Figure 1). While the roll is still in the grinder, a dual wire differential probe is brought close to the roll surface on one end of the roll body. With the roll rotating at a set speed, the probe is then slowly traversed across the entire length of the roll body. Synchronization of the traverse rate and roll RPM is designed to insure that every point on the roll surface is passed between the dual wires. As the probe traverses the roll body, eddy currents are induced on the roll surface between the wires by the application of an alternating current. Instantaneous changes in either the electrical conductivity or the path length between the wires can be detected and are displayed on two separate channels named the Pinch/Bruise channel and the Crack/Spall channel respectively. The specific procedures for performing eddy current inspection are dependent on the eddy current equipment used and is provided by the manufacturer. Changes in electrical conductivity are detected on the Pinch/Bruise channel and are the result of changes in hardness and microstructure between adjacent points on the roll surface. Areas of magnetism will also result in a continuous change in electrical conductivity between all adjacent points within the magnetized area. A gauss gauge (magnetic field indicator) can be used to confirm the presence of residual magnetism (>30 Gauss). Typical roll conditions that can yield changes in the electrical conductivity of the roll surface include but is not limited to: localized over tempering (bruise), localized work hardening, a roughly ground roll surface and inclusions where exogenous material is entrapped in the roll surface. These conditions are displayed on the Pinch/Bruise channel hard copy print out as individual spikes above the residual noise level or as large areas of grass that also exceed the residual noise level (Figure 2). Changes in path length are detected on the Crack/Spall channel and are the result of surface cracks. As the probe passes over a crack, the generated current must travel down the crack wall and back up the other side in order to reach the opposite wire. This difference in path length is then displayed on Crack/Spall channel as individual spikes (Figure 2). Eddy current inspection is unable to detect cracks less than 0.006 wide and is only semi-accurate at detecting cracks wider than 0.006. For accurate detection of all surface cracks, ultrasonic inspection should be used. ROLL INSPECTION
105
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION
FIGURE 1 Eddy current inspection being performed on a roll after completion of the grinding operation.
BRUISE CHANNEL
ROLL INSPECTION
Threshold
CRACK CHANNEL
Threshold
FIGURE 2 Example of a typical eddy current inspection chart record. Large arrows highlight typical spikes from a bruise on the roll surface. Small arrow highlights residual noise on the Pinch/Bruise channel. Medium size arrows highlight cracks displayed on the Crack/Spall channel.
106
SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION Surface wave ultrasonic inspection is performed using a transducer attached to a 90 surface wedge and is the most accurate method for detection of surface cracks. Surface wave ultrasonic inspection transmits high frequency sound waves around the circumference to detect conditions that reflect or absorb the sound waves. All interfaces will reflect or scatter the waves to some degree. This includes cracks, inclusions, grain boundaries and other discontinuities. Metal-to-air interfaces (cracks) reflect most of the sound wave while metal-to-solid interfaces (inclusions) partially reflect the sound waves. The reflected sound wave is then returned to the transducer and is displayed on the testing screen as a spike. The following is a basic procedure for performing the surface ultrasonic test: 1.0 Ultrasonic Inspection Technique Utilize the ultrasonic contact method based on the back reflection technique referenced in ASTM A388. 1.1 Ultrasonic Equipment 1.1.1 An ultrasonic pulse-echo type instrument shall be used to generate and display the ultrasonic signals. A contact search unit utilizing a piezoelectric material shall be used to transmit and receive the ultrasonic signals. A coaxial cable with appropriate adapters shall be used to connect the ultrasonic instrument and the search unit. A couplant shall be used to effectively transmit and receive the ultrasonic signals to and from the forged steel roll, typically oil, glycerin or water.
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.2
Ultrasonic Tests 1.2.1 Circumferential Surface Test This test is designed to detect longitudinal surface and shallow sub-surface indications. 1.2.2 Longitudinal Surface Test This test is designed to detect transverse surface and shallow subsurface indications.
107
ROLL INSPECTION
SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 1.3 Circumferential Surface Test 1.3.1 Search Unit Utilize a 2.25 MHz, 0.5 x 1.0 contact search unit with a 90 lucite wedge to generate the surface wave. 1.3.2 Prepare Roll Place the roll on machine centers, stands or V blocks with the supports located away from the roll body. Clean the body with a solvent if necessary and dry with a cloth or rag. 1.3.3 Apply Couplant Apply a thin, light band ( 1) of couplant on top of the body along the full body length. 1.3.4 Setup, Display and Sensitivity Setup on an area that has no relevant indications. Set the sweep line to represent a distance greater than 1/2 the circumference of the body with the initial pulse at the extreme left side of the screen. Place the search unit on the couplant and obtain a circumferential back reflection. Adjust the gain (dB) to obtain 1 full back reflection (100% amplitude). Adjust the sweep line to position the back reflection at the extreme right-hand side of the screen (Figure 1). 1.3.5 Conduct Test - First 180 Of The Rolls Circumference Place the search unit at one end of the body and direct the surface wave circumferentially. Traverse the length of the body along the couplant at less than 8 per second while maintaining 1 full back reflection (Figures 2 and 3). Monitor the screen for 100% back reflection amplitude. Locate and mark the indications for further evaluation and report documentation. 1.3.6 Conduct Test - Second 180 Of The Rolls Circumference Reverse the circumferential position of the search unit and repeat step 1.3.5 (Figure 2). 1.3.7 Conduct Test - Overlap Dead Zone Wipe the couplant from the roll body and reapply couplant approximately 90 from the original location. Repeat steps 1.3.5 and 1.3.6.
ROLL INSPECTION
108
SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 1.4 1.4.1 Longitudinal Surface Test - Roll Body Search Unit Same as 1.3.1.
1.4.2
Prepare Roll Same as 1.3.2.
1.4.3
Apply Couplant Apply a thin band ( 1) of couplant around the circumference (360) on the drive end of the roll body. Note: If the roll rotating mechanism is not available, apply on 1/2 of the circumference (180), reposition the roll and repeat.
1.4.4
Setup, Display and Sensitivity Same as 1.3.4 except set the sweep line to represent a distance greater than the body length. Place the search unit on the couplant and obtain a longitudinal back reflection (Figure 1).
1.4.5
Conduct Test - Drive End Place the search unit at the drive end of the body and direct the surface wave longitudinally. Traverse the circumference along the couplant at less than 8 per second while maintaining 1 full back reflection. Monitor the screen for 100% back reflection amplitude and any indications greater than 10% amplitude. Locate and mark the indications for further evaluation and report documentation (Figure 4). ROLL INSPECTION
1.4.6
Conduct Test - Operator End Wipe the couplant from the roll body and repeat steps 1.4.3, 1.4.4 and 1.4.5 on the operator end.
109
SURFACE WAVE ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
AMPLITUDE
ROLL INSPECTION
SWEEP LINE
INITIAL PULSE
BACK REFLECTION
FIGURE 1 Ultrasonic testing unit screen display.
110
1ST 180 SURFACE WAVE

TRAVERSE BODY LENGTH REVERSE SEARCH UNIT
COUPLANT
TRAVERSE BODY LENGTH
2ND 180 SURFACE WAVE
FIGURE 2 Circumferential surface test
FIGURE 3 Circumferential surface test being performed on a roll body.
111
ROLL INSPECTION
COUPLANT
COUPLANT
DRIVE END SURFACE WAVE
OPERATOR END SURFACE WAVE
TRAVERSE BODY DIAMETER
TRAVERSE BODY DIAMETER
ROLL INSPECTION
FIGURE 4 Longitudinal surface test
112
DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION Dye penetrant inspection can be performed at any time (after the grinding operation is most common) and is used to highlight cracks on the roll surface. A red colored dye penetrant is applied to the roll surface and the dye enters crack interfaces through capillary action. After a specific amount of time, the roll is wiped dry with clean, dry cloths. The dye will seep back out of the cracks through reverse capillary action. Developer is applied to the surface and the cracks are highlighted as red lines on the white background. Dye penetrant testing can also be done using a florescent dye. The cracks are then highlighted using a florescent black light instead of developer. Dye penetrant inspection is accurate at highlighting large, wide cracks, however, if the crack is too narrow, the penetrant cannot seep into the crack and will not be highlighted when developed. It is generally preferred to perform the test after locating surface indications with eddy current and ultrasonic inspection. Only the general area of the indications can then be tested rather than the entire roll body. The following is a simplified procedure for performing a dye penetrant test using the red colored dye technique. Identify the defect area using Ultrasonic and Eddy Current techniques, approximately within one quadrant. Position this area where it is convenient to work on. Wipe the quadrant clean with a rag to remove excess grease, dirt, etc. Take a rag and spray the Magnaflux cleaner/remover onto the rag (spray heavily), Use this damp rag to wipe the area again to remove residue and allow a minute to dry. Dont spray Cleaner directly on the roll; it will yield substandard results! Spray the area to be tested with penetrant (red dye), holding the can about 8 away from the roll surface (Figure 1). It is OK to overlap and to spray heavily, but too much provides no benefit. Allow the penetrant to soak into the roll for at least 10 minutes (longer is better). Wipe the roll down with a clean dry rag to remove most of the penetrant. Change to a clean portion of the rag periodically to avoid smearing the dye (Figure 2). After the area is visibly clean, spray the cleaner/remover onto another clean rag. Use the moistened rag to remove any residual red dye. Periodically change to a clean portion of the rag as before. Spray the developer onto the area to be tested, holding the can about 8 to 10 away from the roll surface (Figure 3). Use a side to side motion to apply the developer evenly. As the developer begins to dry, red lines will appear to highlight any macro cracks that exist (Figure 4). If no lines appear, then no macro surface cracks exist in the tested area. Evaluate the size of the cracks and determine the appropriate salvage method (grinding, turning in a lathe, hand buffing, etc.).
113
ROLL INSPECTION
DYE PENETRATE INSPECTION
FIGURE 1 Penetrate (red dye) being applied to the suspected area on the roll body.
ROLL INSPECTION
FIGURE 2 Removal of the Penetrate after a few minutes wait.
114
DYE PENETRATE INSPECTION
FIGURE 3 Developer being applied to the suspected area on the roll body.
FIGURE 4 Close-up view of the results of a dye penetrant test where macro cracks were found. Red lines highlights the location of the cracks.
115
ROLL INSPECTION
ETCH TESTING Etch testing can be performed at any time (after the grinding operation is most common) and is used to highlight conditions on the roll surface where cracks or a change in hardness exists. When acid is applied to the roll surface, softer areas will burn or darken at a faster rate than harder areas leaving a differential etch appearance. Cracks are also highlighted during an etch test when reagent enters the crack interface through capillary action. Once the acid is cleaned from the surface, the residual acid within the crack seeps out and burns the area surrounding it. Etch testing is accurate at highlighting bruises and large, wide cracks, however, if the crack is too narrow, the acid cannot enter into the crack and it will not be highlighted. It is generally preferred to perform the test after locating surface indications with eddy current and ultrasonic inspection. Only the general area of the indications will then need to be tested rather than the entire roll body. The following is a simplified procedure for performing an etch test:
Clean and dry roll surface to be etched by grinding off a few thousandths to insure the surface is free of any plating (chrome) and any superficial mill conditions. Swab the area to be etched with 20% Nital reagent (nitric acid and methanol) using cotton for at least 1.5 minutes (Figure 1). Do not let the area dry. Thoroughly rinse the Nital from the roll surface with methanol while at the same time using a different cotton swab to clean off the residue (Figure 2). Dry the etched surface using compressed air (Figure 3). ROLL INSPECTION Soft or hard areas will be highlighted as a difference in shade between the affected area and the surrounding metal. Soft areas will appear darker and hards areas will appear lighter (Figure 4).
117
ETCH TESTING
FIGURE 1 20% Nital reagent being applied to an area on the roll body.
ROLL INSPECTION
FIGURE 2 Etched area being cleaned with cotton and methanol.
118
ETCH TESTING
FIGURE 3 Etched area being dried using moisture free compressed air.
FIGURE 4 Results of and etch test where a soft spot (bruise) was found. The bruise appears as the darker area on the etched surface.
119
ROLL INSPECTION
MAGNAFLUX TESTING Magnaflux testing can be performed at any time and is mostly used to inspect for cracks on the roll necks. Cracks in the neck portion of the roll are typically circumferential and are usually located in the form area. Magnaflux testing as described here cannot be performed on the roll body surface because the strength of the magnetic field used would induce magnetism into the surface which can be detrimental to the quality of the rolled product. The test is performed by inducing a magnetic field in the longitudinal direction with the area to be tested in the middle. A fine magnetic powder is then lightly blown over the area in-between the two magnetic poles. Any interface (crack) between the two poles acts to distort the magnetic field which attracts the fine magnetic particles, highlighting the crack. Magnaflux is accurate at highlighting large, wide cracks, however, if the crack is too narrow, fewer magnetic particles will be attracted to the interface and the crack and will not be highlighted. The following is a simplified procedure for magnaflux testing.
Clean the portion of the roll neck to be tested using solvent to remove any oil, grease, dirt or build-up. Place both poles of the electromagnetic yokes in the longitudinal direction over the area of the neck to be tested (Figure 1). Activate the electromagnetic yokes to induce the magnetic field across the area to be tested. While the yokes are energized, take the blower bulb in one hand, and carefully and evenly, squeeze the bulb to apply the magnetic particles to the area under the yokes (Figure 1). Move the yokes circumferentially around the area of the neck being tested and continue to apply the magnetic powder. As the magnetic powder adheres to interfaces, the cracks are then highlighted as thin lines of magnetic particles.
ROLL INSPECTION
120
MAGNAFLUX TESTING
FIGURE 1 Magnaflux test being performed on a shoulder radius.
121
ROLL INSPECTION
HARDNESS TESTING Hardness testing should be performed before and after the grinding operation. It is used to determine the overall hardness of the roll as well as verifying the existence of localized hardness differentials (bruises, work hardening, etc.). The typical methods of hardness testing include indentation (Rockwell - HRc and Vickers - HV) and rebound testing (Equotip - HLd and HLe, Shore - HFRSc and HSd) - see Figures 1 - 8. Rockwell testing is not generally used in the roll shop due to the special surface requirement needed for accurate testing and the time involved to prepare a test spot. The Equotip and Shore tests are the most commonly used hardness testing methods. The rebound tests indicate the hardness by dropping a small impact device or hammer onto the roll surface and measure the height (Shore) or speed (Equotip) of the rebound. The test can be performed on any clean surface and should be performed multiple times to obtain the average hardness of the area being tested.
ROLL INSPECTION
122
HARDNESS TESTING
FIGURE 1 Rockwell test (HRc) being performed on a roll body.
FIGURE 2 Vickers test (HV) being performed on a roll.
123
ROLL INSPECTION
HARDNESS TESTING
FIGURE 3 Equotip hardness testing equipment including an Equotip Unit, HLd hammer and HLe hammer.
ROLL INSPECTION
FIGURE 4 Equotip hardness test being performed on a roll body.
124
HARDNESS TESTING
FIGURE 5 Shore HSd hardness tester.
FIGURE 6 Shore HSd hardness test being performed on a roll body.
125
ROLL INSPECTION
ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE

VII. ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE 127
HARDNESS TESTING
FIGURE 7 Shore HFRSc hardness tester.
ROLL INSPECTION
ROLL INSPECTION FIGURE 8 Shore HFRSc hardness test being performed on a roll body.
126
ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE

Special care and attention must be used in the handling and storage of forged hardened steel rolls to avoid premature roll problems and to maintain a safe environment for employees. The following recommendations are given for this purpose: A. Roll Handling 1. Avoid roll on roll contact by moving only one roll at a time. 2. Proper slings should be used in the appropriate lift area of the roll neck. 3. Roll bodies should not come into contact with any hard surface during transportation. 4. Welding of attachments to broken rolls to facilitate handling should never be attempted. 5. Rolls should never be handled with an electromagnet.
B. Roll Storage 1. Avoid roll contact by using a type of separator between the roll bodies (wood wedge, rubber strapping). 2. Roll journals, seal areas and body should be protected from corrosion (rust). 3. Avoid sudden temperature changes in the roll body by storing in a proper environment. ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE 4. Insure that the storage area, racks and equipment are free of any residual magnetism. 5. Damaged rolls (adhering spalls) should be either enclosed or covered with a protective blanket. As a minimum, the damaged area should be turned towards the floor. Acoustic emission testing can also be performed to help determine whether or not the damaged roll has attained a state of equilibrium (no significant acoustic activity). 6. Rolls from the mill should not be ground until the roll body temperature approaches the ambient temperature in the roll shop. Sudden cooling to achieve this condition is not advisable.
127
ROLL NOMENCLATURE
VIII. ROLL NOMENCLATURE 129 - 130
ROLL NOMENCLATURE
129
ROLL NOMENCLATURE
ROLL NOMENCLATURE
130
REFERENCES
1. 2. F. J. Barchfeld, Investigation of Roll Marking Relationships, Rolls 2000, 1996. W. L. Roberts, The Rolling Process Mechanical Engineering Explanation, Rolls For The Metalworking Industry, ISS, 1990, pp. 40 - 41. W. L. Roberts, Flat Processing of Steel, Marcel Dekker, 1988. F. A. KIsa, H. Erzurum and J. Gross, Stress Concentration Curves For Various Neck Configurations of Steel Mill Rolls, AISE Yearbook, 1969, pp. 637 - 641.
3. 4.
SUGGESTED REFERENCES 1. J. Pinkowski, M. Andjelich, Tandem Roll Mark Source Cause Determination and Resulting Corrective Action, AISE, 1995. K. Tiitto, Measuring Stress in Rolls By Magnetoelastic Method, 27th Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, 1985, pp. 273 - 279. W. Tait, An Automatic NDT Inspection System for Forged Steel Work Rolls, 22nd Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, 1980, pp. 375 - 387. J. F. Morris, M. J. Sorby, The Development and Application of the Sarclad Rollscan Roll Inspection System, 25th Mechanical Working and Steel Processing,1983, pp. 469 - 488. K. A. Ridal, M. J. Sorby, Further Developments in the Use of Sarclad Rollscan Technology for the Inspection of Rolling Mill Rolls, 27th Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, 1985, pp. 243 - 247. G. A. Ott, The Application, Metallurgy, and Maintenance of High Hardness, Ultra Deep Hardened Forged Steel Work Rolls, 38th Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, 1996, pp. 91 - 105. D. D. Lang, D. P. Geier, New Mill Roll Inspection System For Firecrack Detection, 38th Mechanical Working and Steel Processing, 1996, pp. 15 - 27.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
131
FORGED HARDENED STEEL ROLLS SERVICE PROBLEMS CAUSES AND PREVENTION
Sales Offices
Headquarters P.O. Box 465 726 Bell Avenue Carnegie, PA 15106 Phone: (412) 429-2453 Fax: (412) 276-1711 E-mail: uessa@uniones.com P.O. Box 29 U.S. Highway 30 Valparaiso, IN 46383 Phone: (219) 465-0683 Fax: (219) 477-3796 Industrie Park B-3980 Tessenderlo Belgium Phone: 011-32-13-661711 Fax: 011-32-13-667962

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FORGED HARDENED STEEL ROLLS SERVICE PROBLEMS CAUSES AND PREVENTION

UNION ELECTRIC STEEL CORPORATION

Copyright 1999 Union Electric Steel Corporation

SUB-SURFACE INITIATION a. ROLL DESIGN or MATERIAL QUALITY 80 - 85 86 - 89

INSTANTANEOUS 1. 2. MATERIAL QUALITY MILL OVERLOAD 90 - 91 92 - 94

PAGE NUMBERS VII. ROLL HANDLING AND STORAGE 127

VIII. ROLL NOMENCLATURE

Surface Indications NDT Communication

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION

EXAMPLE 1 Exogenous inclusion on the roll surface (50X).

EXAMPLE 2 Close-up of the exogenous inclusion shown in Example 1 (200X).

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS INCLUSION

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL (WOOD GRAIN, INGOTISM)

EXAMPLE 1 Roll exhibiting an orange peel pattern on the rolling surface.

EXAMPLE 2 Roll exhibiting an orange peel pattern on the rolling surface.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ORANGE PEEL

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS

EXAMPLE 4 Arrows highlight typical roll marks on the surface of a roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS ROLL MARKS

EXAMPLE 5 Circle highlights a typical roll mark on the surface of a roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE (SOFT SPOT, PINCH MARK)

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF BRUISES

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF BRUISES

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF BRUISES

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF BRUISES

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS BRUISE

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS (STRESS CRACKS)

EXAMPLE 1 Evidence of fire cracking on an aluminum hot mill work roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

EXAMPLE 3 Evidence of fire cracking on a cold mill work roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

EXAMPLE 5 Evidence of fire cracking on a cold mill work roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

EXAMPLE 6 Evidence of fire cracking on a cold mill work roll.

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

EXAMPLE 7 Evidence of fire cracking on a cold mill work roll.

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FIRE CRACKS

ROLL SURFACE INDICATIONS FIRE CRACKS

SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION (FATIGUE PATH, WRECK PATH, WAGON TRACKS)

SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION

EXAMPLE 2 Fire cracks on a roll surface (stages 1-3).

SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION

SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION

SPALLING SURFACE INITIATION

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF FATIGUE PATHS