Management and Organizational Development

MU0011 - ASSIGNMENT - Set-1

Q.1) What are the different levels of Management?
Ans. Levels of Management
Levels oI Management reIer to the segregation between the diIIerent managerial positions in an
organization. Depending on the size oI the business and the size oI work Iorce the number oI levels oI
management increases or decreases. Levels oI management decide the chain oI command, the amount
oI authority & responsibility assigned. There are three broad categories:
1. Top level / Administrative level
2. Middle level / Executive
3. Low level / Supervisory / Operative / First-line managers
We will reIer to low level management as junior management.

ig. : Levels of Management
Top Management
The top management would consist oI the board oI directors, CEO (ChieI Executive OIIicer) and or
the MD (Managing Director). The top management is the highest authority oI the organization. The
top level management sets goals and policies. As a thinking body, it devotes more time on planning
and coordinating Iunctions. Top management is responsible Ior:
O Decides the vision, mission, goals and objectives apart Irom policies
O Provides guidelines and schedules Ior department budget preparation.
O Facilitates strategic plan & policy development.
O Appoints leadership team members.
O Ensures all departments work well with each other.
O Continuously keeps a check through teams on the external environment and its impact on the
business. Ensures necessary corrective and preventive action is taken in time.
O Provides guidance and direction.
O Top management is responsible to all shareholders Ior the perIormance oI the organization.

Management and Organizational Development

Middle Management
Branch managers and departmental managers Iorm the middle management. They report to the top
management. They spend more time on organizational and directional Iunctions. Depending on the
organization size, the existence and the no. oI layers oI middle management are decided. Middle
management is responsible Ior:
O Executing organizational plans as per the policies and directives oI the top management
O Planning Ior the sub-units oI the organization
O Employing & training oI junior management
O Interpreting and explaining policies
O Coordinating the activities within the division or department.
O Reporting to top management
O PerIormance evaluation oI junior managers
O Inspiring junior managers to perIorm better.
Lower Management or 1unior Management
Lower level is also known as junior management, supervisory / operative level oI management. It
consists oI supervisors, Ioreman, section oIIicers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis,
Supervisory management reIers to those executives whose work has to be largely with personal
oversight and direction oI operative employees. In other words, they are concerned with direction and
controlling Iunction oI management. Their activities include:
O Assigning tasks
O Guiding and instructing workers Ior day-to-day activities
O Ensuring quality and quantity oI production as per targets
O Maintaining good relations with colleagues
O Communicating worker issues, suggestions and recommendations to top management
O Communicating goals and objectives set by middle and top management
O Solve employee grievances, supervising & guiding team members
O Training colleagues and team members, motivating employees
O Arranging necessary resources (materials, machines, tools etc.) Ior getting the job done.
O Preparing reports about employee perIormance
O Ensuring discipline amongst team and colleagues




Management and Organizational Development

O.2_ Write a note on genesis of Organizational Development?

Ans:- Genesis of Organization Development
The history oI organization development will help to clariIy the genesis and the evolution oI this term
organization development. It would also enable to clariIy some oI the issues or conIusions that have
surrounded OD.
Between 1950 and 2000 lot research work by eminent researchers has led to the development oI
organization development. There are 5 key inputs that have contributed to the genesis and
development oI OD. They are:
O Laboratory Training
O Action Research/Survey Framework
O Normative Approaches
O Quality oI Work LiIe
O Strategic Change
1. The Iirst was the growth oI the National Training Laboratories (NTL) and the training groups,
which were also known as sensitivity training or T-groups.
2. The second was the classic work on action research that had been conducted by the social
scientists. These social scientists were interested in applying research to manage change. Kurt
Lewin was the person who instrumental in the development oI action research and hence OD. We
all have realized that change is the only constant. The only way to move Iorward positively is to
learn to manage change. II there is a scientiIic way to manage change, then it should be leveraged,
hence the development oI OD.
3. The third was the normative view oI organization development. Essentially saying that there is
only one best way to design and operate organizations.
4. The Iourth input was the approach Iocusing on productivity and the quality oI work liIe.
5. The IiIth input was the development oI strategic change and organization transIormation.
Let us understand each one oI these a little bit more in detail.
Laboratory Training Background
Laboratory training or the T-group is a small, unstructured group in which the participants learn Irom
each other. They learn Irom their own interactions. They learn Irom the evolving dynamics about
issues such as interpersonal relations, personal growth, leadership and group dynamics.
Essentially during the event the participants were provided Ieedback in private, but participants
requested to be allowed to listen into the Ieedback being oIIered to others. Reluctantly the Iacilitators
agreed. The experiment paid oII with many potential beneIits.
1. Feedback about group interaction was a rich learning experience
Management and Organizational Development

2. Process oI group building had potential Ior learning that could be transIerred to real liIe situations.
With the success oI this Iunding was received by this small team implementing laboratory training
and they became a Iull-Iledged entity and started also working with large corporates. The success oI
this led to the evolution oI the term organization development.
Action Research and Survey eedback Background
During the research in 1940 it was learnt that research needed to be closely linked to action iI
organization members were to use it to manage change. A joint eIIort by organization members and
social scientists was undertaken to collect data, analyze it and to devise and implement solutions. The
result oI action research was: members oI organizations were able to use research on themselves to
guide action and change; and social scientists were able to study the process to derive new knowledge
that could be used elsewhere. The pioneering research work led to Iinding ways to overcome
resistance to change and the development oI participative management as a means oI getting
employee involved in planning and managing change. A key component oI action research was the
systematic collection oI survey data that was presented back to the leadership oI the client
organization.
Normative Background
Primarily the belieI here is that, there is one best way oI managing organizations. Usually
managements are either exploitative and authoritative; or benevolent and authoritative; or
consultative; or participative group based. Organizations are such because their systems are designed
in such a manner. Survey and research proved that the participative group method management is the
best way oI managing organizations.
It unleashed potential, brought in employee engagement and commitment, it brought in ideas and it
brought in ownership, which is the most important oI all the above mentioned aspects. This led to
greater success and hence contributed to organization development.
It also Iound that managers high on concern Ior people or employees wellbeing and equally high on
productivity are the best managers. II on a scale oI 1-9 managers were 9 on concern Ior people and 9
on concern Ior productivity, they were the best managers and thereIore their management style was
the best. Some people thought that to get productivity high, you need to be less concerned about
people. It was like, the more you want productivity, the lesser you will need to be concerned about
people. But it was proven wrong and the 9,9 manager was accepted.
Productivity and Quality of Work-Life (QWL) Background
The Iirst phase in this was development oI work designs aimed at better integrating technology and
people. Management unions got together to design work and the work designs created provided
discretion, task variety and Ieedback about results. Perhaps the most distinguishing part oI QWL
programs was the discovery oI selI-managing work groups as a Iorm oI work design. These groups
were composed oI multi-skilled workers who were given the necessary autonomy and inIormation to
design and manage their own task perIormances. This worked well in the USA Irom 1950-1970 but
as business evolved so did the competition. Organizations realized that the work practices in USA led
Management and Organizational Development

to manuIacturing oI merchandise, but this merchandise was not able to compete with the low cost,
high quality merchandise Irom other countries like Japan. Organizations realized that the systems
used in Japan were diIIerent.
This led to the second phase where WSL included not just work designs but also reward systems,
work Ilows, management styles and the physical work environment. Here the Iocus was more on the
work groups rather than just the individual. This phase also Iocused on organizational eIIiciency apart
Irom the human dimension that was the Iocus in phase one.
This led to improvement programs like quality circles becoming part oI each organization. The
second phase today is employee involvement (EI) as well as total quality management and six-sigma
programs, rather than QWL. For many OD practitioners, the term EI is more than QWL, it brought
Iorth the Iact that employees can contribute more to running organizations so it can be more Ilexible,
productive and competitive. Now even the term employee empowerment is replacing employee
involvement. Employee empowerment has led to the creation oI the charter oI authorities, where over
time the employees have gained more authority, more empowerment and hence more responsibility.
The challenge is to ensure that power has been cascaded down the organization. This power iI well
used can make the organization and iI poorly used can break the organization.
Strategic Change Background
Strategic change is Iocused on improving the alignment amongst organizations eIIorts. In other words
the organization should think and communicate the same messages. These messages should be
reinIorced by appropriate actions. Here organizations chose to Iocus on businesses where they had
core competencies. They moved out oI businesses where they did not have core competencies. The
business acquired was to ensure that there was a strategic Iit. The latest example in India is the
acquisition oI a major stake in Reva Electric Car Company by the Mahindra group. The Mahindra
group has been into the automotive segment Ior decades and wanted the electric capability to build
hybrid cars. This it would get Irom Reva and hence the acquisition oI a major stake.
Strategic change is also about transIormation. Many organizations like Accenture already talk about
doing not just transactional work Ior their clients but doing transIormational work Ior their clients.
You may have heard that people do not just want to be good at the game, but they want to change the
game. ThereIore the term game changer has also evolved.
The New Holistic Approach in Organization Development
In today`s dynamic business world, most organizations experience change on continuous basis and
have come to a conclusion that change is a never ending process. As soon as one organizational
problem is rectiIied, another one presents itselI. The cycle thereIore goes on despite the best eIIorts
by the leaders and managers.
Something that most managers have realized over number oI years is the ongoing dilemma in
organization development is very similar to that oI medicine. In medicine, a practitioner analyzes a
system, makes a diagnosis, gives the medicines and waits to see an improvement. When the symptom
goes away, the practitioner takes it as problem resolved. Hence in today`s high-stress environment,
the patient soon witnesses other problems with other symptoms and makes an assumption that
Management and Organizational Development

distress is what liIe is all about. The patient either surrenders to the circumstances or seeks remedies
in holistic Iorms oI medicine. Luckily, medical schools have acknowledged and integrated new Iorms
oI treatments, thereIore giving a new shape and Iorm to the age old medical treatments.
Similarly in OD, the managers and leadership have realized the potential oI holistic development and
have taken a systems view oI organizations. This is achieved by Iocusing on the processes between
the parts oI organization, analyzing the patterns instead oI events, counting on principles,
acknowledging the inconsistency and divergences.
Hence, selI-organizing systems and selI-managed teams are now conventional in the organization
development process. Spirituality in the workplace has become a new mantra. It is commonly
witnessed that many management books and development programs these days are increasingly
reIerring to the eastern philosophies and thereIore promoting new Iorms oI selI development.
Interventions, such as CEO coaching, leadership coaching, managerial coaching and peer-coaching
seem to be on the rise with management and leadership specializing in the ritual inbuilt in managing
change. OD interventions have been discussed in detail in this unit; however it is important to Iirst
understand the nature oI organization development
O.3_ Explain techno structural interventions?
Ans: Techno-Structural Interventions
These interventions Iocus on an organizations technology (Ior example, task methods and job design)
and structure (Ior example, division oI labor and hierarchy). These change methods are receiving
increasing attention in OD, especially in light oI current concerns about productivity and
organizational eIIectiveness. The Iollowing three techno-structural interventions are concerned with
restructuring organizations:
Structural Design
This change process concerns the organizations division oI labor how to specialize task
perIormances. Interventions aimed at structural design include moving Irom more traditional ways oI
dividing the organizations overall work (such as Iunctional, selI-contained-unit, and matrix
structures) to more integrative and Ilexible Iorms (such as process-based and network based
structures).
Downsizing
This intervention reduces costs and bureaucracy by decreasing the size oI the organization through
personnel layouts, organization redesign and outsourcing. Each oI these downsizing methods must be
planned with a clear understanding oI the organizations strategy.
Reengineering
This recent intervention radically redesigns the organizations core work processes to create tighter
linkage and coordination among the diIIerent tasks. This work-Ilow integration results in Iaster, more
responsive task perIormance. Reengineering is oIten accomplished with new inIormation technology
Management and Organizational Development

that permits employees to control and coordinate work processes more eIIectively. Reengineering
oIten Iails iI it ignores basic principles and processes oI OD.
Reengineering is the Iundamental analysis and redesign oI everything business process Ilows, job
descriptions, planning and control processes, organizational structures, etc.
Reengineering is 349another idea imported Irom Japan like Quality Circles, TPS, or Quality Function
Deployment, neither is it about delayering or Ilattening the organization.
Definition
Fundamental rethinking and radical redesigning oI business processes so that dramatic improvements
in critical contemporary measures oI perIormance such as cost, quality, service, and speed can be
achieved is called reengineering.
Explaining a Few Terms in the DeIinition:
Fundamental because it asks the most basic questions such as: why do we do what we do?
Radical because it does not seek to Iix or automate processes as a way oI making improvements. It
seeks to revolutionize the way business is conducted.
Dramatic because the objectives oI reengineering seek quantum leaps in perIormance on the order oI
100X improvements in process measures oI perIormance, and a 6 Sigma quality target.
Process means that eIIorts must be made around things that companies do best to meet customer
expectations.
Reengineering an Eight Step Process
Step 1: Starting Irom the top
Step 2: Getting the strategy straight
Step 3: IdentiIying core business processes
Step 4: Developing deep process knowledge
Step 5: IdentiIying opportunities Ior improvement
Step 6: IdentiIying world class best oI breed and customer requirements
Step 7: Creating new process design
Step 8: Implementing new process

The above steps are explained in details:
Step 1: Start from the top
Reengineering is a cross-Iunctional strategy. Customer service is horizontal. Only top management
can ensure the cooperation and resources necessary to properly. Reengineer business processes


Management and Organizational Development

Step 2: Get the strategy straight

Reengineering should get to the strategy straight without going the other way around like identiIying
the vision, mission, strategy or the critical success Iactors?
Step 3: Identify core business processes
Determining what core business processes are and using the value chain to look at the suppliers,
customers, and customers customer. The customer beneIits are also to be thought about.
Step 4: Develop deep process knowledge
This can be done by establishing current perIormance and using process mapping to understand all
low level processes, relationships, inIormation requirements, interIaces to customers and suppliers.
Step 5: Identify opportunities for improvement
This can be done by identiIying reasons Ior poor perIormance using entitlement and creative
techniques Ior thinking outside the box. Hammer s Seven Principles, Iorced analogy technique, and
intrinsic value technique are to be used.
Hammers seven principles:
O Automate around outcomes not tasks let one person do all the steps
O Have those who use the output oI a process perIorm the process
O Subsume inIormation processing work into the real work that produces the inIormation
O Treat geographically dispersed resources as iI they were centralized
O Link parallel activities instead oI integrating their results
O Put the decision point where the work is perIormed, and build control into the process
O Capture inIormation once, at the source
Step 6: Identify world class and customer requirements
This has to be done by using Benchmarking and Quality Function Deployment Methodology,
surveys, etc.
Step 7: Create new process design
This can be done by emphasizing end to end solutions and ensuring control at the source,
restructuring reward and incentive system, etc. Let customers drive perIormance standards. Only
value added processes are to be incorporated.
Step 8: Implement the new process (manage the change process)
This can be done by understanding the people who will be aIIected by the change. Change should not
and cannot be Iorced on people. EIIective communication is a must. People must be inIormed in
advance. People aIIected by the change must be involved in the decision making process. It takes a
long time Ior changes to be accepted. Reengineering should be done beIore it is necessary. A culture
conducive to generative change is to be created.
Management and Organizational Development

O.4_ Write a note on future trends in OD?

Ans: Scholars and practitioners are reexamining OD's role and relevance in organizations today.
Even some oI OD's Iounders say there's a need to reinvent the Iield.
The dialogue has been healthy and the Iield continues to grow. This movement has given rise to new
theories and concepts, more rigorous research, new kinds oI interventions, and the application oI OD
in more countries and cultures.
Leaders in the OD community expect several trends to aIIect how organizational development will be
used in the Iuture. For instance, the economy continues to concentrate wealth and become more
globalized. Environmental responsibility is on the rise. The workIorce is ever becoming more diverse,
educated, and Iree-agent oriented. And technology is enabling greater productivity and more e-
commerce, networking, and knowledge-based work.
In response to such trends, Thomas Cummings and Christopher Worley oI the University oI Southern
CaliIornia have predicted that the Iuture will require organizational development to become:
O More embedded in organizational culture
O More technologically enabled
O More geared Ior shorter intervention cycle times
O More oriented to innovation and learning
O More interdisciplinary
O More diverse in client organizations
O More cross-cultural
O Clearer about values

Future trends in OD are -

1) Learning Organisation
Organisations should strive to learn constantly and enhance learning activities. Learning organization
is one that Iacilitates continuous learning and development oI its employees. This learning enables
organizations to survive in the competitive world. A learning organization has Iive main Ieatures:-
O Systems thinking: This is a Iramework according to which business is considered as bounded
objects. System thinking is used to assess a company`s perIormance using inIormation
systems. As per this theory all the Ieatures oI a learning organization should be visible
simultaneously. Acquiring these Ieatures is a slow and steady process. They cannot be
developed and acquired simultaneously.
O Personal mastery: The employees oI learning organizations are committed to the learning
process. This is called as personal mastery. StaII training and development Iacilitate the
learning process.
O Mental models: These models reIer to the assumptions oI employees and organization
regarding various processes employees` Iollow and the process they are supposed to Iollow.
Management and Organizational Development

O Shared vision: Employees oI learning organizations have a shared vision. This provides the
staII energy and motivation required to learn.
O Team learning: Organisations Iollow two types oI staII learning: individual learning and
team learning. Team learning motivates employees and helps them grow more quickly.
Team learning also Iacilitates the problem solving process.
II) Knowledge management
Knowledge Management(KM) is a system that consists oI various organizational strategies and
practices. Every organizational process and strategy comprises oI knowledge. This knowledge is
used to recognize, design, represent and distribute these practices or strategies. KM eIIorts and
activities concentrate on organizational objectives. These objectives could be attaining competitive
advantage, shared vision, innovation and improved perIormance. KM helps in continuous
improvement oI an organization.
III) Organisational reengineering
Organizational reengineering is a process oI redesigning the existing process, practices and strategies
Ior improved results. Organizations reengineering is also an important trend in OD. This redesigning
process provides a competitive advantage to organizations in order to attain the same organizational
goals and objectives.
IV) Change Management
Next important trend in OD is a change management. Organisations undergo changes such as
strategic changes, technological changes, structural changes and attitude and behavioural changes.
Strategic management oI these changes is very important. Change management is a process oI
implementing changes in process and strategies in a pre-planned way. This transIorms individuals,
teams and organizations into a desired Iuture state.
O.5_ Write a note on types of organisation culture?
Ans: There are diIIerent types oI culture just like there are diIIerent types oI personality. Researcher
JeIIrey SonnenIeld identiIied the Iollowing Iour types oI cultures:-
i) Baseball Team Culture
Employees are "Iree agents" who have highly prized skills. They are in high demand and can rather
easily get jobs elsewhere. This type oI culture exists in Iast-paced, high-risk organizations, such as
investment banking, advertising, etc.
ii) Club Culture
The most important requirement Ior employees in this culture is to Iit into the group. Usually
employees start at the bottom and stay with the organization. The organization promotes Irom within
and highly values seniority. Examples are the military, some law Iirms, etc.

Management and Organizational Development

iii) Academy Culture

Employees are highly skilled and tend to stay in the organization, while working their way up the
ranks. The organization provides a stable environment in which employees can develop and exercise
their skills. Examples are universities, hospitals, large corporations, etc.
iv) ortress Culture
Every organization undergoes massive reorganization. There are many opportunities Ior those who
are timely, organized and have specialized skills. Examples are savings and loans, large car
companies, etc. Organizational culture contributes a lot to organizational eIIectiveness.
Organizational culture contributes a lot to organizational eIIectiveness.
EIIectiveness is an organizational dynamic that haunts managers. The concept oI eIIectiveness is
hidden within the cloak oI more popularized notions. Popular theories oI Total Quality Management
(TQM), Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI), and organizational eIIiciency are seen as ways to
eIIectiveness.
our Academic Models
The issue oI organizational eIIectiveness or OE, has been one oI the most sought out yet elusive
research subject since the early development oI organizational theory. Although it seems intuitively
apparent that a measure oI organizational perIormance should be readily available in management
literature, but quite the contrary is true. Four key models have been identiIied in the literature.
One model used production, commitment, leadership, and interpersonal conIlict to measure
organizational eIIectiveness. Production was deIined as the Ilow oI output Irom the organization.
Commitment was established as a component to measure the degree oI attachment to the
organization. Leadership was deIined as a degree oI inIluence and personal ability, and interpersonal
conIlict reIers to the degree oI perceived misunderstanding between supervisors and subordinates.
A second OE model was proposed based on interrelated organizational processes and was developed
primarily as a tool Ior management consultants. This model uses organizational survival and
maximizing return as key variables oI eIIectiveness along with selI-regulation, which is responsible
Ior orchestrating a balance between eight other minor variables including internal-external boundary
permeability, sensitivity to status and change, contribution to constituents, transIormation, promoting
advantageous transactions, Ilexibility, adaptability, and eIIiciency.
A third model chose six selected indicators oI organizational eIIectiveness including management
experience, organizational structure, political impact, board oI directors involvement, volunteer
involvement, and internal communications.
The Iourth and Iinal academic model was used to compare Ior-proIit and non-proIit organizational
eIIectiveness and is termed the competing value Iramework. This model used Iour quadrants
representing (1) human relations, (2) open systems, (3) rational goals, and (4) internal process.
Management and Organizational Development

(1) The human relations side stressed participation, discussion, and openness as ways to improve
morale and achieve commitment. (2) The open system side relates insight, innovation, and adaptation
as a path toward external recognition, support, acquisition, and growth. (3) Finally, the internal
process side sees internal processes as measurement, documentation, and inIormation management as
methods to achieve stability, control, and continuity. (4) The rational goal side seeks proIit and
productivity through direction and goals.
This model has been tested and validated more than the other three models in academic literature.
Other variables oIten cited as requirements Ior organizational eIIectiveness include:
O Quality employees with a passion Ior their work and a level oI satisIaction that leads to low
turnover
O Communication strategy with consistent and energizing messages
O Clear practices, policies, and decisions
O An environment accepting oI change and innovation Ior new product development
O Interdepartmental communication
O EIIective management oI human resources increased inIormation sharing, extensive training,
Iinancial and non-Iinancial rewards, appraisal and extensive Ieedback
O Strategic choices about which markets to pursue and which opportunities to ignore but with
Ilexibility to pursue experimentation
O An ability to anticipate competitor reactions to strategic responses as well as anticipate
employee responses
O A strategy linked to organizational goals and reviews
O All organizational levels participating in communicating core messages and communication
Ilowing Irom top to bottom and bottom to top
O Good external communication Irom new releases, Iact sheets, annual reports, supervision and
leadership
O Opportunities Ior employee advancement and growth
O An emphasis on planning, training, and support
O Adaptive organizational Iorms and structures
O High levels oI organizational trust which minimize the potential Ior destructive conIlict,
unnecessary bureaucratic control, administrative expenditures, and expensive overhead
O Consistency and congruency between words and actions
O EIIective Boards oI Directors
O Using inIormation technology eIIectively
O Integrating employees Irom diIIerent organizational units; particularly important in
multinational organizations
O An emphasis on ethics, the environment, and sustainability
O Customer Iocus and ability to optimize customer value
O Choosing the right partners and building trusting, durable relationships
O Empowerment and delegation oI real decision-making authority to those closest to the
customers
O Lean production and an emphasis on eIIiciency and eIIicient processes
O Strong culture and mission.
Management and Organizational Development

Deal and Kennedy's Model of Culture

Deal and Kennedy's model oI culture is based on characterizing Iour types oI organization. The
organizations are characterized based on how quickly they provide Ieedback and reward employees
aIter they have done something and the level oI risks that employees take.
eedback and reward
A major driver oI employees in companies (and hence their culture) is the general Ieedback and
speciIic rewards that tell employees they are doing a good or bad job. II Ieedback is immediate or
Irequent, it will quickly correct any ineIIective behavior and hence lead to a consistent culture. II the
Ieedback is delayed or inIrequent, it leaves mistakes uncorrected, but it also lets people look Iurther
out into the Iuture. Either way, there is likely to be some substitute activity (such as process
management) to help keep things on track until actual results are known.
Risk
Uncertainty and risk are something that some people hate and some people thrive on. In either case, it
is another motivating Iorce that leads people to Iocus on managing it. Where the risk is low, people
may be willing to take risks up to their acceptable limit. Where they are high, the risks need to be
managed or accepted. High risk companies are more likely to include people who enjoy the Irisson oI
taking a gamble.

ig : Deal and Kennedy's model of culture
The our Cultures
Work-Hard, Play-Hard Culture
Another type oI organizational culture is the "work hard/play hard" organizational culture. This type
oI an organizational culture that doesn't take a lot oI risks, but it does take a Iew, and all receive Iast
Ieedback. This is something most likely to be seen in a very large company which is dependent on
strong customer service. This type oI organizational culture is oIten characterized by multiple team
meetings, specialized jargon, and buzzwords.This has rapid Ieedback/reward and low risk, leading to:
O Stress coming Irom quantity oI work rather than uncertainty.
O High-speed action leading to high-speed recreation.
O E.g. Restaurants, soItware companies.
Management and Organizational Development

Tough-Guy Macho Culture

One type oI organizational culture is the "tough-guy culture" or "macho culture." One oI the most
common aspects oI the tough-guy or macho culture is the quick Ieedback and high rewards. The pace
can be break neck at times, but the obvious reward oI the action is seen very quickly. From a
corporate stand point, this type oI organizational culture will be most oIten associated with really Iast
Iinancial activities, such as currency trading, and brokerage.
This has rapid Ieedback/reward and high risk, leading to:
O Stress coming Irom high risk and potential loss/gain oI reward.
O Focus on the present rather than the longer-term Iuture.
O E.g. police, surgeons, sports.
Process culture
A process culture is most oIten Iound in organizations where there is actually no Ieedback. This is
rarely a good culture. In this type oI an organizational culture people are so obsessed with the process
oI how things are done that the Iocus is lost on what the goal is. Process organizational culture is a
synonym Ior bureaucracy. It is good Ior public sector services.
This has slow Ieedback/reward and low risk, leading to:
O Low stress, plodding work, comIort and security. Stress may come Irom internal politics and
stupidity oI the system.
O Development oI bureaucracies and other ways oI maintaining the status quo.
O Focus on security oI the past and oI the Iuture.
O E.g. banks, insurance companies.
Bet-The-Company Culture
"Bet your company culture." This is a type oI company where huge decisions are made over high
stakes endeavors. In this type oI culture, the end results oI these decisions may not be seen Ior months
or even years. The most common type oI company that would have this type oI a culture is one that is
involved in experimental projects or searches.
This has slow Ieedback/reward and high risk, leading to:
O Stress coming Irom high risk and delay beIore knowing iI actions have paid oII.
O The long view is taken, but then much work is put into making sure things happen as planned.
O E.g. aircraIt manuIacturers, oil companies.




Management and Organizational Development

Culture Classification in Indian Scenario
A study was conducted by J B P Sinha dealing with cases Irom Indian organizations that concluded
The interplay oI diIIerent Iorces in the Indian organizations, has led to the emergence oI diIIerent
patterns oI organizational culture in Indian organizations. (Sinha, Jai B.P (2000). Patterns oI Work
Culture: Cases and Strategies Ior Culture Building New Delhi, Sage Publications.)
The main patterns are:
Soft Culture: This type oI culture is commonly observed in the public sector organizations, there
may also be certain exceptions. Such culture may emerge in any organization where the nature oI
ownership is not necessarily the determining Iactor. It emerges mostly in organizations which have
multiple and conIlicting organizational objective.
Technocratic Culture: It is likely to develop in the organization which aims at providing the highest
quality oI product and services through the use oI latest technology.
Work Centric Nurturing Culture(WCNC): The WCNC is more oriented to content and here
employee Iocus is on rewards, hard work, recognizing merit, establishing clear norms oI perIormance
and adequate workload. Formal systems are established to make the organization realize its goals.
Sinha`s Classification Main eatures of Organizational Culture



Management and Organizational Development

O.6_ Write a note on designing interventions?

Ans: Designing OD interventions needs to pay attention to the needs and dynamics oI the change
situation and developing a change program that will be consistent with the previously described
criteria oI eIIective interventions. Current OD knowledge and practices can provide only a general
prescription Ior change Ior the better. There is very little input or inIormation on how to design
interventions. There is also no research to show how the interventions are expected to interact with
organizational situations to achieve speciIic results. Also the eIIectiveness oI a particular
intervention is higher or lower depending on the practitioners` expertise and comIort with that
intervention. ThereIore the design oI an intervention depends on the situation and the expertise oI the
practitioner. The last Iactor that impacts the design oI the OD intervention is the target oI change. In
summary, there are 3 key Iactors aIIecting the designing oI interventions:-
1. The situation
2. The practictioners` competencies (knowledge and skill)
3. The target at the end oI the intervention
HRD INTERVENTIONS IN OUR PHASES

Needs Assessment e.g.
O Where training is needed
O What kinds oI training are needed
O Who needs to be trained
O Conditions Ior training
O Training or HRD
Management and Organizational Development

O Intervention
O Key activities include:
O Setting objectives
O Selecting the trainer or vendor
O Developing lesson plans
O Selecting methods and techniques
O Preparing materials
O Scheduling training
Objectives: Three parts:
PerIormance
Conditions
Criteria
Performance
What is to be done e.g.,
O Increase upper body strength
O Assemble a chair
O Catch a Iootball pass
O Graduate Irom college
Conditions
Conditions under which perIormance is done e.g.,
O . using standard conditioning equipment
O . using a screwdriver and hammer
O . at a Iull run under man-to-man coverage
O . without cheating or outside help
Criteria
The level oI acceptable perIormance e.g.,
. by 25 percent within one year
. within one hour without mistakes
. at least 80 oI the time without penalties
. within 5 years and with a 'B Average


Management and Organizational Development

Sample Objectives
Inventory 1,000 pieces oI bulk merchandise an hour with an error rate oI less than 1 using industry
standard inventory tools. Run 40 yards in less than Iive seconds on a dry, level Iield with winds less
than 10 mph.

Make or Buy Decisions
You cannot be an expert on everything
You can`t aIIord to maintain a Iull-time staII Ior once-a-year training
You can`t aIIord the time or money to build all oI your own training programs
25.,943Much training is purchased, rather than selI-produced
Purchasing an HRD Program
O Level oI expertise available/required
O Timeliness
O Number oI trainees
O Subject matter
O Cost
O Size oI HRD organization
O 'X Factor (other conditions)
Other Factors to Consider
O 'endor credentials
O 'endor background
O 'endor experience
O Philosophical match (between
O vendor and organization)
O Delivery method
Other Factors to Consider 2
O Content
O Actual product
O Results
O Support
O Request Ior proposal (RFP)
HRD Interventions and their applications in organizations
Selecting the Trainer


Management and Organizational Development

Training competency
How well can he/she train?
II they can`t train, why are they employed?
Subject Matter Expertise
How well is the material understood?

Experts (SMEs) are Available.
O Use a team to train
O Use programmed instruction or CBT
O Train your trainers.
O You are training subject matter experts to be trainers
O You are 349training trainers to be SMEs
O Preparing Lesson Plans
O Content to be covered
O Activity sequencing
O Selection/design oI media
O Selection oI trainee activities
O Timing and phasing oI activities
O Method(s) oI instruction
O Evaluation methods to be used
Training Methods
METHODS
Instructor-led Classroom Programs 91
SelI-Study, Web-based 44
Job-based PerIormance Support 44
Public Seminars 42
Case Studies 40
Role Plays 35
Games or Simulations, Non-computer-based 25
SelI-Study, Non-computer-based 23
'irtual Classroom, with Instructor 21
Games or Simulations, Computer-based 10
Experiential Programs 6
'irtual Reality Programs 3

Management and Organizational Development

MEDIA
Workbooks/Manuals 79
Internet/Intranet/Extranet 63
CD-ROM/D'D/Diskettes 55
'ideotapes 52
TeleconIerencing 24
'ideoconIerencing 23
Satellite/Broadcast T' 12
Audiocassettes 4

Selecting Training Methods
Consider the Iollowing:
O Program objectives
O Time and money available
O Resources availability
O Trainee characteristics and preIerences

Training Materials
O Program announcements
O Program outlines
O Training manuals and textbooks
O Training aids, consumables, etc

Scheduling Training
Must be done in conjunction with:
O Production schedulers
O ShiIt supervisors
O Work supervisors/managers
O Trainees
O Training During Normal
O Working Hours


Management and Organizational Development

Issues to consider:
Day oI week preIerred
Time oI day
Peak work hours
StaII meeting times
Required travel

Training AIter Working Hours
Are workers/trainees getting paid? II so, by whom?
What about personal commitments?
What do you do Ior shiIt workers?
Registration and Enrollment Issues
How, when, and where does one register?
Who is responsible Ior logistics?
Travel
Lodging
Meals
Etc.
How do one cancel/reschedule?
Summary
As in building a house, design issues must be addressed -01470training:
O Objectives
O Who will conduct the training
O Lesson plan
O Appropriate methods/techniques to use
O Materials needed
O Scheduling issues
--------------------------------------

Management and Organizational Development

SET II
Q.1) Explain the role negotiation technique in detail.
Role Negotiation Technique
The process oI role negotiation was originally described by Harrison. This technique is a real-
world oriented one which can lead to a workable solution in cases involving competition,
coercion and power struggles. What is the exact process in which role negotiation occurs? It
provides a method Ior one person or group to negotiate and structure the role, or working
arrangements, with respect to the other. It may include the nature oI the activities that one
expects out oI the other, the reporting relationships, rules Ior escalation, who is responsible Ior
what decisions, which will carry them out, the consequences Ior non-perIormance, etc. This
process can prove useIul in most situations involving competition, power, control and inIluence.
The Iundamental assumption oI Role negotiation is that reasonable people preIer a state oI
negotiated settlement to one oI ongoing unresolved conIlict. Most people preIer to invest their
time in an activity that will result in a more stable and predictable situation rather than an
unpredictable one.
Advantages
The most signiIicant advantage oI Role Negotiation is that is makes things explicit. The
Iacilitator helps everyone understand that each participant has some degree oI power, Irom the
positive, rewarding good behavior in others during the contracting process. So that others don`t
need to keep guessing it is preIerable that the expectations are clariIied and deIined. They
understand the relationship with greater certainty than would be the case iI things were still
covert or underground. With this process, people better understand how to inIluence others in the
group.
Negotiation
AIter each person has clariIied the messages he or she has received, issues are selected Ior
negotiation. The Iacilitator needs to re-emphasize certain things so that there is no point in
proceeding with the discussion on any particular item. In simple words, everyone must be
prepared to make some sort oI changes to get what he or she wants. II the behavior does not
change on both sides, the status quo will prevail. By an iterative process, each person selects and
communicates his or her most important issues and eventually the group comes to a consensus
about which ones will be dealt with at this point.
AIter this when all parties (two or more) are satisIied that an appropriate agreement has been
reached, the participants write down the agreement to Iormalize it as a contract. Several
negotiations may take place simultaneously, depending on the number oI people or groups
Management and Organizational Development

involved. All agreements are published Ior everyone to see and are discussed openly in the group
(public commitment increases the chances Ior compliance).
No doubt that there might be chances or possibility one or more people negotiating in bad Iaith.
So the Iacilitator must be skilled enough to realize that certain things can`t be changed by these
techniques and should hence avoid pushing the group into unproductive or politically dangerous
territory.
Dynamics of Role Negotiation
This process Iocuses on the working relationships between people, not their Ieelings about one
another. As such, it is less threatening to most groups and more accessible than other techniques
that place greater emphasis on interpersonal dynamics. People tend to be more at home
discussing issues oI power and inIluence on the job, rather than those involving Ieeling and
emotion.
People may resist writing down the changes they would like to see Irom others. There is oIten an
extra level oI threat perceived in putting ones commitments to change on paper.
We are naturally inclined towards resisting a process oI change because it implies only loss. Role
negotiation addresses these issues directly and helps identiIy opportunities Ior mutual advantage.
These opportunities are undoubtedly considerably greater than what we realize or expect at an
open process oI behavioral negotiation.
Q.2) Explain the 1ohari Window model.
The 1ohari Window Model
The Johari Window model was proposed by American psychologists Joseph LuIt and Harry
Ingham in 1955 while researching group dynamics, as a very simple yet useIul tool Ior which
could be used Ior improving selI-awareness, and mutual understanding between individuals
within a group. Assessment oI one groups relationship with the other is something which can
also be done using this model.
The Johari Window is accepted as a concept which can be oI great help in gauging an employee
or employer relationships within the Psychological Contract.
LuIt and Ingham called their Johari Window model 'Johari' aIter combining their Iirst names, Joe
and Harry. Earlier, the name used to occur even as Johari. Soon this model became quite Iamous
and started getting used widely Ior understanding and training selI-awareness personal
development, improving communications, interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, team
development and inter-group relationships.
Management and Organizational Development

The Iour Johari Window perspectives are known as 'quadrants'. These Iour quadrants represent
Ieelings, motivation, etc. known about the person, in terms oI whether the inIormation is known
or unknown by the person. ReIer Johari Window.
First quadrant open area/open selI/Iree area/Iree selI implies what is known by the person about
himselI or herselI and is also known by others.
Second Quadrant blind area, blind selI, or blind spot implies what is unknown by the person
about him/herselI but which others know.
Third Quadrant hidden area, hidden selI, avoided area, avoided selI or Iacade' implies what the
person knows about him/herselI that others do not know.
Fourth Quadrant unknown area or unknown selI implies what is unknown by the person about
him/herselI and is also unknown by others.

Fig. : Johari Window



Management and Organizational Development

The 1ohari Model Quadrants in details

Quadrant 1 - 'open selI/area' or 'Iree area' or 'public area', or 'arena'
Region 1 is also reIerred to as the 'area oI Iree activity'. This region gives an inIormation about
the person - behavior, attitude, Ieelings, emotion, knowledge, experience, skills, views, etc -
known by the person ('the selI') and known by the group ('others').
The aim in any group should always be to develop the 'open area' Ior every person, because
when we work in this area with others we try to be as eIIective and productive as possible and
the group is at its most productive too. The open Iree area can be considered as the space where
good communications and cooperation occurs, Iree Irom distractions, mistrust, conIusion,
conIlict and misunderstanding.
Team members always have a tendency oI having larger open areas than new team members. A
horizontal expansion oI the open area can Iorm the blind space, by seeking and actively listening
to Ieedback Irom other group members. This process is known as 'Ieedback solicitation'. Also,
other group members can help a team member expand their open area by oIIering Ieedback,
sensitively oI course. A vertical expansion oI the open area will give the hidden or avoided space
by the person's disclosure oI inIormation, Ieelings, etc about him/herselI to the group and group
members. Also, group members can help a person expand their open area into the hidden area by
asking the person about him/herselI.
Quadrant 2 - 'blind selI' or 'blind area' or 'blind spot'
Region 2 oI the model represents the blind spot or what is known about a person by others in the
group, but is unknown by the person him/herselI. By seeking Ieedback Irom others, the aim
should be to reduce this area and thereby to increase the open area (reIer to the model diagram
below). This blind area is a non-eIIective or non-productive space Ior individuals or groups. This
area could also be reIerred to as ones ignorance about oneselI. We are well aware oI how
diIIicult it is to work well iI kept in the dark.
An individual can be helped to reduce his blind area by any member oI the group or manager in
turn increasing the open area. Managers should take the responsibility oI creating a climate Ior
non-judgmental Ieedback, reducing Iear and in turn encouraging both processes to happen.
Quadrant 3 'hidden selI' or 'hidden area' or 'avoided selI/area' or 'Iacade'
Region 3, which is reIerred to as hidden area which implies what is known to ourselves but kept
hidden Irom others. This hidden or avoided selI represents inIormation, Ieelings, etc, anything
that a person knows about him/selI, but which is not revealed or is kept hidden Irom others. The
hidden area could also include sensitivities, Iears, hidden agendas, manipulative intentions, and
secrets - anything that a person knows but does not reveal, Ior whatever reason. It's natural Ior
very personal and private inIormation and Ieelings to remain hidden, indeed, certain inIormation,
Management and Organizational Development

Ieelings and experiences have no bearing on work, and so can and should remain hidden.
However, typically, a lot oI hidden inIormation is not very personal, it is work- or perIormance-
related, and so is better positioned in the open area.
Any hidden inIormation and Ieelings should be moved into the open area through the process oI
'disclosure'. Disclosing and exposing relevant inIormation and Ieelings should be the main aim
and hence the terminology 'selI-disclosure'. We reduce the hidden area, and increase the open
area, by telling others how we Ieel and other inIormation about ourselves. This enables better
understanding, cooperation, trust, team-working eIIectiveness and productivity. Reducing hidden
areas also reduces the potential Ior conIusion, misunderstanding, poor communication, etc,
which all distract Irom and undermine team eIIectiveness.
Quadrant 4 'unknown selI' or 'area oI unknown activity' or 'unknown area'
Region 4 which is reIerred to as the unknown area contains inIormation, Ieelings, latent abilities,
aptitudes, experiences etc, that are both unknown to the person him/herselI as well as unknown
to others in the group also. These unknown issues may take the Iorm oI Ieelings, behaviors,
attitudes, capabilities, aptitudes, and more which can be quite close to the surIace, and which can
be positive and useIul.
Examples oI unknown Iactors are as Iollows:
A person not realizing a natural ability or aptitude that he possesses
A person having any unknown illness
A person not knowing that he has a Iear or aversion.
The ability oI a person that under-estimated or un-tried through lack oI opportunity,
encouragement, conIidence or training
A persons repressed or subconscious Ieelings
A persons conditioned behavior or attitudes Irom childhood
Whether unknown 'discovered' knowledge moves into the hidden, blind or open area depends on
who discovers it and what they do with the knowledge, notably whether it is then given as
Ieedback, or disclosed.
Uncovering 'hidden talents' or unknown aptitudes and skills should not be conIused with
developing the Johari 'hidden area'. This is a completely diIIerent aspect oI developing the
unknown area, and is not as sensitive as unknown Ieelings. Providing people with the
opportunity to try new things, with no great pressure to succeed, is oIten a useIul way to discover
unknown abilities, and thereby reduce the unknown area.
Management and Organizational Development

Managers or leaders can take up the responsibility oI creating an environment that encourages
selI-discovery, and to promote the processes oI selI discovery, constructive observation and
Ieedback among team members.
Q.3) Discuss quality circles.
Quality Circles
Quality Circle is a small volunteer group oI six to twelve employees doing similar kind oI work.
They voluntarily meet together on a regular basis to carry out Irequent checks in their respective
work areas Ior improvements. They use certain proven techniques Ior analyzing and solving
work related problems coming in the way oI achieving and sustaining excellence so that they can
bring about a mutual upliItment oI employees as well as the organization.
So basically a volunteer group is composed oI workers, under the leadership oI their supervisor
who are trained to identiIy, analyze and solve work-related problems are collectively called
Quality circle. They present their solutions to management Ior the improvement oI
organizational perIormance. Tue quality circles become selI-managing aIter gaining management
conIidence.
II anything could battle the dehumanizing concept oI division oI labor, it is Quality circle. It has
brought back the concept oI craItsmanship, which does`t work well on an individual basis
because it is uneconomic, but it proves a boon when used in group Iorm. The prime motto oI QC
is improving occupational saIety and health, improving product design, and improvement in the
workplace and manuIacturing processes.
Key eatures of Quality Circle:
They are Iormal groups.
They hold meetings at least once a week on company time and are trained by competent persons
who may be personnel and industrial relations specialists.
Quality circles are generally Iree to select any topic they wish, but they cannot select salary
related topics or other topics related to terms and conditions oI work, because these issues are
dealt with via other channels.
The Concept
The concept oI Quality Circle primarily Iocuses on a worker`s value recognition as a human
being, as someone who willingly takes on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude
and Ieelings. It is just another part oI human resource management considered as one oI the key
Iactors in the improvement oI product quality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three
major attributes:
Management and Organizational Development

Quality Circle is a human resource development technique.

Quality Circle is a problem solving technique.
Quality Circle is a Iorm oI participation management.
Objective of QC
There multi-Iaced objectives oI Quality Circles:
Change in Attitude.
SelI Development
Development oI Team Spirit
Improved Organizational Culture
BeneIits and Limitations oI Quality Circles
The quality control concept did not get an easy acceptance in India. It took two decades to get
acceptance in India, aIter its introduction in Japan. The reason might be diIIerences in the
industrial context in the two countries. Japan needed it Ior its survival in a competitive market.
India had a reasonably protected, sellers market, with consequent lethargy towards eIIorts to
improve quality and productivity. However, with the policy oI liberalization oI economy and
privatization oI inIrastructure development, contexts changed. The concept now needs to be
looked upon as a necessity.
Q.4) What is the role of organizational politics? Explain
Organization Politics
As discussed earlier, Politics may be deIined as the pursuit oI individual agendas and selI-
interest in an organization without putting much importance to their eIIect on the organization's
eIIorts to achieve its goals. Behavior reIerred to as organizational politics takes place in varying
degrees in all organizations. Not all behavior in the organizations can be categorized as political.
The organizational political process can be described in non-evaluative terms.
The oundation
Whenever we gain some organizational power, we should be more careIul in using it to inIluence
not to get our own way, but the way that will ultimately be best Ior the organization and Ior
achieving our own personal mission. And this must be Iocused on making a diIIerence beyond
meeting our own needs.
Management and Organizational Development

Whenever were struggling to get our way, we easily criticize others Ior being overly-political or
playing dirty tricks. While it can be the other way round as well. As in, it might also be the case
that just as others might be unIair in their practices; it can also be true that we ourselves lose
sight oI the value oI diversity oI thought and diIIerent ways oI seeing.
Defining and exploring Organizational Politics
To simpliIy everything let`s consider organizations to be political systems. This term political
will help us understand the power involved in relationships in day-to-day organizational
relationships. Accepting the Iact that power relations exist in organizations it will become easier
Ior us to accept that politics is also an essential part oI organizational liIe.
The meaning oI the term Politics can be put Iorward as a means oI recognizing and, ultimately,
reconciling competing interests within the organization. Competing interests can be reconciled
by any number oI means. Politics may also be considered as a means oI creating a democratic
work environment.
Each type oI organizational rule simply draws on diIIerent principles oI legitimacy. Politics
stems Irom a diversity oI interests. Organizational actors seek to satisIy not only organizational
interests, but also their own needs driven by selI-interest.
According to Aristotle, politics stems Irom a diversity oI interests. To Iully understand the
politics oI the organization, it is necessary to explore the processes by which people engage in
politics. Consistent with Aristotle's conceptualization, it is a given that, within the organization,
all employees bring their own interests, wants, desires, and needs to the workplace.
Though Organizational decision-making and problem-solving is seemingly a rational process, it
is also a political process. Organizational actors seek to satisIy not only organizational interests,
but also their own wants and needs; driven by selI-interest.
Political behavior has been deIined as the non-rational inIluence on decision making
To practice successIul organizational politics, it is perceived to lead to a higher level oI power.
Regardless oI the degree to which employees may be committed to the organization's objectives,
there can be little doubt that, at least occasionally, personal interests will be incongruent with
those oI the organization. Organizational politics arises when people think diIIerently and want
to act diIIerently.
Political means can resolve the tension created by this diversity In an autocratic organization,
resolution comes through the directive: "We'll do it my way!". The democratic organization
seeks to resolve this diversity oI interests by asking: "How shall we do it?" By whatever means
an organization resolves this diversity, alternative approaches generally hinge on the power
relations between the actors involved.
Management and Organizational Development

According to Farrell and Peterson (Farrell and Peterson, 1982), the successIul practice oI
organizational politics is perceived to lead to a higher level oI power, and once a higher level oI
power is attained, there is more opportunity to engage in political behavior
One thing does appear to be clear that the political element oI the management process is non-
rational. Organizations cannot pretend to engage in rational decision-making processes so long
as political inIluences play a role -- and they always will!
For purposes oI understanding organizational political behavior, Farrell and Peterson (1982)
proposed a three-dimensional typology. The dimensions are:
Functional 's DysIunctional ConIlict,
Sources and Types oI ConIlict: Individual, Group, and Organization
The Process and Approaches to ConIlict Resolution
Role of Power and Politics in the practice of OD
A lot has already been discussed about Power and Politics in an Organization. So now we will
attempt to integrate those concepts with organization development and oIIer advice to the OD
practitioner Ior dealing with the political realities Iound in organizations.
'irtually, all OD interventions promote problem-solving, not politics, as a preIerred way to get
things accomplished. OD interventions increase problem-solving, collaboration, co-operation,
Iact-Iinding, and eIIective pursuit oI goals while decreasing reliance on the negative Iaces oI
power and politics. We know oI no OD interventions designed to increase coercion or unilateral
power. For example, OD interventions typically generate valid, public data about the
organization's culture, processes, strengths, and weaknesses. 'alid, public data are
indispensable-Ior problem solving but anathema Ior organizational politics. OD interventions do
not deny or attempt to abolish the reality oI power in organizations; rather, they enhance the
positive Iace oI power, thereby making the negative Iace oI power less prevalent and/or
necessary. Not only is organization development not a power/political intervention strategy, it is
instead a rational problem-solving approach that is incompatible with extreme power-oriented
situations.
The values oI Organizational Development are consistent with the positive Iace oI power, but not
with the negative Iace oI power. 'alues such as trust, openness, collaboration, individual dignity,
and promoting individual and organizational competence are part oI the Ioundation oI
organization development. These values are congruent with rational problem solving and
incongruent with extremely political modes oI operating. "Power equalization" has long been
described as one oI the values oI organization development. Emphasis on power equalization
stems Irom two belieIs: Iirst, problem solving is usually superior to power coercion as a way to
Iind solutions to problematic situations; second, power equalization, being one aspect oI the
Management and Organizational Development

positive Iace oI power, increases the amount oI power available to organization members, and by
so doing adds power to the organization.
An OD practitioners role is limited to that oI a Iacilitator, catalyst, problem solver, and educator.
The practitioner is not a political activist or power broker. The practitioner works to strengthen
skills and knowledge in the organization. But organization members are Iree to accept or reject
the practitioner, his or her program, and his or her values, methods, and expertise. The OD
consultant, like all consultants, provides a service that the organization is Iree to "buy" or "not
buy." The Iacilitator or educator role is incompatible with a political activist role because
cooperation requires one set oI behaviors and competition requires a diIIerent set oI behaviors, as
we discussed earlier. Cobb and Margulies caution that OD practitioners can get into trouble iI
they move Irom a Iacilitator role to a political role.
OD values are consistent with the positive Iace oI power, but not with the negative Iace oI
power. 'alues such as trust, openness, collaboration, individual dignity, and promoting
individual and organizational competence are part oI the Ioundation oI organization
development. These values are congruent with rational problem solving and incongruent with
extremely political modes oI operating. "Power equalization" has long been described as one oI
the values oI organization development. Emphasis on power equalization stems Irom two belieIs:
Iirst, problem solving is usually superior to power coercion as a way to Iind solutions to
problematic situations; second, power equalization, being one aspect oI the positive Iace oI
power, increases the amount oI power available to organization members, and by so doing adds
power to the organization.
Q.5) Discuss OD applications for merged and acquired organizations.
OD Applications for Merged & Acquired Organizations
How is OD helpIul in the successIul merger and acquisitions oI organizations?
Gaughan (1991) deIines a merger as a combination oI two corporations in which only one
corporation survives and the merged corporation goes out oI existence.
'aara, deIines a merger
'.as a combination oI organizations oI Iairly similar size, which creates an organization where
neither party can clearly be seen as the acquirer.
The three main types oI mergers are :
Conglomerate merger In this type the two companies don`t have to be related in any way at
all, in Iact the conglomerate may want unrelated companies in its portIolio because it allows
spreading oI risks. Two other types are vertical and concentric mergers.
Management and Organizational Development

'ertical mergers are practically the same as Iorward or backward integration, which allows a
company to control a bigger part oI the whole product chain.
Concentric mergers are mergers between two companies in diIIerent but somehow related
industries, which allows the companies to share marketing or technical resources, related
mergers occur when companies in the same industry merge their activities. These mergers allow
a high level oI synergy but they may also require a higher degree oI integration than the other
types oI mergers
In case oI acquisition, one organization is acquired by the other organization. The acquiring
organization dominates the terms and conditions. The acquired organization has to Iollow the
decisions usually. The employees oI the erstwhile organization tend to be unsure about how
things will eventually turn out. The days beIore and aIter the merger are oI minimal clarity.
Employees tend to wonder who will be retained, who will be asked to go, in terms oI leaders,
colleagues and team members. Also the culture oI the new organization suddenly needs to be
accepted by the employees who were prior to the merger operating a certain manner or a
diIIerent culture. These tend to create too many questions, and the ability oI the staII to Iocus on
the job and remain productive tends to deteriorate.
A merger or acquisition can suIIiciently transIorm the structures, cultures and employment
prospects oI one or both the organizations that they cause organizational members to Ieel
stressed, angry, disoriented, Irustrated, conIused, and even Irightened. These reactions Iester
under the surIace oI the combination and reIlect high levels oI anxiety and stressIul reactions,
heightened selI-interest and preoccupation with the combination, cultural clashes, restricted
communication and crisis management orientations, creating problems at both the individual and
organizational levels.
The clash between the two cultures in a merger or acquisition can be Iocused into three major
areas:
1. $97:.9:70These Iactors Irom the two cultures include the size, age, and history oI two Iirms;
the industry in which the partners come Irom and now reside; the geographic location; and
whether products and/or services are involved.
2. !49.8 Where does the power and managerial decision making really reside? Corporate
cultures range Irom autocratic extremes to total employee empowerment, and how this plays out
among the partners will be important to cultural compatibility.
3. 249438 The personal Ieelings, the 'culture contract that individuals have bought into to
guide their day-to-day thoughts, habits, attitudes, commitment, and patterns oI daily behavior.
These emotions will be a major input into the clash or compatibility oI the two cultures.
Management and Organizational Development

An OD consultant can ensure all the right steps are taken to address concerns and also Iind ways
Ior the most valuable assets and human resources to be retained by the organization and to Iind
ways to leverage the rest based on their strengths and the opportunities in the organization. This
is to ensure assets or human resources are not lost to competition due to the uncertainties`.
E.g. The merger between Fluor Corporation and St Joe Minerals Corporation.
St Joe was decentralized, lean staII, Irugal, inIormal, and run with a light hand. Fluor was highly
centralized, with large corporate staII, many reporting levels, and many controls on decision
making. In contrast to St Joe`s Irugality Fluor had planes and helicopters Ior use by its large
central staII. This cultural conIlict was so great that none oI senior St Joe managers who went to
Fluor stayed on, and oI the 22 senior oIIicers in St Joe at the time oI merger, only a Iew remained
two years later. (Nguyen H., Brian H., 2003)
The Merger OD team consists oI people who assemble, review, and analyze sensitive,
competitive, and other conIidential data Ior the company`s top executives, who must examine the
inIormation to make a Iinal decision on the deal. An OD team may consist oI active employees,
Iormer employees, third parties, or a combination oI these. They operate under certain protocols
and rules that deal with the highly sensitive issue that they are looking at inIormation that could
aIIect competition between the two companies should the deal Iall through.
What is noted Iirst are diIIerences in the ways the companies do business, e.g., a relative
emphasis on manuIacturing versus marketing or a predominantly Iinancial orientation versus a
technical approach. Next, diIIerences in how the companies are organized, e.g., centralization
versus decentralization or variations in styles oI management and control, are discerned

Q.6) Write a note on training for consultation skills.
Training for Consultation Skills
Defining Consultation
It is a process oI regulation by which input Irom the public on matters aIIecting them is sought
and solved. Its major goals are in improving the transparency, eIIiciency and public involvement
in large-scale projects or laws and policies. It usually involves sending a notiIication to publicize
the matter to be consulted on Iollowed by consultation which is a two-way Ilow oI inIormation
and opinion exchange and lastly participation which involves interest groups in the draIting oI
policy or legislation.
Just a series oI training sessions is not suIIicient. Consulting is a skill that must be developed.
Development comes Irom getting new inIormation Irom trainings and other resources, but then
actually applying that new inIormation and continually reIlecting on your experiences with
yourselves, your clients and colleagues
Management and Organizational Development

Principles for Effective Consulting

An eIIective consulting has diIIerent perspectives. The Iollowing guidelines might be useIul as
you reIlect on your own principles Ior eIIective consulting.
The answer to complex problems lies between you and your client
The 'answer emerges during the project as you and your client work collaboratively to clariIy
current issues and address them, while learning at the same time.
Encouraging and recognizing diverse values and perspectives
An experienced organizational consultant is aware oI the diIIerent perspectives on an issue in the
organization. Those perspectives should be encouraged and explored because they oIten lead to
more successIul problem solving.
When working with your client, start from where they are now
Understand your client`s perspective on their issues, including what they have tried, what has
worked, what has not worked and what they think should be done now. It is better to go slower
withyour client than Iaster without them.
No blame is to be put on consulting situations
It is rare that anyone sets out to hurt someone else or an organization. An atmosphere oI blame
only serves to inhibit people in your client`s organization Irom the trust, collaboration and
commitment necessary Ior successIul change.
Come to the project with a basic consultation framework in mind
Early in a project, the major purpose oI the Iramework can be used as a common Irame oI
reIerence when talking about the project goals, methods, evaluation and learning. Be willing to
modiIy that Iramework as you and your client work together.
Your value is in the flow of the process, not in the details of the project
II both oI you continue to work together in a process that is collaborative, well understood,
communicated to all and Iocused on results, your client will value you.
The road to success is paved from who you are as from your expertise
II you`re perceived authentic, respectIul, and consulting with Iocus on results and learning by the
client then it paves the way Ior success. Similarly, one oI the most powerIul inIluences that can
have with your clients is to model the behaviors that you want Irom them.

Management and Organizational Development

Do what you say you are going to do

While the client is conIused, you can help a great deal by remaining grounded and centered, clear
and consistent. Your consistency builds trust and commitment with clients, as well.
Know yourself
You are an 'instrument oI change with your client, so you should be willing to suspend your
overall biases, assumptions and belieIs when working with people. Be honest about them when
they arise during a project.
Avoid making your clients to do something just because you said so
Always Iirst explain the reasons Ior your advice and the beneIits that might come to your client
as a result. Then provide time Ior your client to respond to your advice. This is usually true even
iI you are a leader acting as an internal change agent.
It is up to your client to use your advice or not
This is sometimes one oI the hardest principles Ior new consultants to accept. It helps iI you
remember that people learn only what they are ready to learn.
Do not take it personally
OIten your client struggles with an issue, in part, because oI their role in the issue. They may not
want to change themselves and might resist your attempts to help them. In those instances,
remember that those responses are their choices, not yours.

-------------------------